Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

ME 255: Strength of Materials I

Ing. Prof. Prince Yaw Andoh, PhD; MGhIE

Mobile: 050 797 0658
WhatsApp: 050 797 0658
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering
College of Engineering
 Course Introduction
ME 255 Strength of Materials is a second year course offered in first semester
for the degree programme in Mechanical Engineering

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 Course Objectives

The objectives of this course are to

1. Determine centroids and centre of gravity of single and composite bodies.
2. Calculate simple stresses and strains of simple determinant and indeterminate
structures within the elastic region.
3. Know and calculate thermal stresses and strains in simple determinant and
indeterminate structures.
4. Know and calculate torsional stresses and strains in circular solid and hollow
shafts.
5. Know the different types of loading and apply Mohr's stress and strain circles
in combining stresses.
6. Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for different beams with
different supports.
7. Know how to apply the theories of static failure to compute failure stresses
and strains
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Course Outline
1. Introduction

2. Tension in Bars

3. Torsion in Shaft

4. Bending in Beams

5. State of Stress and Strain

6. Failure Criteria

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 Assessment
A. Continuous Assessment (30% of Total)
1. Mid-Semester Exams (1/3 of Conti. Assess.)
2. Quizzes (1/3 of Conti. Assess.)
3. Homework/Assignment (1/3 of Conti. Assess.)
4. Contribution to Class Discussions (Bonus, max 10%, only included if sum of items 1 & 2 is less
than 30%)

B. End of Semester Exams (70% of Total)

– Multiple Choice
– True/False
– Numeric Response
– Fill-in Spaces

Note
• You will NOT be allowed to write the End of Semester Exams if you miss at least four lectures without
permission.
• All homework /assignments are due exactly two week after the assigned day. No excuse will be
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tolerated.
 Schedule
Assignments
There will be six (6) group assignments, 1 from each lecture.
The date of submission is 2 weeks after each lecture

Quizzes
There will be six (6) quizzes, 1 from each lecture.
Each quiz will take place the second Saturday @ 10 pm after the end of each lecture.
It will be online examination and open from 10 pm to 12 am. It is 1 attempt
It will cover the whole unit comprising of multiple choice, true/false and numeric response

Mid Semester
There will be one (1) mid-semester examination for the whole course.
The date of examination will be announced by the College Examination officerwww.knust.edu.gh
It will cover the area taught comprising of multiple choice, true/false and numeric response
THANK YOU

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 LECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION

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 Lecture Outline

Stress and Strain

Review of Moment of Area

Review of Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

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Classification of Stresses and Strains
❑ Stresses can be classified based on two conditions.
❑ These are:
1. The type of loading in the machine member or the structure.
Therefore, the following types of stresses can be identified with
the corresponding type of loading;

a. Axial stress due to axial loading,

b. Bending stress due to bending in beams,
c. Shearing stress due to torsion in shafts,
d. Shearing stress due to transverse or shear load
e. Hood/Transverse stress in pressure vessels
f. Axial stress in pressure vessels
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Classification of Stresses and Strains

2. How the force-couple acts on the surface of the machine or structure.

Thus, we have:

a. Normal stress acting perpendicular to the surface area

b. Shearing stress acting tangential to the surface area

c. Bearing stress acting on connecting members (bolts. rivets, pins)

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Classification of Stresses and Strains
Types of Stresses

Normal Stress Shearing Stress

Axial stress due axial load
Shear stress due transverse load
Bending stress due moment
Shear stress due torsion

Axial stress in pressure vessel

Transverse stress in pressure vessel

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Classification of Stresses and Strains
Similarly, strains can be classified and presented in the figure
below.

Types of Strains

Normal Strain Shear Strain

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Review of Moment of Area
First Moment and Centroid of an Area

First Moment and Centroid of a Composite Area

Second Moment of Area and Radius of Gyration

Parallel-Axis Theorem

Moment of Inertia of a Composite Area

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First Moment and Centroid of an Area
Consider an area A located in the The first moment of area A
xy plane as shown in Figure 1-1. about y axis as the integral

Q y =  xdA
A

However,

 ydA = Ay
A
The first moment of area A about
x-axis as the integral

Qx =  ydA
A

A
xdA = A x
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First Moment and Centroid of an Area
Comparing equations 1-1 and 1-2 with equations 1-3 and 1-4,

Qx = A y

Q y = Ax

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First Moment and Centroid of an Area
❑ When an area possesses an
axis of symmetry,
➢ the first moment of area
with respect to that axis is
zero.

➢ It follows that the integral in

equation 2-2 is zero, that is
Qy = 0 Thus, if an area A
possesses an axis of
symmetry, its centroid C
is located on that axis.
➢ It also follows from the
equation 1-3 that

x=0 www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 1-1
Determine the first moments Solution
of area of a rectangular area We know that A = bh
as shown in Figure E1-1
x= 1
2 b
y= 1
2 h
Thus,

Qx = A y = (bh)( h) = bh
1
2
1
2
2

Similarly,

Qx = Ax = (bh)( b) = b h
1
2
1 2
2
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 Example 1-2
For the triangular area of
Figure E1-2, determine
a. the first moment Qx of
the area
b. the ordinate of the
centroid of the area.

(a) From similar triangles, we have

u h− y h− y
= u=b
b h h
h− y
and dA = udy = b dy
h
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 Example 1-2 Continues
The first moment of the with respect to the x-axis is
h− y
Qx =  ydA = 
h

0
yb
h
b h
(
dy =  hy − y 2 dy
h 0
)
A
h
b y y  bh 2 3 2
 Q x = h −  =
h 2 3 0 6
The area of a triangle is

A = 12 bh

Qx = ( bh ) y = bh  y = 3 h
From equation 2-5, 1 1 2 1
Qx = A y 2
6 www.knust.edu.gh
 First Moment and Centroid of a
Composite Area
Consider an A, such that the trapezoidal area shown in Figure 1-2
which may be divided into simple geometric shapes.
Qx =  Ai y i Q y =  Ai x i

Qx = AY Qy = A X

AY =  Ai y i AX =  Ai xi
i i

Q x =  ydA =  ydA +  ydA +  ydA

A A1 A2 A3 A x i i A y i i
X = i
Y= i

Qx = A1 y1 + A2 y 2 + A3 y 3 A i
i A i
i

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 Example 1-3
Determine the first moments through the centroidal axes and hence
locate the centroid C of the area A as shown in Figure E1-3.

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 Example 1-3 Continue
Solution
Selecting the coordinate axes shown below, we note that the centroid C
must be located on the y-axis, since this axis is an axis of symmetry,
thus,
A, mm2 mm mm3

A1 1600 70 112000

A2 2400 30 72000

Summation 4000 184000

A y i i
184000 mm 3
Y= i
= = 46 mm
A i
i 4000 mm 2 www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 1-4
Determine the first Solution
moment of A' with 1. Referring to the area A as in example 2-3, we
consider the horizontal x' axis through its centroid C.
respect to the x' axis as 2. Such an axis is called a centroidal axis.
shown in Figure E1-4. 3. Denoting by A' the portion of A located above that
axis as shown in Figure (a),

(a) (b)www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 1-4 Continues

Qx = A1 y1 + A3 y3

Qx = ( 20 X 80 )( 24 ) + (14 X 40 )( 7 )
= 42300mm 3

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 Second Moment of Area and Radius of Gyration
❑ The second moment, or
moment of inertia, of the
area A with respect to the x- ❑ The polar moment of
axis is defined inertia of the area A with
respect to point O as
I x =  y dA
2
A
J 0 =   2 dA
A

❑ The second moment or

moment of inertia, of A with
respect to the y axis is
defined as:
I y =  y dA2
A
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Second Moment of Area and Radius of Gyration
❑ Noting that ❑ The radius of gyration of an area A with
respect to the x axis is defined as the
 =x +y
2 2 2 quantity rx that satisfies the relation

Ix
❑ we write
I x = r A  rx =
x
2

A
 ( x 2 + y 2 )dA 
 A 
❑ Similarly
Iy
J 0 =   dA = 
2
 I y = r A  ry =
2

  x dA +  y dA
y
A
2 2 A
❑ Also,
A A 
I0
I 0 = r A  r0 =
0
2

A
❑ ❑ Then,

 J0 = Ix + I y r =r +r
0
2
x
2 2
y

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 Example 1-5
For the rectangular area of Figure E1- Solution
5, determine a. Moment of inertia Ix
a. the moment of inertia Ix of the area We select as an element of area
with respect to the centroidal x axis, a horizontal strip of length b
b.the corresponding radius of gyration and thickness dy as shown
rx. below.

