1.

Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion

Equation
Environmental uid mechanics is the study of uid mechanical processes that aect the fate and
transport of substances through the hydrosphere and atmosphere at the local or regional scale
1
(up to 100 km). In more laymans terms, environmental uid mechanics studies how uids
move substances through the natural environment as they are also transformed. In general,
the substances we may be interested in are mass, momentum or heat. More specically, mass
can represent any of a wide variety of passive and reactive tracers, such as dissolved oxygen,
salinity, heavy metals, nutrients, and many others. This course and textbook discusses passive
processes aecting the transport of species in a homogeneous natural environment. That is, as
the substance is transported, its presence does not cause a change in the dynamics of the uid
motion. The book for part 2 of this course, Stratied Flow and Buoyant Mixing, incorporates
the eects of buoyancy and stratication to deal with active mixing problems where the uid
dynamics change in response to the transported substance.
This chapter introduces the concept of mass transfer (transport) and focuses on the physics
of diusion. Because the concept of diusion is fundamental to this part of the course, we
single it out here and derive its mathematical representation from rst principles through to an
important solution of the governing partial dierential equation. The mathematical rigor of this
section is deemed necessary so that the student gains a fundamental and complete understanding
of diusion and the diusion equation. This foundation will make the complicated processes
discussed in the remaining chapters tractable and will start to build the engineering intuition
needed to solve problems in environmental uid mechanics.
1.1 Concepts, Signicance and Denitions
Stated simply, environmental uid mechanics is the study of natural processes that change
concentrations.
2
These processes can be categorized into two broad groups: transport and transformation.
Transport refers to those processes which move substances through the hydrosphere and atmo-
sphere by physical means. As an analogy to the postal service, transport is the process by which
a letter goes from one location to another. The postal truck is the analogy for our uid, and
1
At larger scales we must account for the Earths rotation through the Coriolis eect, and this is the subject of
geophysical uid dynamics.
2
A glossary at the end of this text provides a list of important terms and their denitions in environmental uid
mechanics (with the associated German term) to help orient the reader to a wealth of new terminology.
Copyright c 2004 by Scott A. Socolofsky and Gerhard H. Jirka. All rights reserved.
2 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
the letter itself is the analogy for our chemical species. The two primary modes of transport in
environmental uid mechanics are advection (transport associated with the ow of a uid) and
diusion (transport associated with random motions within a uid). The second process, trans-
formation, refers to those processes that change a substance of interest into another substance.
Keeping with our analogy, transformation is the paper recycling factory that turns our letter
into a shoe box. The two primary modes of transformation are physical (transformations caused
by physical laws, such as radioactive decay) and chemical (transformations caused by chemical
or biological reactions, such as dissolution and respiration).
In engineering practice, environmental uid mechanics provides the tools to (1) assess the
ow of nutrients and chemicals vital to life through the ecosystem, (2) limit toxicity, and (3)
minimize mans impact on global climate.
1. Ecosystem Dynamics. Nutrients are food sources used by organisms to generate energy.
Engineers need to know the levels of nutrients and their transformation pathways in order to
predict species populations in freshwater ecosystems, such as the growth and decay of algal
blooms in response to phytoplankton and zooplankton dynamics. Some common nutrients
and vital chemicals are oxygen, carbon dioxide, phosphorus, nitrogen, and an array of heavy
metals, among others.
2. Toxicity. For toxic chemicals, engineers need to understand natural transport and trans-
formation processes to design projects that minimize the probability of occurrence of toxic
concentrations while maintaining an aordable budget. Some common toxic chemicals are
heavy metals (such as iron, zinc, and cadmium), radioactive substances (such as uranium
and plutonium), and poisons and carcinogenic substances (such as PCBs, MTBE, carbon
monoxide, arsenic, and strong acids).
3. Global Climate Change. Some chemical species are also of interest due to their ef-
fects on the global climate system. Some notable substances are the chlorouorocarbons
(CFCs) which deplete the ozone layer, the greenhouse gases, in particular, carbon dioxide
and methane, which maintain a warm planet, and other substances, such as sulfate aerosols
that aect the Earths reectivity through cloud formation.
It is important to remember that all chemicals are necessary at appropriate levels to sustain
life and that anthropogenic input of chemicals into the hydrosphere is a necessary characteristic
of industrialization. Engineers use environmental uid mechanics, therefore, to avoid adverse
impacts and optimize the designs of engineering projects and to mitigate the eects of accidents.
1.1.1 Example Problems
Although environmental uid mechanics addresses basic processes that we are all familiar with
through our natural interaction with the environment (e.g. sensing smoke in a crowded bar),
its application in engineering is not frequently taught and students may nd a steep learning
curve in mastering its concepts, terminology, and signicance. This problem is compounded by
the fact that a whole new set of equations must be mastered before meaningful design problems
can be addressed. Here, we pause to introduce several typical problems and their relationship
1.1 Concepts, Signicance and Denitions 3
Turbulence
Diffusion
Air-flow in
Air-flow out
Gas or
aerosol
release
Fig. 1.1. Schematic of the mixing processes in an enclosed space. A point source of substance is released in the
lower left corner of a room. Mixing is caused by ow into and out or the room through the ventilation system and
by random motions in the circulating air.
to environmental uid mechanics to whet the appetite for more detailed study and to give a
context for the derivations that follow.
Indoor air pollution. Chemicals that we come in contact with the most readily are transported
through the air we breath. The two important transport processes are advection (movement
with the air currents generated by wind or by air distribution systems) and diusion (gradual
spreading of the substance by random motions in the air). This is depicted schematically in
Figure 1.1.
When the anthrax problems in the U.S. Postal Service surfaced shortly after 9/11, there
was a lot of discussion about weapons grade anthrax which could be dispersed by the air.
Typical anthrax spores are too heavy to be carried very far by air. However, if anthrax can be
transported by aerosol particles (particles small enough that they have no appreciable settling
velocity), then the threat is much greater. Diusion, especially turbulent diusion, as we will
