Classical Mechanics

The mechanics (study of bodies in motion) based on Newton’s Laws of motion and developed
alternatively by Lagrange, Hamilton and others is termed classical mechanics.

Kinematics: The description of the motion of a body by specifying its position (𝑟), velocity
(𝑣) and acceleration (𝑎) as a function of time.

Dynamics: Describes how the application of forces on an object, changes the geometry or
trajectory of the object.

The applied forces and the changes in the trajectory of the object are related to

Law of Inertia
the Newton’s Laws of motion Law of Force
Law of Action and Reaction
 Newton’s Laws of Motion

Law of Inertia Law of Force Law of Action and Reaction

 Concept of Space and Time : The reference frame/Frame of reference

Assumptions of Classical mechanics

• Space and time are continuous/absolute

• Motion of a particle in space can be determined by change in its position in space with time
• Universal Standards for length time and mass (The MKS system)

A system of coordinates of space (x,y,z) and time(t) used to describe the position of a body is reference frame

P(x,y,z,t)
𝒓 = 𝑥𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑘෠

𝑑𝒓
O 𝑣= = 𝒓ሶ
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ = = 𝑣ሶ
𝑑𝑡
 Mechanics for a Particle: The conservation theorems
Conservation of Linear momentum Conservation of Angular momentum
Angular momentum of a particle about point O
From Newton’s second law
𝑑𝒑 p
𝑭= 𝑱=𝒓 ×𝒑
𝑑𝑡
𝑟Ԧ

Under the absence of external forces

𝑑𝑱 𝑑 O 𝑑𝒑
= 𝒓 ×𝒑 =𝑟 × + 𝑚𝒗 × 𝒗
i.e. F = 0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑱 𝑑𝒑
=𝒓 ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝒑
=0 The moment of force about O is
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝒑 𝑑𝑱
𝝉=𝒓 ×𝑭=𝒓 × =
Which implies p = constant 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In absence of external forces linear momentum remains conserved If external torque is absent then J = constant

In absence of external torque angular momentum remains conserved

Conservation of Energy
Work: The work done by an external force F in displacing a body of mass m from position 1 to position 2 is given by

𝑊 = න 𝑭. 𝑑𝑟
1
If this displacement changes the velocity of body from v1 to v2 then
𝑣2
𝑑𝒗
𝑊= න𝑚 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑡
𝑣1

𝑣2

𝑊 = න 𝑚𝒗. 𝑑𝒗
𝑣1

1 1
𝑊12 = 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
2 2

Work done is equal to change in the kinetic energy (Work Energy Theorem)
T represents the kinetic energy of the body
Expression for the Potential Energy
Energy acquired by a body by virtue of its position is termed the potential energy

It is the work done in positioning the body from infinity to its position and expressed as V
∞

𝑉 𝑟 = − න 𝑭. 𝑑𝑟
𝑟

For a conservative force the work done along a closed path is always zero thus

ර 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = 0

From Stokes theorem we can write this as

𝛻 ×𝑭=0

Which implies that 𝐹 = − 𝛻𝑉

 2

𝑊12 = න 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑟
1
2

Substituting 𝐹 = −𝛻𝑉 we have 𝑊12 = − න 𝛻𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑟

1
2

𝑊12 = − න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
1
Also we have from work energy theorem

𝑊12 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

Equating these two we have

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 + 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 + 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Thus the sum of kinetic and potential energies (i.e. total mechanical energy) of a particle remains constant in
conservative force field this is the Law of conservation of energy
 Mechanics for a system of Particles: The conservation theorems

Centre of Mass

𝑑2𝑅
𝐹 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑀 2 = M𝑎𝐶𝑀
𝑑𝑡

The acceleration of the center of mass is due to only the external forces and
is given by Newton’s second law of motion.

The center of mass of a system of particles moves as if it were a particle of mass

equal to the total mass of the system subjected to the external forces applied on
the system.
Conservation of linear momentum
Let R be the position coordinate of the center of mass of a system of n umber of particles
σ𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑅=
σ𝑖 𝑚𝑖
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑟1 𝑑𝑟2 𝑑𝑟3 𝑑𝑟𝑛
Differentiating this with respect to time we get 𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + … … . . 𝑚𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑛
𝑑𝑅
𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚3 𝑣3 + … … . . 𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1
𝑀𝑉 = 𝑃
V is the velocity of the center of mass and P is the sum of the momentum of individual particles of the system