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 Example 1-5 Continues
Then, dI x = y dA = y (bdy )by dy
2 2 2

Integrating +h + h
Ix =  by22
dy = 1
3 b  y
  
3 2
−h −h
2 2

 h 3
h 3
 1 3
 I x = 3 b  +  = 12 bh
1

8 8
b. Radius of Gyration rx.
From equation 2-17, we have

rx =
Ix
=
( 1
12 bh 3
)
= h 12
A (bh) www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 1-6
For the circular area Solution
of Figure E2-6,
determine (a) the a. Polar Moment of Inertia
polar moment of We select as an element of area and ring
inertia Jo; (b) the of radius p and thickness dρ as shown in
rectangular moment the Figure.
of inertia Ix and Iy.

The polar moment of inertia of the ring is

dJ 0 =  2 dA =  2 ( 2 d  ) = 2 3d 
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 Example 1-6 Continues
Integrating in p from 0 to c,
we write c
c   4
J 0 = 2   d = 2   = 2 c
3 1 4
0
 4 0
b. Rectangular Moments of Inertia
Because of the symmetry of the circular area, we have Ix = Iy. Recalling
equation 2-15, we write

J = I + I = 2I
0 x y x  2I = c
x
1
2
2

I x = I y = c 1
4
4

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 Parallel-Axis Theorem
❑ Consider the moment of
inertia Ix of an area A with
respect to an arbitrary x-
axis as shown in Figure 1-
11

❑ Denoting by y the distance

from an element of area dA
to that axis we recall that
I x =  y 2 dA
A

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 Parallel-Axis Theorem
❑ Denoting by y' the distance from the element dA to that axis

❑ we write
I x =  y dA =  ( y  + d ) dA
2
2

A A

I x =  y  2 dA + 2d  ydA + d 2  dA
A A A

❑ We have, therefore

I x = I CG + Ad 2

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 Example 1-7
Determine the moment of
Solution
inertia Ix of the area shown
Location of centroid
with respect to the centroidal
1. The centroid C of the area must
x-axis as shown in Figure E1-
first be located.
7.
2. However, this has already been
done in example 1-3 for the given
area.

3. We recall from that example hat c

is located 46 mm above the lower
edge of the area A.

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 Example 1.7 Continues
Computation of Moments of Rectangular area A1
Inertia To the obtained the moment of
We divide the area a into the two inertia (Ix)1 of A1 with respect to
rectangular areas A1 and A2 in the x axis , we first compute the
the figure below, and compute moments of inertia of A1 using
the moments of inertia of the the parallel axis theorem (Eq. ),
area with respect to the x-axis. we have
( x )1 12
I = 1
bh 3
+ A d
1 1
2

=  1 ( 80 )( 20 )3  
  12  
 
+ ( 80 )( 20 )( 24 )  
2

  
= 975000mm 4 www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 1.7 Continues
Rectangular Area A2 Entire Area A
Computing the moments of Adding the values computed for
inertia of A2 with respect to its the moments of inertia of A1 and
centroidal axis, and using the A2 with respect to the x axis, we
parallel axis theorem to obtain the moment of inertia Ix of
transfer it to the x-axis we the entire area:
( x )2
have I = bh + A d
1
12
3
2
2
2 I x = ( I x )1 + ( I x )2
  ( 40 )( 60 ) 
1 3
 I x = 975000 + 1334000mm 4

 12  
=   I x = 2.31 X 10 mm6 4

+ ( 40 )( 60 )(16 )  
2

  
= 1334000mm 4

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 Example 1-8
Determine the centroid and the moment of inertia
of the composite area in Figure E 1-8.

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 Example 1.8 Continues
Section Area [cm2] 𝑌ത [cm] ത [cm3]
𝑌A

A 5 x 30 = 150 2.5 375

B 5 x 20 = 100 7.5 750

C 5 x 10 = 50 12.5 625

Sum 300 1750

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 Example 1-8 Continues
𝑌ത A 1750
𝑌ത 𝐴= 𝑌ത A 𝑌ത = A
= 300
= 5.833333 5.83 cm

3 2 𝑏ℎ 3
Ix’ = 𝑖=1(𝐼 + 𝐴𝑑 ) = ( + 𝐴𝑑2 )
12

30×53 2 20×53
= +30 5× (5.83 − 2.5) + +20 5× (7.5 − 5.83)2 +
12 12

10×53
+ 12
+10 5× (12.5 − 5.83)2

= (1975.8350 + 487.2233 + 2328.6117) cm4

= 4791.67 cm4
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Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

Free-body Diagram

Reactions at Supports and Connections for 2D Bodies

Equilibrium Conditions Two-force body

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 Free-Body Diagram
Steps for Drawing a Free-body Diagram
A 1. Decide which body (or group of bodies) is under
consideration , imagine it to be isolated from all
other bodies, and sketch the outlined shape of the
B body.
2.Indicate by means of arrows all external forces and
moments acting on the body. This should include
(a) the weight of the body, (b) all external forces
(c) reactions at supports and other contacts with
other bodies.
3. For each unknown force, indicate its point of application and
assumed a direction, if it is unknown.
4. Include the dimensions and angles needed for computing
moments of forces and resolving forces.
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 Free-Body Diagram

5. The weight of a body always acts vertically W

downward through the centre of gravity of A
A
the body.
R
A
6. Forces acting at joints should considered as R
internal forces and should not be shown if A
the joint is not separated. Once the joint is
separated, the forces acting at the joints must B W
consider as external forces and indicated on B
the free-body diagram
R
C

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 Free-Body Diagram

Space Diagram
Free-Body Diagram
A sketch showing the
A sketch showing only the
physical conditions of the
forces on the selected
problem.
particle.
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Reactions at Supports and Connections for a 2D Structure

Reactions
equivalent to a force
with known line of
action.

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Reactions at Supports and Connections for a 2D Structure

Reactions equivalent
to a force of unknown
direction and
magnitude.

Reactions equivalent to a
force of unknown direction
and magnitude and a
couple of unknown
magnitude
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Equilibrium Conditions for a Particle
A particle is in equilibrium if
1. it is at rest relative to an initial reference frame
2. the body moves with constant velocity along a
straight line relative to an initial frame

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Equilibrium of a Two-Force Body
Consider a plate subjected to two forces F1
and F2
For static equilibrium, the sum of moments
about A must be zero. The moment of F2
must be zero.
It follows that the line of action of F2 must
pass through A.
Similarly, the line of action of F1 must pass
through B for the sum of moments about B
to be zero.
Requiring that the sum of forces in any
direction be zero leads to the conclusion
that F1 and F2 must have equal magnitude
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but opposite sense

 Example 1-9
A fixed crane has a mass of 1000 kg and is used to lift a 2400 kg
crate. It is held in place by a pin at A and a rocker at B. The center
of gravity of the crane is located at G. Determine the components of
the reactions at A and B.