see in Chapter 3, is very ecient at distributing aerosols throughout an enclosed space. In fact,
diusion is primarily what allows you to smell wet paint, smoke, or a pleasant perfume. If anthrax
could be dispersed through the air, then it could diuse eciently throughout enclosed spaces,
greatly increasing the risk that anyone entering the space would be infected.
When engineers design indoor air systems, one thing they are concerned with is the ability of
the system to keep the space well mixed (that is, free of deadzones were contaminants could get
concentrated) and frequently refreshed (new air replacing old). Environmental uid mechanics
provides the tools to estimate mixing rates and to design better systems. New designs might be
quieter, or use less energy, or rely on natural ventilation generated by temperature dierences
between the indoors and outside. The rst topics we will cover, diusion followed by advection,
are directly related to these problems and design issues.
River discharges. Because rivers are readily accessible and eciently transport chemicals
downstream, they are the primary receiving waters for a whole host of industrial and public
4 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
Industrial
discharge
Natural river
Fig. 1.2. Schematic of a point-source discharge of an industrial byproduct into a natural stream. As the source
moves downstream, it spreads laterally due to diusion and advection.
wastes (see example illustrated in Figure 1.2). Moreover, it is very likely that your community
wastewater treatment plant discharges its treated water into a local river or reservoir. Although
the water is well treated, it still likely contains nutrients that will promote algae and bacteria
growth downstream, which in turn aect dissolved oxygen levels and promote eutrophication
(rapid aging) in lakes. Before passage of the Clean Water Act in the United States, pollution
in rivers was a major problem. Now, every point discharge must be evaluated by a government
agency and approved based on an assessment of its likely impact on the natural system. Water
quality standards are an example of the types of data that the impact assessment may be based
upon. Today, most people agree that direct discharges are not the major cause of the remaining
environmental problems in our lakes and rivers. Instead, nonpoint sources (sources that do not
originate from a pipe, but rather from a large, sometimes hard to dene area) are the primary
source of contaminants.
To keep the impact of point discharges low, engineers must evaluate the impacts in the
near eld (eects near the source) and the far eld (downstream impact that is not aected
by the specic dynamics of the discharge mechanism). The near-eld is dominated by diusion
processes that cause the contaminant to rapidly mix with its environment. The far eld is
dominated by advection, dispersion (stretching due to non-uniform velocity proles in rivers)
and transformation processes that may eliminate the contaminant by natural biodegradation.
Each of these topics will be discussed in detail in this course.
Oxygen exchange. Not all substances that are of interest in environmental uid mechanics
are harmful. One important chemical we will study is oxygen, a necessary input to respiration.
Oxygen levels can be depleted in water by biodegradation of wastes. This is primarily possible
1.1 Concepts, Signicance and Denitions 5
-z
z
Diffusion of oxygen through
air-water interface
High concentration
Low concentration
Fig. 1.3. Schematic of the diusion of oxygen into a water body through the air-water interface. The dark
area represents regions of high oxygen concentration, and the lighter area represents a region of lower oxygen
concentration.
Atmospheric discharge
Fig. 1.4. Schematic of the release of an industrial byproduct into the atmosphere through a chimney stack. The
plume moves downstream due to an average wind eld.
because of the relatively slow rate of exchange of oxygen between the water and the atmosphere.
When the water becomes depleted, oxygen will dissolve out of the atmosphere and into the water
and then diuse downward into the water body. This is depicted in Figure 1.3.
This is an important characteristic of diusion, that it transports chemicals from regions of
high concentration to regions of low concentration. If this were not the case, then a strong odor
would just get stronger and stronger in the location of the source and never be noticed away
from the source. Instead, diusion reduces the magnitude of the odor at the source and causes
the odor to spread into the clean surroundings.
Atmospheric mixing. Probably the most noticeable release of chemicals into the environment
is through smoke stacks at industrial and power plants (see schematic in Figure 1.4). Because of
condensation in the waste stream, the expelled gas is made visible by a trail of smoke or clouds.
This is also visible in automobile exhaust on a cold winters day. In the summer, when auto
exhaust is not visible, we rarely think about all the chemicals that surround our car; however,
when cold air makes the exhaust visible, it can be surprising. The tools of environmental uid
mechanics are used to predict the concentrations of gases both in summer and winter and to
6 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
help design exhaust systems, both for your car and for factories, that do not result in toxic
levels. Again, the primary mechanisms we must address are transport (advection and diusion)
and transformation (reactions).
1.1.2 Expressing Concentration
In order to evaluate how much of a chemical is present in any region of a uid, we require a
means to measure chemical intensity or presence. This fundamental quantity in environmental
uid mechanics is called concentration. In common usage, the term concentration expresses a
measure of the amount of a substance within a mixture.
Mathematically, the concentration C is the ratio of the mass of a substance M
i
to the total
volume of a mixture V expressed
C =
M
i
V
. (1.1)
The units of concentration are [M/L
3
], commonly reported in mg/l, kg/m
3
, lb/gal, etc. For
one- and two-dimensional problems, concentration can also be expressed as the mass per unit
segment length [M/L] or per unit area, [M/L
2
].
A related quantity, the mass fraction , is the ratio of the mass of a substance M
i
to the
total mass of a mixture M, written
=
M
i
M
. (1.2)
Mass fraction is unitless, but is often expressed using mixed units, such as mg/kg, parts per
million (ppm), or parts per billion (ppb).
A popular concentration measure used by chemists is the molar concentration . Molar con-
centration is dened as the ratio of the number of moles of a substance N
i
to the total volume
of the mixture
=
N
i
V
. (1.3)
The units of molar concentration are [number of molecules/L
3
]; typical examples are mol/l and
mol/l. To work with molar concentration, recall that the atomic weight of an atom is reported
in the Periodic Table in units of g/mol and that a mole is 6.022 10
23
molecules.
The measure chosen to express concentration is essentially a matter of taste. Always use
caution and conrm that the units chosen for concentration are consistent with the equations
used to predict fate and transport. A common source of confusion arises from the fact that mass
fraction and concentration are often used interchangeably in dilute aqueous systems. This comes
about because the density of pure water at 4