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑉 𝑑2𝑅 𝑑𝑃
=𝑀 =𝑀 2 𝐹 𝑒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃
In absence of external force = 0 thus P = constant
𝑑𝑡
If the total external force Fex on the system is zero, its total linear momentum is a constant of motion
Conservation of Angular Momentum
If J1, J2, …. Are the angular momentum of various particles of a system about a given point O, the total angular
momentum about the point O is given by
𝐽 = 𝐽1 + 𝐽2 + 𝐽3 + … … 𝐽𝑁 = 𝑟1 × 𝑝1 + 𝑟2 × 𝑝2 + 𝑟3 × 𝑝3 … … 𝑟𝑁 × 𝑝𝑁
𝑁

𝐽 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑑𝐽
= ෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑝ሶ 𝑖 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝑖

𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥 + ෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗
𝑗=1

𝑑𝐽
= ෍(𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥 ) + ෍ ෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖𝑗
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝑖 𝑗
Since
෍ ෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖𝑗 Contains the double sum for i,j = 1 to N and hence it is a sum of the pairs of the form given by
𝑖 𝑗

𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖𝑗 + 𝑟𝑗 × 𝐹𝑗𝑖 = 𝑟𝑖 − 𝑟𝑗 × 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 𝑟𝑖𝑗 × 𝐹𝑖𝑗

If the internal forces are central beside being equal and opposite to each other then 𝑟𝑖𝑗 × 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 0

෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥 = 𝜏 𝑒𝑥
𝑖 𝑖

𝑑𝐽 𝑑𝐽
But σ𝑖 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖 = , thus = 𝜏 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If external torque is zero then J = J1 + J2 + J3 + ……… = constant

In the absence of the external torque, the total angular momentum of a system of particles is conserved
Relation between angular momentum and angular momentum about center of mass
Y
ric is the position coordinate
of particle wrt center of mass

ric = ri -R
CM 𝒓𝒊 = 𝒓𝒊𝒄 + 𝑹
mi

O X
The angular momentum J of a system of particles can be expressed in terms of the angular momentum of center of mass

𝑱 = 𝑱𝒄𝒎 + 𝑹 × 𝑷
 𝑱 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑖

Substituting ri = ric + R we have

𝑱 = ෍(𝒓𝒊𝒄 + 𝑹) × 𝑚𝑖 (𝒗𝒊𝒄 + 𝑽)
𝑖

𝐽 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖𝑐 × 𝑣𝑖𝑐 + ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖𝑐 × 𝑉 + 𝑅 × ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑐 + 𝑅 × ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑉

𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

Since
𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑟𝑖 − 𝑅

෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖𝑐 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 − 𝑀𝑅
𝑖 𝑖

෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 0 Similarly σ𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑐 = 0

𝑖
 Thus

𝐽 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖𝑐 × 𝑣𝑖𝑐 + 𝑅 × ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑉
𝑖 𝑖

𝐽 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖𝑐 × 𝑣𝑖𝑐 + 𝑅 × 𝑀𝑉
𝑖

𝑱 = 𝑱𝑪𝑴 + 𝑹 × 𝑷

The total angular momentum of a system of particles about a point is the sum of the angular momentum of the center
of mass and the angular momentum of the system concentrated at center of mass.
Conservation Principle for Energy for a system of Particles

The total amount of work done by the forces acting on various particles of the system from an initial
configuration 1 to a final configuration 2 is given by
2 2 2

𝑊12 = න 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑑𝑟𝑖 = ෍ න 𝐹1𝑒𝑥 + ෍ ෍ න 𝐹𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝑟𝑖

1 𝑖 1 𝑖 𝑗 1

𝑑𝑣𝑖
From Newton’s second law we have 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑡
2 2 2
𝑑𝑣𝑖
𝑊12 = ෍ න 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑑𝑟𝑖 = ෍ න 𝑚𝑖 . 𝑑𝑟𝑖 = ෍ න 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖ሶ . 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 1 𝑖 1 𝑖 1

2
2
1 1
𝑊12 = ෍න𝑑 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
2 2 1
𝑖 1

Work done is equal to the change in the kinetic energy

For CM coordinate system we have 𝒓𝒊 = 𝒓𝒊𝒄 + 𝑹 and 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊𝒄 + 𝑽

1
𝑇= ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2
2
𝑖

1
𝑇 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝒊𝒄 + 𝑽 ∙ 𝒗𝒊𝒄 + 𝑽
2
𝑖

1 1
𝑇= ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝟐𝒊𝒄 + ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝒊𝒄 . 𝑽 + ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑽𝟐
2 2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

Since σ𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝒊𝒄 = 𝟎

1 1
𝑇= ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝟐𝒊𝒄 + ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑽𝟐
2 2
𝑖 𝑖

The total kinetic energy of a system of particles is the sum of kinetic energy of motion about the center of
mass plus the Kinetic energy of motion of the total mass of the system as if it were concentrated at the
center of mass