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 Example 1-10
The frame supports part of the roof
of a small building. The tension in
the cable is 150 kN. Determine the
reaction at the fixed end E.

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THANK YOU

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 LECTURE 2
TENSION IN
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

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 Lecture Outline

Stress and Strain within the Elastic Limits

Thermal Deformation

Variable Load

Tensile Test

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Stress and Strain within the Elastic Limits
❑ By considering engineering structures as deformable
and analyzing the deformations in their various
members, it will be possible for as to

i. compute forces which are statically indeterminate,

indeterminate within the framework of statics.

ii. determine the actual distribution of stresses within

a member it is thus, necessary to analyze the
deformation which take place in that member.

❑ We will consider the deformations of a structural

member such as a rod, bar, or plate under axial loading
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 Stress and Strain within the Elastic Limits
❑ If a force P is applied ❑ The force per unit area is called the stress
to a member as and is given the symbol σ.
shown in Figure 2-1
(a), ❑ Thus,
 =PA
❑ The ultimate stress is therefore
Pult
 ult =
A
❑ When the specimen is subjected to load,
P very beyond the ultimate, necking of
the material occurs and then rapture.

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Stress and Strain within the Elastic Limits

❑ Assuming the area of the neck

is An, the yielding stress is
given as

Py
y =
An

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 Example 2-1
A tensile is carried out on a bar of mild steel of diameter 2 cm. The bar
yield under a load of 80 kN. It reaches a maximum load of 150 kN,
and breaks finally at a load of 70 kN. Find the following:
a. the tensile stress at the yield point
b. the ultimate tensile stress
c. the average stress at the breaking point if the diameter of the
fractured neck is 1 cm.

Solution
The initial cross-section of the bar is

 
Ai = d =
i
2
(0.02) 2
= 0.000314 m 2
4 4 www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 2-1 Continues
a. the average tensile stress at yielding point
Py
80000
y = = = 254 MPa
Ai 0.000314
b.the ultimate stress is the stress at the maximum load,
p max 150000
u = = = 477 MPa
Ai 0.000314
c. the cross-sectional area in the fractured neck is
 2 
Af = df =
2
(0.01) = 0.0000785m 2
4 4
The average stress at the breaking point is
Pf 70000
f = = = 892MPawww.knust.edu.gh
A f 0.0000785
Deformation under Tension & Compression
❑ A quantity measuring the intensity
of deformation and bring
independent of the original length
L is the strain ε, defined as:

 = L L =  L
❑ where ΔL is denoted as δ.

❑ The relationship between stress

and strain is determined
experimentally.

❑ A typical plot of stress versus

strain is shown in Figure 2-2. www.knust.edu.gh
 Modulus of Elasticity
❑ The region of greatest concern is that below the yield point.

❑ The slope of the line between O and A is called the modulus of

elasticity and is given the symbol E, so  = E
❑ The relation of the applied force in a member to its axial
deformation can be found by inserting the definitions of the
stress [Eq. (2-1)] and the axial strain [Eq. (2-4)] into Hooke’s
Law [Eq.(2-5)],which gives P 
=E PL
A L
=
AE

In the examples that follow, wherever it is appropriate, the three steps

of Equilibrium, Force-Deformation, and Compatibility will be
explicitly stated. www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 2-2
The steel rod shown in Figure E2-2 is fixed to a wall at its left end. It
has two applied forces. The 3 kN force is applied at the point B and
the 1 kN force is applied at the point C. The area of the rod between A
and B is 1000 mm2, and the area of the rod between B and C is 500
mm2. Take E= 210 GPa. Find:
a. the stress in each section of the rod and
b.the horizontal displacement at the points B and C

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 Example 2-2 Continues
Solution
I: Equilibrium
Draw free-body diagrams for each section of the rod.

From a summation of forces on the member BC, FBC=1 kN.

Summing forces on the centre free-body diagram, FBA = 3+1=4 kN

Summing forces on the left free-body diagram gives FAB = FBA = 4 kN.

The stresses then are:

 AB = 4 kN 1000 mm 2
= 4MPa
 BC = 1kN 500mm = 2MPa
2

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 Example 2-2 Continues
II: Force-Deformation III: Compatibility
 (4kN )(200mm ) 
Draw the body before loading and after
 PL 
 AB =   =
( ) 
 AE  AB  1000mm (210GPa )
2 loading

 AB = 3.81x10−3 mm
 PL   (1kN )(200mm) 
 BC =   =
( ) 
 AE  AB  500mm (210GPa)
2

 BC = 1.91x10−3 mm It is then obvious that

 B =  AB = 3.81X 10 −3 mm
 C =  AB +  BC = 3.81 + 1.91 x10−3 = 5.71x10−3 mm
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 Example 2-3
Consider the same steel rod as in example 2-2 except that now the
right end is fixed to a wall as well as the left (Figure E2-3). It is
assumed that the rod is built into the walls before the load is applied.
Find:
a. the stress in each section of the rod, and
b.the horizontal displacement at point B.
Solution
I: Equilibrium
Draw free-body diagrams for
each section of the rod.

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 Example 2-3 Continues
Summing forces in the III: Compatibility
horizontal direction on the centre
free-body diagram
− FAB + FBC + 3 = 0 a

II: Force-Deformation  C =  AB +  BC

 AB = 
 PL 
 =
FAB L AB b But, C = 0
 AE  AB AAB E

 PL  FAB L AB F BC LBC
 BC =
F L
 = BC BC   AB = − BC  =
 AE  BC ABC E c AAB E ABC E

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 Example 2-3 Continues
Since LAB = LBC and AAB = 2ABC,
then
FAB = −2 FBC
Inserting this relation into the equilibrium equation (Eq. a),
 − FAB + FBC + 3 = 2 FBC + FBC + 3 = 0

 FBC = −1kN and FAB = 2kN

The stresses are  AB = 2kN 1000 mm 2 = 2MPa

 BC = − 1kN 500 mm = −2MPa 2

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 Example 2-3 Continues
The displacement at B is given by

 PL    FAB L AB 
 B =  AB =   = 
 AE  AB   AAB E 

 ( 2 )( 200 ) 
B =  −3
 mm = 19.5 x10 mm
 (1000 )( 210 ) 

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 Poisson’s Ratio
❑ The ratio of the magnitude of the lateral strain to the
magnitude of the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s
Ratio, v
Lateral strain
=−
Longitudinal strain

❑ Poisson’s Ratio is a dimensionless material property

that never exceeds 0.5.

❑ Typical values for steel, aluminum, and copper are

0.30, 0.33 and 0.34, respectively.
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 Example 2-4
A circular aluminum rod 10 mm in diameter is loaded with an axial
force of 2 kN. What is the decrease in diameter of the rod? Take E =
70 GPa and ν = 0.33.

Solution
 = P A = (2) = 25.5MPa
The stress is ( 5 )
2

The longitudinal strain is

 lon =  E = 25.5 70000 = 0.000364
The lateral strain is
 lat = − lon = −(0.33)(0.000364 ) = −0.00012
The decrease in diameter is then
d = −d  lat = − (10 )( −0.00012 ) = 0.0012 mm
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 Thermal Deformations
❑ When a material is heated, expansion forces are created.