C is 1 g/cm
3
, making values for concentration in
mg/l and mass fraction in ppm identical. Extreme caution should be used in other solutions,
as in seawater or the atmosphere, where ppm and mg/l are not identical. The conclusion to be
drawn is: always check your units.
1.1 Concepts, Signicance and Denitions 7
1.1.3 Dimensional analysis
A very powerful analytical technique that we will use throughout this course is dimensional
analysis. The concept behind dimensional analysis is that if we can dene the parameters that
a process depends on, then we should be able to use these parameters, usually in the form of
dimensionless variables, to describe that process at all scales (not just the scales we measure in
the laboratory or the eld).
Dimensional analysis as a method is based on the Buckingham -theorem (see e.g. Fischer
et al. 1979). Consider a process that can be described by m dimensional variables. This full
set of variables contains n dierent physical dimensions (length, time, mass, temperature, etc.).
The Buckingham -theorem states that there are, then, m n independent non-dimensional
groups that can be formed from these governing variables (Fischer et al. 1979). When forming
the dimensionless groups, we try to keep the dependent variable (the one we want to predict) in
only one of the dimensionless groups (i.e. try not to repeat the use of the dependent variable).
Once we have the mn dimensionless variables, the Buckingham -theorem further tells us
that the variables can be related according to

1
= f(
2
,
i
, ...,
mn
) (1.4)
where
i
is the ith dimensionless variable. As we will see, this method is a powerful way to nd
engineering solutions to very complex physical problems.
Example: Reynolds number. As an example, consider a problem from your rst course
in uid mechanics where we want to predict when a uid ow becomes turbulent. Here, our
dependent variable is a quality (turbulent or laminar) and does not have a dimension. The
variables it depends on are the velocity u, the ow disturbances, characterized by a typical
length scale L, and the uid properties, as described by its density , temperature T, and
viscosity . First, we must recognize that and are functions of T; thus, all three of these
variables cannot be treated as independent. The most compact and traditional approach is to
retain and in the form of the kinematic viscosity = /. Thus, we have m = 3 dimensional
variables (u, L, and ) in n = 2 physical dimensions (length and time).
The next step is to form the dimensionless group
1
= f(u, L, ). This can be done by assum-
ing each variable has a dierent exponent and writing separate equations for each dimension.
That is

1
= u
a
L
b

c
, (1.5)
and we want each dimension to cancel out, giving us two equations
t gives: 0 = a c
L gives: 0 = a + b + 2c.
From the t-equation, we have a = c, and from the L-equation we get b = c. Since the system
is under-dened, we are free to choose the value of c. To get the most simplied form, choose
c = 1, leaving us with a = b = 1. Thus, we have
8 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation

1
=

uL
. (1.6)
This non-dimensional combination is just the inverse of the well-known Reynolds number Re;
thus, we have shown through dimensional analysis, that the turbulent state of the uid should
depend on the Reynolds number
Re =
uL

, (1.7)
which is a classical result in uid mechanics.
Example: mixing scales. In environmental uid mechanics we often want to know how long
it will take for a chemical to mix through a space or how far downstream a chemical will go
before it mixes to a certain size. In this problem we have three parameters: L is the distance over
which the chemical spreads, D is a measure of the rate of diusion, and t is the time. Although
we have not formally introduced D, it is sucient now to know that its dimensions are [L
2
/t]
and that large D give rapid mixing and small D give slow mixing. Thus, we have three variables
and two dimensions (L and t), yielding one non-dimensional number

1
=
Dt
L
2
. (1.8)
Later, we will see that this number is called the Peclet number.
If we want to know over how large a distance diusion will spread a chemical in a time t, we
can rearrange the non-dimensional number to solve for length, giving
L

Dt. (1.9)
This is a classical scaling law in environmental uid mechanics, and one that we will use fre-
quently. The proportionality constant will change for dierent geometries, but the scaling rela-
tionship will remain. Hence,

Dt will be called the diusion length scale. With this background,

we are now prepared to introduce the important concept of diusion in more mathematical de-
tail.
1.2 Diusion
As we have seen, a fundamental transport process in environmental uid mechanics is diusion.
Diusion diers from advection in that it is random in nature (does not necessarily follow a uid
particle). A well-known example is the diusion of perfume in an empty room. If a bottle of
perfume is opened and allowed to evaporate into the air, soon the whole room will be scented. We
also know from experience that the scent will be stronger near the source and weaker as we move
away, but fragrance molecules will have wondered throughout the room due to random molecular
and turbulent motions. Thus, diusion has two primary properties: it is random in nature, and
transport is from regions of high concentration to low concentration, with an equilibrium state
of uniform concentration.
1.2 Diusion 9
(a.) Initial (b.) Random
motions distribution
(c.) Final
distribution
n
x
n
x 0 0
...
Fig. 1.5. Schematic of the one-dimensional molecular (Brownian) motion of a group of molecules illustrating the
Fickian diusion model. The upper part of the gure shows the particles themselves; the lower part of the gure
gives the corresponding histogram of particle location, which is analogous to concentration.
1.2.1 Fickian diusion
We just observed in our perfume example that regions of high concentration tend to spread into
regions of low concentration under the action of diusion. Here, we want to derive a mathematical
expression that predicts this spreading-out process, and we will follow an argument presented
in Fischer et al. (1979).
To derive a diusive ux equation, consider two rows of molecules side-by-side and centered
at x = 0, as shown in Figure 1.5(a.). Each of these molecules moves about randomly in response
to the temperature (in a random process called Brownian motion). Here, for didactic purposes,
we will consider only one component of their three-dimensional motion: motion right or left
along the x-axis. We further dene the mass of particles on the left as M
l
, the mass of particles
on the right as M
r
, and the probability (transfer rate per time) that a particles moves across
x = 0 as k, with units [T
1
].
After some time t an average of half of the particles have taken steps to the right and half
have taken steps to the left, as depicted through Figure 1.5(b.) and (c.). Looking at the particle
histograms also in Figure 1.5, we see that in this random process, maximum concentrations
decrease, while the total region containing particles increases (the cloud spreads out).
Mathematically, the average ux of particles from the left-hand column to the right is kM
l
,
and the average ux of particles from the right-hand column to the left is kM
r
, where the
minus sign is used to distinguish direction. Thus, the net ux of particles q
x
is
q
x
= k(M
l
M
r
). (1.10)
For the one-dimensional case we can write (1.10) in terms of concentrations using
C
l
= M
l
/(xyz) (1.11)
10 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
C
r
= M
r
/(xyz) (1.12)
where x is the width, y is the breadth, and z is the height of each column. Physically, x is
the average step along the x-axis taken by a molecule in the time t. For the one-dimensional
case, we want q
x
to represent the ux in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular to x; hence,
we will take yz = 1. Next, we note that a nite dierence approximation for dC/dx is
dC
dx
=
C
r
C
l
x
r
x
l
=
M
r
M
l
x(x
r
x
l
)
, (1.13)
which gives us a second expression for (M
l
M
r
), namely,
(M
l
M
r
) = x(x
r
x
l
)
dC
dx
. (1.14)
Taking x = (x
r
x
l
) and substituting (1.14) into (1.10) yields
q
x
= k(x)
2
dC
dx
. (1.15)
(1.15) contains two unknowns, k and x. Fischer et al. (1979) argue that since q cannot depend
on an arbitrary x, we must assume that k(x)
2
is a constant, which we will call the diusion
coecient, D. Substituting, we obtain the one-dimensional diusive ux equation
q
x
= D
dC
dx
. (1.16)
It is important to note that diusive ux is a vector quantity and, since concentration is expressed
in units of [M/L
3
], it has units of [M/(L
2
T)]. To compute the total mass ux rate m, in units
[M/T], the diusive ux must be integrated over a surface area. For the one-dimensional case
we would have m = Aq
x
, where A = yz.
Generalizing to three dimensions, we can write the diusive ux vector at a point by adding
the other two dimensions, yielding (in various types of notation)
q = D
_
C
x
,
C
y
,
C
z
_
= DC
= D
C
x
i
. (1.17)
Diusion processes that obey this relationship are called Fickian diusion, and (1.17) is called
Ficks law. To obtain the total mass ux rate we must integrate the normal component of q over
a surface area, as in
m =
__
A
q ndA (1.18)
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface A.
1.2 Diusion 11
Example Box 1.1:
Diusive ux at the air-water interface.
The time-average oxygen prole C(z) in the lam-
inar sub-layer at the surface of a lake is
C(z) = Csat (Csat C
l
)erf
_
z

