ICT200
INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
By :
Miss Noorfadzilah Arifin
Chapter 2 Data Model
The Importance of Data Model
An abstraction of a more complex real world object /
Model event
Data Model Simple / graphical representation of complex real
data structures
Main functions of model
to help us to understand the complexities of the real world
environment.
as a communication tools to facilitates the interaction among
designer, programmer & user.
The Importance of Data Model
Data Model Represent What ??
Data structures
Their characteristic
Relations
Constraints
Transformation
Data Model Basic Building Blocks
Constraints
Entity Attribute Relationship
Is a restriction
Describe an placed on the data
Is anything / or any Is a characteristic of
real world object that an entity association among
can store data entities
Eg:
• Book Price must less than
Eg:
Eg: Eg: rm1000
Book_Title, • Student CGPA must between
Book, Doctor, 1:1, 1:M, 0.00 and 4.00
Doc_Id,
Student, M:N • Each Doctor must have at
Student_Name
least 2 specialization
Types of Relationship
1:1 (one-to-one)
has
LECTURER ROOM
1:M (one-to-many)
has
PERSON CAR
M:N (many-to-many)
served
NURSE WARD
Business Rules
Is a brief, precise & unambiguous description of a
policy / procedure / within a specific organization
environment.
Is derived from a detailed description of an
organization’s operation
To define entity, attributes, relationship, constraint
Must be written / documented properly and
updated to reflect any change in the organization’s
operational environment
Business Rules
Examples of business rules are as follow:
✓ A customer may generate many invoices
✓ An invoice is generated by only one customer
✓ A training session cannot be scheduled for fewer than 10
employees or more than 30 employees
Those business rules establish entities, relationship
and constrains.
But not all business rules can be modeled. Ex: “no pilot
can fly more than 10 hours within any 24 hours period”
– can be enforced by application software
Business Rules
WHERE TO GET THE BR ??????
➢ Company manager
➢ Department manager
➢ Policy makers
➢ Written document
➢ company procedures
➢ Standard & policy
➢ operation manual
➢ End user
Business Rules
Why BR need to be identified & documented properly???
Help to standardize the company’s view of data
As a comm. tools between user & designers
Allow the designer to understand the nature, role,
and scope of data
To understand the business process
To develop appropriate relationship participation
rules & constraints and to create an accurate data
model
Discovering Business Rules
❑ Generally, nouns translate into entities
❑ Verbs translate into relationships among entities
❑ Relationships are bi-directional
❑ Two questions to identify the relationship type:
✓ How many instances of B are related to one instance of A?
✓ How many instances of A are related to one instance of B?
❑ For example, relationship between student and class by
asking two questions :
✓ How many classes can one student enroll in ? – many classes
✓ How many students can enroll in one class ? – many students
The Evolution of Data Model
Hierarchical Model
Developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts
of data for complex manufacturing projects
Basic logical structure is represented by an upside-
down “tree”
Hierarchical structure contains levels or segments
✓ Segment analogous to a record type
✓ Set of one-to-many relationships between segments
Hierarchical Model
Hierarchical Model
Disadvantages of the hierarchical model:
✓ Complex to implement
✓ Difficult to manage
✓ Lacks structural independence
✓ Many common data relationships do not conform
1:M form
✓ No standards for how to implement
Network Model
Created to represent complex data relationships more
effectively
✓ Improves database performance
✓ Imposes a database standard
Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL)
created the DBTG
Database Task Group (DBTG): defined environment to
facilitate database creation
Network Model
Schema
✓ Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by the
database administrator
Subschema
✓ Database portion “seen” by the application programs
Data management language (DML)
✓ Defines the environment in which data can be managed
Network Model
Resembles hierarchical model
✓ Record may have more than one parent
User perceives as a collection of records in 1:M
relationships but allows a record to have more than
one parent
A relationship is called set
Set composed of two record types
✓ Owner - Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent
✓ Member - Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child
Network Model
Network Model
Disadvantages of the network model
✓ Cumbersome
✓ Lack of ad hoc query capability placed burden on
programmers to generate code for reports
✓ Structural change in the database could produce
havoc in all application programs
Relational Model