❑ If it is free to expand, the thermal strain is

 t =  (t − t 0 )
❑ For problems where the load is purely axial, this becomes

T = +  (t − t 0 )
A
❑ The deformation δ is found by multiplying the strain by the
length, L

+ L(t − t 0 )
PL
 =
AE www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 2-5
The steel bolt is put through the I: Equilibrium
aluminum tube as shown in Draw free-body diagrams for
Figure E2-5. The nut is made each section of the rod.
just tight. The entire assembly is
then raised in temperature by
600C. Because aluminum
expands more than steel, the
bolt will be put in tension and
the tube in compression. Find
the force in the bolt and the
tube. For the steel bolt, take E =
210 GPa, α = 12 From equilibrium of the head of
the bolt, it can be seen that PB =
PT.
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 Example 2-5 Continues
III: Compatibility
II: Force-Deformation
The tube and the bolt must both
 PL  expand the same amount, therefore,
 B =   +  B L(t − t 0 )
 AB E B   P(100) 
+
 B =  T =  (32)(210 E + 9) 
 PL   
 T = −  +  T L(t − t 0 ) (12 E − 06)(100)(60)
 AT ET 
 P(100) 
 + 
The minus sign in the second  B = (64)(69 E + 9)
 
(23E − 06)(100)(100)
expression occurs because the
tube is in compression
Solving for P gives P = 1.759 kN
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 Variable Load
❑ For variable load, Eq. (2-6) holds only over an
infinitesimally small length L= dx and Eq. (2-6)
then becomes

P( x)
d = dx
AE

❑ or equivalently

L P( x)
 = dx
0 AE
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 Example 2-6
An aluminum rod is hanging Solution
from one end. The rod is 1m I: Equilibrium
long and has a square cross- Draw a free-body diagram.
section 20 mm by 20 mm. Find
the total extension of the rod The weight of the section shown in
resulting from its own weight. W = V = Ax = P
Figure E2-6 is
Take E = 70 GPa and the unit
weight γ =27 KN\m. which clearly yields P as a function of
x, and Eq.(2-11) gives

L Ax  L L2
 =
E
dx = xdx =
0 AE 0 2E

 =
(27 E + 3)(1)
2
= 0.1929 m
(2)(70 E + 9) www.knust.edu.gh
 Tensile Test
The tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or
slowly changing force.

The test set-up is as shown in Fig. 2-3.

The stress  =FA

0

The strain, l − l0
= l0

where
L0 Original distance between the gauge marks before the test
l Distance between the gauge marks after the force F is www.knust.edu.gh
applied
A0 Original cross-sectional area before the test
 Example 2-7
An aluminium rod is to withstand an applied tensile force of 300 kN. The
maximum allowable stress on the rod is fixed at 170 x 103 kNm-2, to
ensure sufficient factor of safety. If the rod should be at least 4 m long,
but must not deform more than 8 mm when the force is applied, design a
rod for this purpose.

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 Example 2-7 Continues
Solution
Under normal circumstances, the expected cross-sectional area:
A0 = F =
( 300 ) = 1.7647 x10−3 m 2 = 1764.7 mm 2
 (170 x10 )
3

The rod should have a cross-sectional area of 1765 mm2.

For a cylindrical rod,

A0
d= = 1764.7 = 47.4 mm
 
From Fig. E3-7, the strain expected for the stress 170 x 103 kNm-2 is
0.0025.
For the cross-sectional area above, the length of the rod is:

 = l = l  l =  = 0.0025 = 3200 mm = 3.2 m ( 4 m)
l 8 8 8 www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 2-7 Continues
The minimum length of the rod is given as 4 m.

To keep this, the cross-sectional area should be larger

 = l l = 8 4000 = 0.002
From Fig. E3-7, the corresponding stress for the strain of 0.002 is 140 x
103 kNm-2 which is less than the given maximum of 170 x 103 kNm-2.
The minimum cross-sectional area then, is

A0 = F =
( 300 )
= 2.143x10−3 m2 = 2143 mm2
 (140x10 )
3

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 Example 2-7 Continues
To satisfy, the conditions, maximum stress of 170 x 103 kNm-2
and maximum elongation of 8 mm: A0 = 2143 mm2.

Therefore the Diameter, d is

A0
d= = 2143 = 52.24 mm
 

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THANK YOU

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 LECTURE 3
TORSION IN SHAFT

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 Lecture Outline

Circular Shafts

Hollow, Thin- Walled Shafts

Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure vessel

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 Introduction
❑ Torsion refers to the twisting of long members.

❑ Torsion can occur with members of any cross-

sectional shape, but the most common is the
circular shaft.

❑ Another fairly common shaft configuration,

which has a simple solution, is the hollow, thin-
walled shaft.

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 Circular Shafts
Figure 3-1 shows a circular ❑ The shear strain for this
shaft before loading; r-θ-z special case can be expressed
cylindrical coordinates system as

is also shown.  z = r
z
❑ For the general case where Φ
is not a linear function of z
the shear strain can be
Figure 3-2 shows the shaft after expressed as
loading with a torque, T. d
 z =r
dz

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 Circular Shafts
❑ The application of Hooke’s ❑ For a solid shaft with an outer
law gives radius of r the polar moment
d
 z = G z = Gr of inertia is
dz
J= 1
2 r 4

❑ The torque at the distance z ❑ For a hallow circular shaft with

along the shaft is found by outer radius r and inner radius
summing the contributions the polar moment of inertia is
of the shear stress at each

 (r − ri )
point in the cross-section by
means of integration.
J= 1
2 o
4 4

d 2 d
T =   z rdA = G  r dA = GJ
A
dz A dz
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 Circular Shafts
❑ Equation (3-3) can be combined with equation (3-4) to give
Tr
 z =
❑ The maximum shear stress is J
Tmaxro
 z max =
J
❑ The angle Φ, of twist is
L T
= dz
0 GJ
❑ Thus TL
=
GJ
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 Example 3-1
The hallow circular steel shaft Solution
shown in Figure E3-1 has an I: Data Given
inner diameter of 25 mm, an di = 25 mm; do = 50 mm; L = 600
outer diameter of 50 mm, and a mm;
length of 600 mm. It is fixed at T = 1400 N-m
the left end and subjected to a
torque of 1400 N-m as shown II: Solve
in Figure E3-1. Find the

maximum shear stress in the J=
2
(r o
4
)
− ri 4 = 575 E − 03m 4
shaft and the angle of twist at
the right end. Take G= 84 GPa. Tro
 z = = 60.8MPa
J
TL
= = 0.0174rad
GJ
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 Hollow, Thin- Walled Shafts
❑ Figure 3-2 shows the ❑ The total torque is therefore,
cross-section of the thin
walled tube of non- T =   sz trds =  sz t  rds
constant thickness.

❑ The area dA is the area of

the triangle of base ds and
height r:

❑ The torque produced by q

dA = 1 2 ( base )( height )
= 1 2 rds
over the element ds is
dT = qrds =  sz trds
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 Hollow, Thin- Walled Shafts
❑ So that
 rds = 2 Am
❑ where Am is the area enclosed
by the wall (including the
❑ Hence the definition of
hole).
the shear can be
expressed as
❑ The expressions for the torque
T
is
 sz =
T = ( sz t )(2 Am) = 2 Amt sz 2 Amt

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 Example 3-2
A torque of 10 kN-m is applied Solution
to the thin-walled rectangular I: Data Given
steel shaft whose cross-section T = 10 kN-m
is shown in Figure E3-2. The
shaft has wall thickness of 5 II: Solve
mm and 10 mm. Find the Am = (200-5)(300-10) = 56,550
maximum shear stress in the mm2
shaft.
The maximum shear stress will
occur in the thinnest section, so t =
5 mm.
T 10000
 sz = = = 17.68MPa
2 Amt (0.05655)(0.005)

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Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel
❑ Consider the thin-walled ❑ Summing forces in the
circular cylinder subjected to vertical direction gives
a uniform internal pressure, 2qra − 2 t ta = 0
as shown in Figure 3-3.
❑ This implies qr
t =
t
❑ Similarly, qr
a =
2t
❑ where
❑ r is the radius
❑ t is the thickness
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 Example 3-3
Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with a wall thickness of 25
mm, an internal pressure of 1.4 MPa, and an outer diameter of 1.2 m.
Find the axial and tangential stresses.