2
_
where Csat is the saturation oxygen concentration
in the water, C
l
is the oxygen concentration in the
body of the lake, is the concentration boundary
layer thickness, and z is dened positive downward.
Turbulence in the body of the lake is responsible for
keeping constant. Find an expression for the total
rate of mass ux of oxygen into the lake.
Ficks law tells us that the concentration gradient
in the oxygen prole will result in a diusive ux
of oxygen into the lake. Since the concentration is
uniform in x and y, we have from (1.16) the diusive
ux
qz = D
dC
dz
.
The derivative of the concentration gradient is
dC
dz
= (Csat C
l
)
d
dz
_
erf
_
z

2
__
=
2

(Csat C
l
)

2
e

_
z

2
_
2
At the surface of the lake, z is zero and the diusive
ux is
qz = (Csat C
l
)
D

.
The units of qz are in [M/(L
2
T)]. To get the total
mass ux rate, we must multiply by a surface area,
in this case the surface of the lake A
l
. Thus, the total
rate of mass ux of oxygen into the lake is
m = A
l
(Csat C
l
)
D

.
For C
l
< Csat the mass ux is positive, indicating
ux down, into the lake. More sophisticated models
for gas transfer that develop predictive expressions
for are discussed later in Chapter 5.
1.2.2 Diusion coecients
From the denition D = k(x)
2
, we see that D has units L
2
/T. Since we derived Ficks law
for molecules moving in Brownian motion, D is a molecular diusion coecient, which we
will sometimes call D
m
to be specic. The intensity (energy and freedom of motion) of these
Brownian motions controls the value of D. Thus, D depends on the phase (solid, liquid or gas),
temperature, and molecule size. For dilute solutes in water, D is generally of order 210
9
m
2
/s;
whereas, for dispersed gases in air, D is of order 2 10
5
m
2
/s, a dierence in magnitude of 10
4
.
Table 1.1 gives a detailed accounting of D for a range of solutes in water with low salinity
(0.5 ppt). We see from the table that for a given temperature, D can range over about 10
1
in
response to molecular size (large molecules have smaller D). The table also shows the sensitivity
of D to temperature; for a 10

C change in water temperature, D can change by a factor of

2. These observations can be summarized by the insight that faster and less conned motions
result in higher diusion coecients.
1.2.3 Diusion equation
Although Ficks law gives us an expression for the ux of mass due to the process of diusion,
we still require an equation that predicts the change in concentration of the diusing mass over
time at a point. In this section we will see that such an equation can be derived using the law
of conservation of mass.
12 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
Table 1.1. Molecular diusion coecients for typical solutes in water at standard pressure and at two tempera-
tures (20

C and 10

C).
a
Solute name Chemical symbol Diusion coecient
b
Diusion coecient
c
(10
4
cm
2
/s) (10
4
cm
2
/s)
hydrogen ion H
+
0.85 0.70
hydroxide ion OH

0.48 0.37
oxygen O2 0.20 0.15
carbon dioxide CO2 0.17 0.12
bicarbonate HCO

3
0.11 0.08
carbonate CO
2
3
0.08 0.06
methane CH4 0.16 0.12
ammonium NH
+
4
0.18 0.14
ammonia NH3 0.20 0.15
nitrate NO

3
0.17 0.13
phosphoric acid H3PO4 0.08 0.06
dihydrogen phosphate H2PO

4
0.08 0.06
hydrogen phosphate HPO
2
4
0.07 0.05
phosphate PO
3
4
0.05 0.04
hydrogen sulde H2S 0.17 0.13
hydrogen sulde ion HS

0.16 0.13
sulfate SO
2
4
0.10 0.07
silica H4SiO4 0.10 0.07
calcium ion Ca
2+
0.07 0.05
magnesium ion Mg
2+
0.06 0.05
iron ion Fe
2+
0.06 0.05
manganese ion Mn
2+
0.06 0.05
a
Taken from http://www.talknet.de/alke.spreckelsen/roger/thermo/difcoef.html
b
for water at 20

C with salinity of 0.5 ppt.

c
for water at 10

C with salinity of 0.5 ppt.

To derive the diusion equation, consider the control volume (CV) depicted in Figure 1.6.
The change in mass M of dissolved tracer in this CV over time is given by the mass conservation
law
M
t
=

m
in

m
out
. (1.19)
To compute the diusive mass uxes in and out of the CV, we use Ficks law, which for the
x-direction gives
q
x,in
= D
C
x

1
(1.20)
q
x,out
= D
C
x

2
(1.21)
1.2 Diusion 13
q
x,in
q
x,out
x
-y
z
x
y
z
Fig. 1.6. Dierential control volume for derivation of the diusion equation.
where the locations 1 and 2 are the inow and outow faces in the gure. To obtain total mass
ux m we multiply q
x
by the CV surface area A = yz. Thus, we can write the net ux in the
x-direction as
m|
x
= Dyz
_
C
x

C
x

2
_
(1.22)
which is the x-direction contribution to the right-hand-side of (1.19).
To continue we must nd a method to evaluate C/x at point 2. For this, we use linear
Taylor series expansion, an important tool for linearly approximating functions. The general
form of Taylor series expansion is
f(x) = f(x
0
) +
f
x

x
0
x + HOTs, (1.23)
where HOTs stands for higher order terms. Substituting C/x for f(x) in the Taylor series
expansion yields
C
x

2
=
C
x

1
+

x
_
C
x

1
_
x + HOTs. (1.24)
For linear Taylor series expansion, we ignore the HOTs. Substituting this expression into the
net ux equation (1.22) and dropping the subscript 1, gives
m|
x
= Dyz

2
C
x
2
x. (1.25)
Similarly, in the y- and z-directions, the net uxes through the control volume are
m|
y
= Dxz

2
C
y
2
y (1.26)
m|
z
= Dxy

2
C
z
2
z. (1.27)
Before substituting these results into (1.19), we also convert M to concentration by recognizing
M = Cxyz. After substitution of the concentration C and net uxes m into (1.19), we
obtain the three-dimensional diusion equation (in various types of notation)
14 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
C
t
= D
_