Implemented through relational database management
system (RDBMS)
✓ Performs same functions provided by hierarchical model
✓ Easier to understand and implement
✓ Hides complexity from the user (collection of tables in which
data are stored and can manipulate and query data)
Relational diagram (table)
✓ Representation of entities, attributes, and relationships
Relational table stores collection of related entities
Relational Model
Relational Model
Rise to dominance because its powerful and flexible
query language – uses Structured Query Language
(SQL)
The RDMS uses SQL to translate user queries into
instruction for retrieving the requested data
SQL-based relational database application involves
three parts:
✓ User interface - allows end user to interact with the data
✓ Set of tables stored in the database - each table is
independent from another
✓ SQL “engine” - executes all queries
Entity-Relationship Model
Widely accepted standard for data modeling
Graphical representation of entities and their relationships in
a database structure
Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
✓ Uses graphic representations to model database components
✓ Entity is mapped to a relational table
Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table
Connectivity labels types of relationships
Relationships expressed using Chen and Crow’s Foot
notation
Entity-Relationship Model
Object-Oriented Model
Data and relationships contained in single structure
known as an object
OODM (object-oriented data model) is the basis for
OODBMS
✓ Semantic data model
Objects contain operations
Object is self-contained: a basic building-block for
autonomous structures
Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity
Object-Oriented Model
Attributes describe the properties of an object
Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in
classes
Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
Inheritance: object inherits methods and attributes of
parent class
UML based on OO concepts that describe diagrams
and symbols
✓ Used to graphically model a system
Object-Oriented Model
Summary of Data Model
Degrees of Data Abstraction
◼ Way of classifying data models
◼ External; Conceptual; Internal; Physical
External Model
End users’ view of the data environment
Based on the internal model
A specific representation of an external view → External Schema
DBMS dependent, and hardware independent
Advantages :
make application program development simpler
easier to identify specific data required
providing feedback about the conceptual model’s adequacy
ensure security constraints in the db design
External Model
Conceptual Model
Global view of dtbs
Specific representation of an conceptual model → Conceptual
Schema
Integrate all external view in a single view
Representation of data as viewed by high level managers
The basis for identification & description of the main data
objects, avoiding details
Most widely use conceptual model is the ER Model-represent by
ERD
Easily understood –macro view of data environment
Conceptual Model
Independent of both software and hardware
✓ Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement
the model
✓ Does not depend on the hardware used in the
implementation of the model
✓ Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have no
effect on the database design at the conceptual level
Conceptual Model
Internal Model
Representation of the db as seen by the DBMS
Requires the designer to match the conceptual model’s
characteristics and constraints to those of the selected
implementation model
Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS (eg: Access)
Internal schema depicts a specific representation of an
internal model
It is software dependent, hardware independent
Internal Model
Physical Model
Operates at the lowest level of abstraction
Describing the way data are saved on storage
Requires the definition of both physical storage
device and the access methods to reach the
data within the storage device
It is both software & hardware dependent
Summary of Data Abstraction
Summary
A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of
a complex real-world data environment
Basic data modeling components are:
✓ Entities
✓ Attributes
✓ Relationships
✓ Constraints
Summary
Hierarchical model
✓ Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships
between a parent and its children segments
Network data model
✓ Uses sets to represent 1:M relationships between record
types
Relational model
✓ Current database implementation standard
✓ ER model is a popular graphical tool for data modeling
that complements the relational model
Summary
Object is basic modeling structure of object
oriented data model
The relational model has adopted many object-
oriented extensions to become the extended
relational data model (ERDM)
Data modeling requirements are a function of
different data views (global vs. local) and level of
data abstraction