Solution
I: Data Given
q = 1.4 MPa; r = 1/2d = 575 mm; t = 25 mm

II: Solve qr (1.4 MPa)(575mm )

t = = = 32.2 MPa
t 25mm
qr (1.4MPa)(575mm)
a = = = 16.1MPa
2t (2)(25mm)
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 Torsional Testing
Torsional testing is to determine Shear Modulus of Elasticity (G) of
some Steel, Aluminum and Brass circular shafts and develop a
relationship among the Torque (T0 and Clamping length (L) and the
angle of twist (θ ). The test set-up is as shown in Fig. 4-4.
.

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 Torsional Testing
The stress
Tr
 z =
J
The angle Φ, of twist is
TL
=
GJ


The strain,
 z = r
z
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 Example 3-4
A bar of metal 25 mm in diameter is tested on a length of 250 mm. A
torsion test gave the following results (Table E3-4).

Represent these results in graphical form and hence determine the

modulus of rigidity, G, for the metal.
Torque Angle of Twist
Solution kNm Degrees Radians
TL
From = 0.051 0.240 0.004189
0.152 0.710 0.012393
GJ 0.253 1.175 0.02051
Then GJ
T=  0.354 1.642 0.028662
L www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 3-4 Continues
0.4
0.35
Plotting of T against ϕ,
0.3 The slope is GJ
Torque (kNm)

0.25
L
0.2
0.15
0.1
Hence,
slope x L
G=
0.05
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03
Angle of Twist (Radians)
0.04
J
J = d = ( 25 )
But,  4  4
32 32

 J = 38349.52 mm 4

From the plot, the slope is 12.335x106 N/mm2

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 Example 3-4 Continues
This implies

12.335 x 106 (250)

G= = 80411 N mm 2

38349.52
Hence, the modulus of rigidity, G is 80411 N/mm2

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THANK YOU

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 LECTURE 4
BENDING IN BEAMS

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 Lecture Outline
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams

Relation between the Shear force and the

Bending Moment

Stresses in Beams

Bend Test
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 SHEAR AND BENDING IN BEAMS
❑ Shear and moment diagrams are plots of the shear forces and
bending moments respectively along the length of a beam.

❑ The most common sign conversion for the shear force and
bending moment in beams is shown in Figure 4-1

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Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagram
One method of determining the shear force and bending moment
diagrams is by the following steps:

1. The free body is first drawn and determine the reactions from
equilibrium of the entire beam.

2. The bending moment along the beam is then calculated with

emphasis on the extreme and critical points.

3. Cut the beam at an arbitrary point.

4. Show the unknown shear force and bending moment on the cut
using the positive sign convention shown in Figure 4-1.
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 Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagram
5. Sum forces in the vertical direction to determine the unknown shear.

6. Sum moments about the cut to determine the unknown moment.

7. The calculated forces and moments are used in the drawing of the
diagrams.

8. Figure 4-2 (a) shows a beam supported at the ends A and B.

9. Figure 4-2 (b) shows the relevant free body diagram with calculated
reactions.

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Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagram
10. Figure 4-2 (c) and (d) shows respectively the shearing force and
bending moment diagrams

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 Example 4-1
For the beam shown in
Figure E4-1, plot the shear
and bending moment
diagram.

Solution
First solve for the unknown
reactions using the free-
body diagram of the beam
shown below
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 Example 4-1 Continues
To find the reactions:

Cut the beam between the x = 0 and x = 2 m and the load as shown
below.

Repeat the procedure by making a cut between x = 2 and the right end
of the beam as shown in below

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Example 4-1 Continues

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 Example 4-2
For the beam in Figure E 4-1, draw:
a) a free body diagram of the beam
b) the shearing force diagram of the beam
c) the bending moment diagram of the beam.

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Example 4-2 Continues

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 Example 4-3
Draw the shear and moment Summation of the moments about the right end
diagram shown in Figure E5-3.
10R1 = (4)(7) + (3)(2) = 34  R1 = 3.4kN
Summation of forces in the vertical direction

R2 = 7 − R1 = 7 − 3.4 = 3.6kN

Solution
Draw the free-body diagram of
the beam.

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Relation between the Shear force and the Bending Moment
❑ Let us consider a simple ❑ Summation of forces in the
supported beam AB carrying y direction gives
a distributed load w per unit
length as shown in Figure 4-  dV 
 V − V + x  + qx = 0
3.  dx 
❑ Dividing through by Δx gives
dV
= qdx
dx
❑ Integrating Eq. (2-34) gives
x2

V2 − V1 =  qdx
x1
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Relation between the Shear force and the Bending Moment

❑ Summation of moments Step 1: Express w in terms of the

and neglecting higher order length x;
terms gives Thus

 M +
dM
x

 − M − Vx = 0 q ( x) = f ( x)
 dx 
Step 2: Obtain V(x) by integrating
❑ Dividing through by Δx gives q(x) within the interval.

= V ( x ) Step 3: Find M(x) by determining

dM
dx the area under the shear
❑ Integrating gives x2 force diagram or integrating
M 2 − M1 =  Vdx
x1
V(x) within the interval.

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 Example 4-4
The simply supported uniform
beam shown in Figure E4-4
carries a uniform load of w0.
Plot the shear and moment
diagram for this beam. Summing vertical forces then
gives.
w0 L
R = R1 = R2 =
2
The load q = -w0 integrating
Solution gives
As before, the reactions can be x
found first from the free-body
V = V0 −  w0 dx = V0 − w0 x
diagram of the beam.
0
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 Example 4-4 Continues
But
w0 L
V0 = R =
2
Therefore
w0 L
V= − w0 x
2
Integrating the above
and setting the moment
at x =0 to be zero
w0 x
M == ( L − x)
2 www.knust.edu.gh
 Stresses in Beams
❑ The basic assumptions in elementary beam theory is that the
cross-section remains plane and perpendicular to the neutral axis
as shown in Figure 5-4 when the beam is loaded.

❑ This assumption is strictly true only for the case of pure bending
but gives good results even when shear is taking place.

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 Stresses in Beams
❑ The distance y is measured from the neutral axis.