2
C
x
2
+

2
C
y
2
+

2
C
z
2
_
= D
2
C
= D
C
x
2
i
, (1.28)
which is a fundamental equation in environmental uid mechanics. For the last line in (1.28),
we have used the Einsteinian notation of repeated indices as a short-hand for the
2
operator.
1.2.4 One-dimensional diusion equation
In the one-dimensional case, concentration gradients in the y- and z-direction are zero, and we
have the one-dimensional diusion equation
C
t
= D

2
C
x
2
. (1.29)
We pause here to consider (1.29) and to point out a few key observations. First, (1.29) is rst-
order in time. Thus, we must supply and impose one initial condition for its solution, and its
solutions will be unsteady, or transient, meaning they will vary with time. To solve for the
steady, time-invariant solution of (1.29), we must set C/t = 0 and we no longer require an
initial condition; the steady form of (1.29) is the well-known Laplace equation. Second, (1.29) is
second-order in space. Thus, we must impose two boundary conditions, and its solution will vary
in space. Third, the form of (1.29) is exactly the same as the heat equation, where D is replaced
by the heat transfer coecient . This observation agrees well with our intuition since we know
that heat conducts (diuses) away from hot sources toward cold regions (just as concentration
diuses from high concentration toward low concentration). This observation is also useful since
many solutions to the heat equation are already known.
1.3 Similarity solution to the one-dimensional diusion equation
Because (1.28) is of such fundamental importance in environmental uid mechanics, we demon-
strate here one of its solutions for the one-dimensional case in detail. There are multiple methods
that can be used to solve (1.28), but we will follow the methodology of Fischer et al. (1979) and
choose the so-called similarity method in order to demonstrate the usefulness of dimensional
analysis as presented in Section 1.1.3.
Consider the one-dimensional problem of a narrow, innite pipe (radius a) as depicted in
Figure 1.7. A mass of tracer M is injected uniformly across the cross-section of area A = a
2
at
the point x = 0 at time t = 0. The initial width of the tracer is innitesimally small. We seek
a solution for the spread of the tracer in the x-direction over time due to molecular diusion
alone.
As this is a one-dimensional (C/y = 0 and C/z = 0) unsteady diusion problem, (1.29)
is the governing equation, and we require two boundary conditions and an initial condition. As
boundary conditions, we impose that the concentration at remain zero
1.3 Similarity solution to the one-dimensional diusion equation 15
A M
-x x
Fig. 1.7. Denitions sketch for one-dimensional pure diusion in an innite pipe.
Table 1.2. Dimensional variables for one-dimensional pipe diusion.
Variable Dimensions
dependent variable C M/L
3
independent variables M/A M/L
2
D L
2
/T
x L
t T
C(, t) = 0 (1.30)
because it is not possible for any of the tracer molecules to wander all the way out to innity
by denition, innity is not reachable. The initial condition is that the dye tracer is injected
uniformly across the cross-section over an innitesimally small width in the x-direction. To
specify such an initial condition, we use the Dirac delta function
C(x, 0) = (M/A)(x) (1.31)
where (x) is zero everywhere accept at x = 0, where it is innite, but the integral of the delta
function from to is 1. Thus, the total injected mass is given by
M =
_
V
C(x, t)dV (1.32)
=
_

_
a
0
(M/A)(x)2rdrdx. (1.33)
= M QED. (1.34)
To use dimensional analysis, we must consider all the parameters that control the solution.
Table 1.2 summarizes the dependent and independent variables for our problem. There are m = 5
parameters and n = 3 dimensions; thus, we can form two dimensionless groups

1
=
C
M/(A

Dt)
(1.35)

2
=
x

Dt
(1.36)
From dimensional analysis we have that
1
= f(
2
), which implies for the solution of C
C =
M
A

Dt
f
_
x

Dt
_
(1.37)
16 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
where f is a yet-unknown function with argument
2
. (1.37) is called a similarity solution because
C has the same shape in x at all times t (see also Example Box 1.3). Now we need to nd f in
order to know what that shape is. Before we nd the solution formally, compare (1.37) with the
actual solution given by (1.59). Through this comparison, we see that dimensional analysis can
go a long way toward nding solutions to physical problems.
The function f can be found in two primary ways. First, experiments can be conducted and
then a smooth curve can be t to the data using the coordinates
1
and
2
. Second, (1.37) can
be used as the solution to a dierential equation and f solved for analytically. This is what we
will do here. The power of a similarity solution is that it turns a partial dierential equation
(PDE) into an ordinary dierential equation (ODE), which is the goal of any solution method
for PDEs.
The similarity solution (1.37) is really just a coordinate transformation. We will call our new
similarity variable = x/

Dt. To substitute (1.37) into the diusion equation, we will need the
two derivatives

t
=

2t
(1.38)

x
=
1

Dt
. (1.39)
We rst use the chain rule to compute C/t as follows
C
t
=

t
_
M
A

Dt
f()
_
=

t
_
M
A

Dt
_
f() +
M
A

Dt
f

t
=
M
A

Dt
_

1
2
_
1
t
f() +
M
A

Dt
f

2t
_
=
M
2At

Dt
_
f +
f

_
. (1.40)
Similarly, we use the chain rule to compute
2
C/x
2
as follows

2
C
x
2
=

x
_

x
_
M
A

Dt
f()
__
=

x
_
M
A

Dt

x
f

_
=
M
ADt

Dt

2
f

2
. (1.41)
Upon substituting these two results into the diusion equation, we obtain the ordinary dieren-
tial equation in
d
2
f
d
2
+
1
2
_
f +
df
d
_
= 0. (1.42)
To solve (1.42), we should also convert the boundary and initial conditions to two new
constraints on f. Substituting into the boundary conditions gives
1.3 Similarity solution to the one-dimensional diusion equation 17
C(, t) = 0
M
A

Dt
f
_
x

Dt
_

x=
= 0
f() = 0. (1.43)
We convert the initial condition in a similar manner. Substituting leads to
C(x, 0) =
M
A
x
M
A

Dt
f
_
x

Dt
_

t=0
=
M
A
x
Rearranging the terms yields
f
_
x

Dt
_

t=0
=

Dtx

t=0
(1.44)
The left hand side will give + if x > 0 and if x < 0. The right hand side gives zero
because the

Dt term is always zero at t = 0. Then, the initial condition reduces to

f() = 0. (1.45)
Thus, the three conditions on the original partial dierential equation (two boundary condi-
tions and an initial condition) have been reduced to two boundary conditions on the ordinary
dierential equation in f, given by either (1.43) or (1.45).
Another constraint is required to x the value of M and is taken from the conservation of
mass, given by (1.32). Substituting dx = d