❑ The strain in the x-direction is

L L
❑ The change in length
L = yd
❑ The Strain is d y
 x = −y = − = −ky
ds 
❑ The stress is
 x= − Eky
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 Bending Stress
The axial force and the bending moment can be found by summing
the effects of the normal stress σy:

P =   x dA = − Ek  ydA
A A

M = − y x dA = − Ek  y dA = EIk 2
A A
The bending stress can be expressed as:

MC M
x =  =
I S www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 4-5
A 100 mm x 150 mm wooden Solution
cantilever beam is 2 m long It
is loaded at its tip with a 4 kN
3
load Find the maximum bh
bending stress in the beam I= = 0.0281m 4

shown in Figure EA13 .The 12

maximum bending moment
occurs at the wall and is Mmax
= 8 kN- m. M C
 x ,max = max
= 21.3MPa
I

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 Shear stress
❑ To find the shear stress,
❑ The bending stresses acting on
consider the element of length
shown in Figure 5-5. that element are shown in
Figure 5-6

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 Shear stress
❑ Summation of forces in x-direction for the free-body diagram shown
Figure 5-6

  d   d
− F = qx =    dA −    + x  dA qx = −  xdA
 A1 A1
 dx   A1 dx

❑ Substituting bending stress

V VQ
equation into the
equation gives
above q=
I A1 ydA = I
❑ If the shear stress τ is assumed
VQ
 =
to be uniform over the
thickness b, then τ = q/b and
the expression for shear stress
is
Ib
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 Example 4-6
The cross-section of the beam The centroids of each of the
shown in Figure E4-6 has an two sections are also shown in
applied shear of 10 kN. Find: Figure below
a. the shear stress at a point 20
mm below the top of the beam
b.the maximum shear stress
from the shear force

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 Example 4-6 Continues
The centroid of the entire cross-section is found as follows:
N

y n An
( 60 )( 20 )( 30 + 20 ) + ( 80 )( 20 )(10 )
y= n =1
= = 27.14 mm
N
( 60 )( 20 ) + (80 )( 20 )
A
n =1
n

The centroid is shown in Figure (b)

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 Example 4-6 Continues
The second moment of area is
 ( )( ) 
3
 20 60 2
 + 60 ( 20 ) 50 − 27.14 
N 
 12 

I =  I CG + An d n2 = = 1,510000 mm4
 ( 80 )( 20 )
 
3
n =1 2
+ + 20 ( 80 ) 10 − 27.14 

 12 

For the point 20 mm below the top of the beam, the area A

The value of Q is then

Q = Ay = (20)(70 − 27.14) = 17,140mm 3

The Shear stress is

=
VQ
=
(10 ) (17140 )
5.68MPa
4

Ib (1.51x10 ) ( 20 )
6
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 Example 4-6 Continues
The maximum Q will be at the centroid of the cross-section.

The maximum moment of area Qmax is

 (80 − 27.14 ) 
Q = Ay = ( 20 )(80 − 27.14 )   = 27942 mm3

 2 

The Shear stress is

=
VQ
=
( ) ( 27942 )
10 4

= 9.25MPa
Ib (1.51x10 ) ( 20 )
6

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 Bend Test
A more convenient way of testing such brittle materials is by the
bend test.

A load is applied at three points to cause the bending as shown in

Fig. 4-7.

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Bend Test

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Bend Test

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 Bend Test
Considering the simply supported beam AB of the length l, and carrying
a point load w at the centre of beam c as shown in Figure.
𝑊
Reactions at the supports, RA = RB = 1
2

Considering a section X at a distance x from B. The bending moment at

𝑊
this section is, Mx= RB(x) = 𝑥 2
2

𝑑2 𝑦
From bending moment equation, 𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 2 3
𝑑𝑥

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 Bend Test
Substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) and integrating twice, the equation of
𝑊𝑥 3
deflection is EIy = + C1x + C2 4
12

Solving for C1 and C2, and substituting these values in equation (4),
𝑊𝑥 3 𝑊𝑙 2 𝑥
we get EIy = - 5
12 16

𝑙
Maximum deflection occurs at midpoint c, where, x = , substituting
2

𝑤𝑙 3
into equation (5) give a maximum defection of δ =- 6
48𝐸𝐼
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 Bend Test
The results are recorded a stress-deflection curve (Fig. 4-8).

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 Bend Test
The flexural strength is a measure of
• This is taken to be the
maximum direct stress in the material's strength.
bending, σx,u,
corresponding to the Flexural strength is
ultimate moment Mu, and 3FL 2
is assumed to be related 2 wh
to Mu by the elastic
relationship Flexural modulus is FL3
Mu 4wh3
 u,x = y
I w width of the specimen
where:
h height of the specimen
F the fracture load
δ the deflection of the beam
L the distance between
when a force F is applied
the two outer points
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.
 Example 4-7
A square rod of size 10 mm and 200 mm long was passed through the
eye of the load holder and then placed on of the support. A dial gauge is
set on top of the load holder on the square rod. A load of 2.5 kg was
hanged on the specimen and the corresponding reading of the dial
gauge was recorded. The load is increased incrementally of 2.5 kg and
the corresponding values recorded until the specimen fails. Determine
a. The yield strength;
b. The ultimate strength
c. The modulus of elasticity

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20

Load (Kg)

Deflection 0 0.01042 0.02083 0.03125 0.04167 0.05208 0.0625 0.1875 0.505

(mm)
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 Example 4-7 Continues
25

20
Load (Kg)

15

10

0 www.knust.edu.gh
0 0.1 0.2 Deflection (mm
0.3 ) 0.4 0.5 0.6
 Example 4-7 Continues
Length = 200 mm; y = 5 mm; I = 833.33 mm4
M wl mgl
Stress = y but M= = = 2.5ml
I 4 4
This implies

2.5mly 2.5 ( 200 )( 5 )

= = m = 3m
I 833.33
Where m is the load in Kg

a. The yield strength

From the plot, yield load is 12.5 Kg, therefore, the yield stress is
12.5(3) = 37.5 Nmm-2 www.knust.edu.gh
 Example 4-7 Continues
b. The ultimate strength
From the plot, yield load is 20 Kg, therefore, the yield stress is
20(3) = 60 Nmm-2
3
Slope x l
c. The modulus of elasticity
E=
From the plot, the slope is 240 48I
240 ( 2003 )
From eq. 6,
48EI
w= 3  E=
l 48 ( 833.33)
−2
48EI = 48 x10 Nmm 3
This implies Slope = 3
l www.knust.edu.gh
THANK YOU

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 LECTURE 5
ANALYSIS OF STRESS
AND STRAIN

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 Lecture Outline

1. Transformation of Plane Stress

2. Principal Planes

3. Mohr’s Circle for Plain Stress

4. Steps in the Construction of Mohr’s Circle

5. Mohr’s Circle for Plain Strain

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 Transformation of Plane Stress
❑ Figure 5-1(a) shows the ❑ These stresses are put
stresses in all three together in a matrix form
directions of the Cartesian as shown in Figure 5-
coordinate system. 1(b) to give the stress
tensor.

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 Transformation of Plane Stress
❑ In plane stress condition all stresses in one particular primary
direction are equal to zero as illustrated in Figure 5-2.

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 Transformation of Plane Stress
❑ The stresses in the x and y directions can be to transformed to the x’
and y’ directions inclined at an angle θ to the x and y axes
respectfully.
❑ By resolving and
balancing all
forces in the new
directions.

❑ This transforms
the stress state in
Figure 5-3a to that
in Figure 5-3b.
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 Transformation of Plane Stress
❑ Resolving and summing forces along the x′ followed by y′
direction using Figure 5-4:

 x A −  xy ( dA sin  ) cos  −  xy ( dA cos  ) sin  

 Fx = 0 = − ( dA cos ) cos −  ( dA sin  ) sin  
 x y 
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 Transformation of Plane Stress
❑ Dividing through by dA and solving for σx’ and τx’y’ yields:
 xy A −  xy ( dA cos  ) cos  −  xy ( dA sin  ) sin  
 Fy = 0 = − ( dA cos ) sin  −  ( dA sin  ) cos 
 x y 
 x =  x cos2  +  y sin2  + 2 xy cos sin
 xy = ( y −  x ) cos sin  +  xy ( cos  − sin  ) 2 2

❑ Since σy′ is 90° away from σx′, σy′ is:

 y =  x cos2 ( + 2 ) +  y sin2 ( + 2 ) + 2 xy cos ( + 2 ) sin ( + 2 )
 y =  x sin  +  y cos  − 2 xy cos sin
2 2

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 Transformation of Plane Stress
❑ We can rewrite them as

 x + y    x − y 
 x =  +  cos 2 +  xy sin 2
 2   2 

 x + y    x − y 
 y =  −  cos 2 −  xy sin 2
 2   2 

  y − x 
 xy =  sin 2 +  xy cos 2
 2 
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 Transformation of Plane Stress
❑ It is observed that for a plane stress situation the sum of the
normal stresses exerted on a cubic element of material is
independent of the orientation of that element.

   x +  y    x −  y   
  +  cos 2 +  xy sin 2  
  2   2   
 x +  y  =   = x + y
   x +  y    x −  y  
+  2  −  2  cos 2 −  xy sin 2  
     

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 Example 5-1
The grain of a wooden member in a structure makes an angle
of 15° to the vertical. For the state of stress shown in Figure
Ex 5-1, determine:
a.the in-plane shearing stress parallel to the grain
b.the normal stress perpendicular to the grain

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 Example 5-1 Continues
a
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0 MPa, 𝜎𝑥 = −2.5 MPa, 𝜎𝑦 = −1.5 MPa, θ = −15°
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2
−2.5 −(−1.5)
= − sin(−30) + 0 = -0.25 Mpa
2

b.
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥′ = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2

−2.5 +(−1.5) −2.5 −(−1.5)

= + cos(−30) + 0 = -2.45 MPa
2 2

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 Principal Planes
❑ The normal stress, σx’ (5-7) is maximum or minimum when its
derivative is equal to zero:
 x   x − y 
= 0 = −  ( 2sin 2 ) + 2 xy cos 2
  2 

❑ Solving for θ yields the plane where maximum and minimum

normal stresses occur.
2 xy
tan 2 principal =
( x − y )
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 Principal Planes
❑ Similarly, to find the plane on which the shear stress is maximum,
the derivative of τx’y’ can be used.

❑ The maximum in-plane shear stress can therefore be found as

follows:
 xy   x − y 
= 0 = −  ( 2cos 2 ) − 2 xy sin 2
  2 
❑ Solving for θ yields the plane of maximum/minimum shear stress

tan 2 shear =−
(  x − y )
2 xy www.knust.edu.gh
 Principal Planes
❑ The two principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress
are:
  x + y   x − y 
2

 + ( xy )
2
 max = + 
 2   2 

 x + y   x − y 
2

 + ( xy )
2
 min = − 
 2   2 

  x − y 
2

 + ( xy )
2
 max = 
 2 
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 Example 5-2
For a cast iron material with Solution
ultimate tensile strength of 160 a.
MPa, and ultimate
𝜎𝑥 = 0 MPa, 𝜎𝑦
compression strength of 320
= −150 MPa, τ𝑥𝑦 = 100 MPa
MPa, having the stress
conditions shown in Figure Ex
5-2 determine: 1
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 = −75 MPa
a. The maximum shearing 2
stress
b. The principal stresses
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅= + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2
= 752 + 1002www.knust.edu.gh
= 125 M𝑃a
 Example 5-2 Continues

𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐑 =125 MPa

𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒆 + 𝑹 = −𝟕𝟓 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓 = 𝟓𝟎 𝐌𝑷𝐚

𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝑹 = −𝟕𝟓 − 𝟏𝟐𝟓 = −𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐌𝐏𝐚

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 Mohr’s Circle for Plain Stress
❑ The Mohr’s stress provides a graphical way of
representing the transformation of stress equations.

❑ The equation for the Mohr’s circle can be derived by

rearranging the stress transformation equations.
  x − y 
 x −  average =   cos 2 +  xy sin 2
 2 

❑ Re-write the equations 5-7 and 5-9 as:

  y − x 
 xy =  sin 2 +  xy cos 2
 2  www.knust.edu.gh
 Mohr’s Circle for Plain Stress
❑ Squaring both sides of each ❑ The radius of Mohr’s
equation and adding them circle, R is:
together yields:
  x − y 
2
  x − y 
2

 x −  average  + ( xy ) 2 R = +  xy =  max

2 2 2
=  +  xy  
 2   2 
  x − y 
2

 x −  average  + ( xy ) = 
2 2
 + R 2

 2 
❑ Therefore
❑ Equation for a circle expressed  max =  average + R
in (σ, τ) coordinates with a
center at (σaverage, 0), where
σaverage is
 max =  average − R
 +  
 average = x y
  max = R
 2  www.knust.edu.gh
Steps in the Construction of Mohr’s Circle
1. Draw a state of stress free body diagram. i.e. show the stresses σx,
σy, and τxy on a cube. Label the vertical plane V and the horizontal
plane H.

2.Write the coordinates of points V and H as V(σx, - τxy) and H(σy,

τxy). A positive value for σij produces a clockwise (CW) moment
about the center of the cube (i.e. CW rotation of the cube).

3. Draw the horizontal axis with the tensile normal stress to the right
(i.e. positive) and the compressive normal stress to the left (i.e.
negative).

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 Steps in the Construction of Mohr’s Circle
4. Locate points V and H and join the points by drawing a line. Label the
point where line VH intersects the horizontal axis as C, the center of
the circle. The center has coordinates C (σaverage, 0).

5. Draw Mohr’s circle with point C as the center and a radius, R of

length CH or
  x − y 
2

R=   +  xy =  max
2

 2 

6. The angle between lines CV and Cσ1 is labeled 2θ because the angles
on Mohr’s circle are double the actual angle between planes.
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Steps in the Construction of Mohr’s Circle
7. To determine the direction of rotation (i.e. the sign) we first record
the direction in which we move from point V(σx, -τxy) to point (σ1,
0) on Mohr’s circle. If the direction of rotation is CCW (i.e.
towards the positive shear direction), then the sign of θ is positive.
If the rotation is CW then the sign of θ is negative.

8. This is illustrated in Figure 5-8.

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Steps in the Construction of Mohr’s Circle

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 Example 5-3
Consider a point in a solid that is subjected to the following state of
stress:
σx = 90 MPa;
σy = -50 MPa;
τxy = -60 MPa.
a. Draw a free body diagram representing the stress state.
b. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane shear
stress acting on the point, and the orientation of the principal
planes using Mohr’s circle.
c. Show the stresses on an appropriate diagram.

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Example 5-3 Continues

V = (σx, -τxy ) = (90, 60)

H = (σy, + τxy ) = (-50, -60)

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Example 5-3 Continues

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Example 5-3 Continues

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 Mohr’s Strain Circle
❑ Mohr’s strain circle is very ❑ The principal strains are given by: ε1
close to the stress circle.. = εave + R and : ε2 = εave - R
❑ The maximum shearing strain is:
❑ The center is given by: (εave, γmax = 2R
0),
❑ Mohr’s circle of strain can be
1 transformed into a concentric
❑ where εave = (𝜀𝑥 + ε𝑦 )
2 Mohr’s circle of for stress by means
of the scale transformations:
❑ The radius of the Mohr’s 𝐸
strain circle is 𝑅 𝜎 = 𝑅𝜀 1+ν ;

𝜀𝑥 − ε𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 𝐸
𝑅= + (𝑂𝐶)𝜎 = (𝑂𝐶)𝜀
2 2 1−ν
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 Example 5-4
Using the values in Example 5-3, Determine the
principal strains, the maximum in-plane shear strain
acting on the point, and the orientation of the
principal planes using Mohr’s circle. Take Young’s
Modulus = 200 GPa and Poisson ratio = 0.3
 x = E1 ( x −  y ) = 2001x10 ( 90 − 0.3 −50) = 525 x10−6 = 525
3

Solution
 y = E ( y −  x ) = 200 x10 ( 50 − 0.390) = 115 x10 = 115
1 1
3
−6

2(1+ ) 2(1+ 0.3)

 xy =  xy =
1
G E  xy = 200 x103 ( −60 ) = −780 x10−6 = −780
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 Example 5-4 Continues
V = (εx, -γxy ) = (525, 7.8); H = (εy, + γxy ) = (115, -7.8)
V
 xy = 2 R = 1600   (525, 780)

C 780
(300, 0)

2 p = 74


225

1 =  ave + R = 1110
2 = ave − R =−500
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H
(115, -780)
THANK YOU

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 LECTURE 6
FAILURE CRITERIA

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 Lecture Outline

1. Introduction

2. Mohr’s Fracture Criterion

3. Tresca or Maximum Shearing Stress Criterion

4. Von Mises or Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion

5. Steps in the Construction of Mohr’s Circle

6. Mohr’s Circle for Plain Strain

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 Introduction
❑ Considering the same isotropic polycrystalline metal deformed in a
multi-axial stress state.