Dt into (1.32) and simplifying, we obtain

_

f()d = 1. (1.46)
Solving (1.42) requires a couple of integrations. First, we rearrange the equation using the
identity
d(f)
d
= f +
df
d
, (1.47)
which gives us
d
d
_
df
d
+
1
2
f
_
= 0. (1.48)
Integrating once leaves us with
df
d
+
1
2
f = C
0
. (1.49)
It can be shown that choosing C
0
= 0 is required to satisfy the boundary conditions (see
Appendix A for more details). For now, we will select C
0
= 0 and then verify that the solution
we obtain does indeed obey the boundary condition f() = 0.
With C
0
= 0 we have a homogeneous ordinary dierential equation whose solution can readily
be found. Moving the second term to the right hand side we have
df
d
=
1
2
f. (1.50)
18 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
The solution is found by collecting the f- and -terms on separate sides of the equation
df
f
=
1
2
d. (1.51)
Integrating both sides gives
ln(f) =
1
2

2
2
+ C
1
(1.52)
which after taking the exponential of both sides gives
f = C
1
exp
_

2
4
_
. (1.53)
To nd C
1
we must use the remaining constraint given in (1.46). This is necessary since we
introduce a parameter M and we would like that the integral under the concentration curve give
us back the total mass. This auxiliary condition in f gives (recall (1.46))
_

C
1
exp
_

2
4
_
d = 1. (1.54)
To solve this integral, we should use integral tables; therefore, we have to make one more change
of variables to remove the 1/4 from the exponential. Thus, we introduce such that

2
=
1
2
2

2
(1.55)
2d = d. (1.56)
Substituting this coordinate transformation and solving for C
1
leaves
C
1
=
1
2
_

exp(
2
)d
. (1.57)
After looking up the integral in a table, we obtain C
1
= 1/(2

). Thus,
f() =
1
2

exp
_

2
4
_
. (1.58)
Replacing f in our similarity solution (1.37) gives
C(x, t) =
M
A

4Dt
exp
_

x
2
4Dt
_
(1.59)
which is a classic result in environmental uid mechanics, and an equation that will be used
thoroughly throughout this text. Generalizing to three dimensions, Fischer et al. (1979) give the
the solution
C(x, y, z, t) =
M
4t
_
4D
x
D
y
D
z
t
exp
_

x
2
4D
x
t

y
2
4D
y
t

z
2
4D
z
t
_
(1.60)
which they derive using the separation of variables method.
1.3 Similarity solution to the one-dimensional diusion equation 19
Example Box 1.2:
Maximum concentrations.
For the three-dimensional instantaneous point-
source solution given in (1.60), nd an expression
for the maximum concentration. Where is the max-
imum concentration located?
The classical approach for nding maxima of func-
tions is to look for zero-points in the derivative of
the function. For many concentration distributions,
it is easier to take a qualitative look at the functional
form of the equation. The instantaneous point-source
solution has the form
C(x, t) = C1(t) exp(|f(x, t)|).
C1(t) is an amplication factor independent of space.
The exponential function has a negative argument,
which means it is maximum when the argument is
zero. Hence, the maximum concentration is
Cmax(t) = C1(t).
Applying this result to (1.60) gives
Cmax(t) =
M
4t
_
4DxDyDzt
.
The maximum concentration occurs at the point
where the exponential is zero. In this case
x(Cmax) = (0, 0, 0).
We can apply this same analysis to other concen-
tration distributions as well. For example, consider
the error function concentration distribution
C(x, t) =
C0
2
_
1 erf
_
x

4Dt
__
.
The error function ranges over [1, 1] as its argu-
ment ranges from [, ]. The maximum concen-
tration occurs when erf() = -1, and gives,
Cmax(t) = C0.
Cmax occurs when the argument of the error function
is . At t = 0, the maximum concentration occurs
for all points x < 0, and for t > 0, the maximum
concentration occurs only at x = .
4 2 0 2 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Point source solution
= x / (4Dt)
1/2
C

A

(
4

D

t
)
1
/
2

/

M
Fig. 1.8. Self-similarity solution for one-dimensional diusion of an instantaneous point source in an innite
domain.
1.3.1 Interpretation of the similarity solution
Figure 1.8 shows the one-dimensional solution (1.59) in non-dimensional space. Comparing (1.59)
with the Gaussian probability distribution reveals that (1.59) is the normal bell-shaped curve
with a standard deviation , of width

2
= 2Dt. (1.61)
20 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
The concept of self similarity is now also evident: the concentration prole shape is always
Gaussian. By plotting in non-dimensional space, the proles also collapse into a single prole;
thus, proles for all times t > 0 are given by the result in the gure.
The Gaussian distribution can also be used to predict how much tracer is within a certain
region. Looking at Figure 1.8 it appears that most of the tracer is between -2 and 2. Gaussian
probability tables, available in any statistics book, can help make this observation more quanti-
tative. Within , 64.2% of the tracer is found and between 2, 95.4% of the tracer is found.
As an engineering rule-of-thumb, we will say that a diusing tracer is distributed over a region
of width 4, that is, 2 in Figure 1.8.
Example Box 1.3:
Prole shape and self similarity.
For the one-dimensional, instantaneous point-
source solution, show that the ratio C/Cmax can be
written as a function of the single parameter de-
ned such that x = . How might this be used to
estimate the diusion coecient from concentration
prole data?
From the previous example, we know that Cmax =
M/

4Dt, and we can re-write (1.59) as

C(x, t)
Cmax(t)
= exp
_

x
2
4Dt
_
.
We now substitute =

2Dt and x = to obtain

C
Cmax
= exp
_

2
/2
_
.
Here, is a parameter that species the point to
calculate C based on the number of standard devia-
tions the point is away from the center of mass. This
illustrates very clearly the notion of self similarity:
regardless of the time t, the amount of mass M, or
the value of D, the ratio C/Cmax is always the same
value at the same position .
This relationship is very helpful for calculating
diusion coecients. Often, we do not know the
value of M. We can, however, always normalize a
concentration prole measured at a given time t by
Cmax(t). Then we pick a value of , say 1.0. We know
from the relationship above that C/Cmax = 0.61 at
x = . Next, nd the locations where C/Cmax =
0.61 in the experimental prole and use them to mea-
sure . We then use the relationship =

2Dt and
the value of t to estimate D.
1.4 Application: Diusion in a lake
With a solid background now in diusion, consider the following example adapted from Nepf
(1995).
As shown in Figures 1.9 and 1.10, a small alpine lake is mildly stratied, with a thermocline
(region of steepest density gradient) at 3 m depth, and is contaminated by arsenic. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the diusive ux of arsenic through the thermocline (cross-sectional
area at the thermocline is A = 2 10
4
m
2
) and discuss the nature of the arsenic source. The
molecular diusion coecient is D
m
= 1 10
10
m
2
/s.
Molecular diusion. To compute the molecular diusive ux through the thermocline, we use
the one-dimensional version of Ficks law, given above in (1.16)
q
z
= D
m
C
z
. (1.62)
1.4 Application: Diusion in a lake 21
Thermocline
z
Fig. 1.9. Schematic of a stratied alpine lake.
14 14.5 15 15.5 16
0
2
4
6
8
10
(a.) Temperature profile
Temperature [deg C]
D
e
p
t
h


[
m
]
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
(b.) Arsenic profile
Arsenic concentration [g/l]
D
e
p
t
h


[
m
]
Fig. 1.10. Proles of temperature and arsenic concentration in an alpine lake. The dotted line at 3 m indicates
the location of the thermocline (region of highest density gradient).
We calculate the concentration gradient at z = 3 from the concentration prole using a nite
dierence approximation. Substituting the appropriate values, we have
q
z
= D
m
C
z
= (1 10
10
)
(10 6.1)
(2 4)

1000 l
1 m
3
= +1.95 10
7
g/(m
2
s) (1.63)
where the plus sign indicates that the ux is downward. The total mass ux is obtained by
multiplying over the area: m = Aq
z
= 0.0039 g/s.
Turbulent diusion. As we pointed out in the discussion on diusion coecients, faster ran-
dom motions lead to larger diusion coecients. As we will see in Chapter 3, turbulence also
causes a kind of random motion that behaves asymptotically like Fickian diusion. Because the
turbulent motions are much larger than molecular motions, turbulent diusion coecients are
much larger than molecular diusion coecients.
22 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
Sources of turbulence at the thermocline of a small lake can include surface inows, wind
stirring, boundary mixing, convection currents, and others. Based on studies in this lake, a
turbulent diusion coecient can be taken as D
t
= 1.5 10
6
m
2
/s. Since turbulent diusion
obeys the same Fickian ux law, then the turbulent diusive ux q
z,t
can be related to the
molecular diusive ux q
z,t
= q
z
by the equation
q
z,t
= q
z,m
D
t
D
m
(1.64)
= +2.93 10
3
g/(m
2
s). (1.65)
Hence, we see that turbulent diusive transport is much greater than molecular diusion. As
a warning, however, if the concentration gradients are very high and the turbulence is low,
molecular diusion can become surprisingly signicant!
Implications. Here, we have shown that the concentration gradient results in a net diusive
ux of arsenic into the hypolimnion (region below the thermocline). Assuming no other transport
processes are at work, we can conclude that the arsenic source is at the surface. If the diusive
transport continues, the hypolimnion concentrations will increase. The next chapter considers
how the situation might change if we include another type of transport: advection.
Summary
This chapter introduced the subject of environmental uid mechanics and focused on the impor-
tant transport process of diusion. Ficks law was derived to represent the mass ux (transport)
due to diusion, and Ficks law was used to derive the diusion equation, which is used to pre-
dict the time-evolution of a concentration eld in space due to diusive transport. A similarity
method was used through the aid of dimensional analysis to nd a one-dimensional solution
to the diusion equation for an instantaneous point source. As illustrated through an example,
diusive transport results when concentration gradients exist and plays an important role in
predicting the concentrations of contaminants as they move through the environment.
Exercises
1.1 Newspaper research. Find an example of a news article that deals with fate or transport
of chemicals in a situation that demonstrates concepts from Environmental Fluid Mechanics.
You my chose a newspaper or web article, and the event should have occurred in the last
20 years. Attach a copy of the article and write a short paragraph describing its relationship to
environmental uid mechanics.
1.2 Denitions. Write a short, qualitative denition of the following terms:
Concentration. Partial dierential equation.
Mass fraction. Standard deviation.
Density. Chemical fate.
Exercises 23
Diusion. Chemical transport.
Brownian motion. Transport equation.
Instantaneous point source. Ficks law.
Similarity method.
1.3 Concentrations in water. A student adds 1.00 mg of pure Rhodamine WT (a common
uorescent tracer used in eld experiments) to 1.000 l of water at 20

C. Assuming the solution

is dilute so that we can neglect the equation of state of the solution, compute the concentration
of the Rhodamine WT mixture in the units of mg/l, mg/kg, ppm, and ppb.
1.4 Concentrations in air. Air consists of 21% oxygen gas (O
2
). For air with a density of
1.4 kg/m
3
, compute the concentration of oxygen in the units of mg/l, mg/kg, mol/l, and ppm.
1.5 Ficks law. Assume a linear concentration prole between two xed points as depicted in
the following gure:
C
C
0 C(x)
C
1
L
x
0
and given by the equation
C = bx + C
0
(1.66)
where b = (C
1
C
0
)/L. Assuming the diusion coecient is D, nd:
The diusive ux per unit area for any point between x = [0, L].
The total mass ux over an area A between x = [0, L].
1.6 Mass uxes. A one-dimensional concentration prole near a xed-concentration sewage dis-
charge is
C(x) = C
0
_
1 erf
_
x

4Dt
__
(1.67)
where C
0
is the initial concentration near the source, erf is the error function, t is the time since
the start of release, x is the distance downstream, and D is the diusion coecient. Compute
the net mass ux vector q
x
at x = 10 m and t = 6 hours. Use D = 1 10
3
m
2
/s.
1.7 Diusive ux in a side channel. A small sh pond located near a river bank downstream
of a mine is connected to the main river through a small channel for water intake (refer to the
gure below). Assume the water levels between the river and the pond are the same so that the
velocity in the channel is zero. The arsenic level in the river is on average 1 ppm during the
24 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
summer, and 0 during the rest of the year. The initial level of arsenic is 0 ppm in the pond right
before summer. The connecting channel is 4 m long, 2 m wide and 2 m deep. Calculate how
much arsenic will diuse into the pond over the 3 months during the summer. If the pond is
approximately 100 m long, 50 m wide, and 2 m deep, what will the mean arsenic level be in the
pond after the 3-month summer period? If the allowable arsenic level in the pond is 0.1 ppb, do
you suggest the owner to build a gate at the connecting channel so the inow of arsenic can be
blocked?
River Pond
1.8 Instantaneous point source. Consider the pipe section depicted in Figure 1.7. A student in-
jects 5 ml of 20% Rhodamine-WT solution (specic gravity 1.15) instantaneously and uniformly
over the pipe cross-section (A = 0.8 cm
3
) at the point x = 0 and the time t = 0. The pipe is
lled with stagnant water. Assume the molecular diusion coecient is D
m
= 0.13 10
4
cm
2
/s.
What is the concentration at x = 0 at the time t = 0?
What is the standard deviation of the concentration distribution 1 s after injection?
Plot the maximum concentration in the pipe, C
max
(t), as a function of time over the interval
t = [0, 24 h].
How long does it take until the concentration over the region x = 1 m can be treated as
uniform? Dene a uniform concentration distribution as one where the minimum concentration
within a region is no less than 95% of the maximum concentration within that same region.
1.9 Advection versus diusion. Rivers can often be approximated as advection dominated
(downstream transport due to currents is much faster than diusive transport) or diusion domi-
nated (diusive transport is much faster than downstream transport due to currents). This prop-
erty is described by a non-dimensional parameter (called the Peclet number) Pe = f(u, D, x),
where u is the stream velocity, D is the diusion coecient, and x is the distance downstream
to the point of interest. Using dimensional analysis, nd the form of Pe such that Pe 1 is
advection dominated and Pe 1 is diusion dominated. For a stream with u = 0.3 m/s and
D = 0.05 m
2
/s, where are diusion and advection equally important?
1.10 Maximum concentrations. Referring to Figure 1.8, we note that the maximum concentra-
tion in space is always found at the center of the distribution (x = 0). For a point at x = r,
however, the maximum concentration over time occurs at one specic time t
max
and then de-
creases until an equilibrium level is reached.
Exercises 25
Using the one-dimensional point source solution, nd an equation for the time t
max
at which
the maximum concentration occurs for an arbitrary point x = r.
Write a program (MATLAB is preferred, but not required) that solves the one-dimensional
point source solution at x = r with r, D, M, and A as user inputs. Plot the concentration as
a function of time at the location r = 2 with the remaining three inputs set as 1.0. Plot an
adequate time period that the maximum concentration is clearly identiable. (Please mail me
your program).
Calculate t
max
for the case plotted in the previous step (r = 2, D = M = A = 1) and compare
your value to the gure from your Matlab program.
1.11 Diusion in a river. The Rhein river can be approximated as having a uniform depth
(h = 5 m), width (B = 300 m) and mean ow velocity (u = 0.7 m/s). Under these conditions,
100 kg of tracer is injected as a point source (the injection is evenly distributed transversely over
the cross-section). The cloud is expected to diuse laterally as a one-dimensional point source
in a moving coordinate system, moving at the mean stream velocity. The river has an enhanced
mixing coecient of D = 10 m
2
/s. How long does it take for the center of mass of the cloud to
reach a point x = 15000 m downstream? What is the maximum concentration that passes the
point x? How wide is the cloud (take the cloud width as 4) when it passes this point?
1.12 Measuring diusion coecients 1. A chemist is trying to calculate the diusion coecient
for a new chemical. In his experiments, he measured the concentration as a function of time
at a point 5 cm away from a virtual point source diusing in three dimensions. Select a set of
coordinates such that, when plotting the data in Table 1.3, D is the slope of a best-t line through
the data. Based on this coordinate transformation, what is more important to measure precisely,
concentration or time? What recommendation would you give to this scientist to improve the
accuracy of his estimate for the diusion coecient?
1.13 Measuring diusion coecients 2.
1
As part of a water quality study, you have been asked
to assess the diusion of a new uorescent dye. To accomplish this, you do a dye study in a
laboratory tank (depth h = 40 cm). You release the dye at a depth of 20 cm (spread evenly over
the area of the tank) and monitor its development over time. Vertical proles of dye concentration
in the tank are shown in Figure 1.11; the x-axis represents the reading on your uorometer and
the y-axis represents the depth.
Estimate the molecular diusion coecient of the dye, D
m
, based on the evolution of the dye
cloud.
Predict at what time the vertical distribution of the dye will be aected by the boundaries of
the tank.
1.14 Radiative heaters. A student heats his apartment (surface area A
r
= 32 m
2
and ceiling
height h = 3 m) with a radiative heater. The heater has a total surface area of A
h
= 0.8 m
2
;
the thickness of the heater wall separating the heater uid from the outside air is x = 3 mm
1
This problem is adapted from Nepf (1995).
26 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
Table 1.3. Measured concentration and time for a point source diusing in three-dimensions for problem num-
ber 112.
Time Concentration
(days) (g/cm
3
0.03)
0.5 0.02
1.0 0.50
1.5 2.08
2.0 3.66
2.5 4.81
3.0 5.50
3.5 5.80
4.0 5.91
4.5 5.81
5.0 5.70
5.5 5.54
6.0 5.28
6.5 5.05
7.0 4.87
7.5 4.65
8.0 4.40
8.5 4.24
9.0 4.00
9.5 3.84
10.0 3.66
(refer to Figure 1.12). The conduction of heat through the heater wall is given by the diusion
equation
T
t
=
2
T (1.68)
where T is the temperature in

C and = 1.1 10
2
kcal/(s

Cm) is the thermal conductivity of

the metal for the heater wall. The heat ux q through the heater wall is given by
q = T. (1.69)
Recall that 1 kcal = 4184 J and 1 Watt = 1 J/s.
The conduction of heat normal to the heater wall can be treated as one-dimensional. Write
(1.68) and (1.69) for the steady-state, one-dimensional case.
Solve (1.68) for the steady-state, one-dimensional temperature prole through the heater wall
with boundary conditions T(0) = T
h
and T(x) = T
r
(refer to Figure 1.12).
The water in the heater and the air in the room move past the heater wall such that T
h
= 85

C
and T
r
= 35

C. Compute the heat ux from (1.69) using the steady-state, one-dimensional

solution just obtained.
Exercises 27
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Concentration [g/cm
3
]
D
e
p
t
h


[
c
m
]
Profile after 14 days
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Profile after 35 days
Concentration [g/cm
3
]
D
e
p
t
h


[
c
m
]
Fig. 1.11. Concentration proles of uorescent dye for two dierent measurement times. Refer to problem
number 1.13.
How many 300 Watt lamps are required to equal the heat output of the heater assuming 100%
eciency?
Assume the specic heat capacity of the air is c
v
= 0.172 kcal/(kgK) and the density is

a
= 1.4 kg/m
3
. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of the apartment by
5

C?
Given the heat output of the heater and the heat needed to heat the room, how might you
explain that the student is able to keep the heater turned on all the time?
28 1. Concepts, Denitions, and the Diusion Equation
Heater
fluid
Room
air
T
h
T
a
x
Steel heater wall
Fig. 1.12. Denitions sketch for one-dimensional thermal conduction for the heater wall in problem number 1.14.