❑ We can not simply determine the stress at yielding because stress

will vary from point to point.

❑ Instead we calculate an equivalent stress from the components of

the stress tensor and compare it with the critical stress for yielding
or failure.

❑ For an isotropic metal under a uni-axial tension for example, the

material deforms elastically up to the yield stress.

❑ When applied load reaches the critical load (i.e., the yield point),
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plastic deformation occurs.

 Introduction
❑ The yield or failure criterion could be expressed as:
𝑓(𝜎𝑖𝑗 ) = 𝜎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 − 𝜎𝑌 = 0

❑ For an isotropic material, the yield criteria can be expressed in

terms of the principal stresses;𝑓(𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 ) = 0

❑ If the function 𝑓(𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 ) is plotted on an orthogonal σ1, σ2, σ3

axes a yield surface is obtained.

❑ The yield surface can be used to determine, for each possible state
of stress, whether or not a material yields or fails.

❑ There are many different yield criteria. Only three are going to be
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considered.
 Introduction
❑ They are the
➢ Mohr’s criterion (for brittle fracture
prediction),

➢ the maximum shearing stress

criterion and the maximum distortion
energy criterion (for ductile yielding
prediction).

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 Mohr’s Fracture Criterion
❑ The Mohr’s criterion is used to predict the failure of brittle
materials.

❑ The criterion states that if the plot of the principal stresses falls
within the envelope in Figure 6-1, then no failure occurs.

❑ However, if it falls outside the enclosed region, failure will occur.

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 Mohr’s Fracture Criterion
𝜎1
• In other words, if the value of the expression: ቀ −
𝑈𝑈𝑇
𝜎2
ቁ is less than one, no fracture occurs, else if it is
𝑈𝑈𝐶
more than one, then fracture would occur.
𝜎1 𝜎2
• i.e., if − > 1 Yielding occurs.
𝑈𝑈𝑇 𝑈𝑈𝐶

𝜎1 𝜎2
• But if − < 1 No Yielding occurs.
𝑈𝑈𝑇 𝑈𝑈𝐶

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 Example 6-1
For a cast iron material with ultimate tensile strength of 160 MPa,
and ultimate compression strength of 320 MPa, having the stress
conditions shown in Figure Ex 6-1 determine:
a. The maximum shearing stress
b.The principal stresses
c. Check for failure using the Mohr’s fracture criterion.

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 Example 6-1 Continues
• 𝜎𝑥 = 0 MPa, 𝜎𝑦 = −150 MPa, τ𝑥𝑦 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐌𝐏𝐚

1
• 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 = −𝟕𝟓 𝐌𝐏𝐚
2

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
• 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = 752 + 1002 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝐌𝐏𝐚
2

• 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 = −75 + 125 = 𝟓𝟎 𝐌𝐏𝐚

• 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 = −75 − 125 = −𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐌𝐏𝐚

𝜎1 𝜎2 50 (−200)
• − = − = 0.9373 < 𝟏
𝜎𝑈𝑇 𝜎𝑈𝐶 160 320

• Therefore there will be no Rapture or failure. www.knust.edu.gh

Tresca or Maximum Shearing Stress Criterion
❑ Yielding in a material occurs when the maximum shearing
stress, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 reaches a critical value, the shearing yield strength,
𝜏𝑌 .
❑ The shearing yield strength is half the tensile yield strength,
𝟏
(𝝉𝒀 = 𝝈 ).
𝟐 𝒀

❑ If the principal stresses are either both positive or both

negative,
𝟏 𝟏
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = |𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 | = |𝝈𝟏 |
𝟐 𝟐

❑ If the maximum stress is positive and the minimum stress is

negative.
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𝟏 𝟏
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = |𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏 | = |𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 |
𝟐 𝟐
Tresca or Maximum Shearing Stress Criterion
❑ Thus in this criterion:
➢ If 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 > 𝜏𝑌 , yielding occurs
➢ If 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜏𝑌 , no yielding occurs

❑ That is if a plot of the principal stresses in the plot shown in

Figure 6-2 lies within the shaded region, no yielding occurs, but
if it lies outside the enclosed region, then yielding will occur.
𝜏𝑌
❑ The factor of safety, N for this criterion is defined as N = .
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥

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Von Mises or Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion
❑ The Von Mises criterion states that, a given structural component
is safe as long as the maximum value of the distortion energy per
unit volume in that material remains smaller than the distortion
energy per unit volume required to cause yield in a tensile-test
specimen of the same material.

❑ Under plane stress, the distortion energy per unit volume in an

isotropic material is given by:
1
𝑢𝑑 = (𝜎1 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 2 ); 𝜎3 = 0.
6𝐺

Where 𝝈𝟏 and 𝝈𝟐 are the principal stresses and G is the modulus of

rigidity.

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Von Mises or Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion
❑ For yielding to occur, the equivalent stress,
𝜎𝑒 = 𝜎1 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 2 = (𝜎𝑥 2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 2 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ),
should be greater than the yield strength.

❑ Figure 7-3 shows the plot of the safe region of this criterion, which
is an ellipse.

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Von Mises or Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion

❑ The dashes in the diagram give the plot of the Tresca criterion as a

comparison to the von Mises criterion.

❑ i.e. if 𝜎𝑒 > 𝜎𝑦 ; yielding occurs.

❑ But, if 𝜎𝑒 < 𝜎𝑦 ; No yielding occurs.

❑ The factor of safety, N for maximum-distortion-energy criterion is

𝜎𝑌
defined as N = .
𝜎𝑒

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 Example 6-2
• The circular shaft in σY = 248 MPa
Figure Ex 6-2 is made
with a material with a d = 3.8 cm = 0.038 m
yield strength of 248
MPa. P = 250 N

𝑃 4×250
σx = =
𝐴 𝜋×(0.038)2
Given that the tensile force P is
= 220.4362 MPa ≈ 220.44 MPa
250 N and the diameter of the
shaft is 3.8 cm, determine the σy = 0 MPa
maximum torque T, that the
𝑇𝑐
shaft can bear without failing. τxy = ? =
𝐽
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 Example 6-2 Continues
From the sketch of the Mohr’s stress
circle, the principal stresses have
different signs.

Therefore τmax = R =
𝜎 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑥−
+ τ𝑥𝑦 2 = 110.222 + τ𝑥𝑦 2
2

𝜎 248
• But for yield to occur, τmax = τY = 𝑌 = = 124 MPa
2 2
• 1242 – 110.222 = τ𝑥𝑦 2
• τ𝑥𝑦 = 1242 − 110.222 = 56.8115 MPa
𝑇𝑐
• But τ𝑥𝑦 =
𝐽
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐽 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝜋𝑐 3 ) 56.8115×106 (𝜋×0.0193 )
• T= = = = 6.120923 = 6 kNm
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𝑐 2 2
 Example 6-3
For the state of stress given in Figure Ex 6-3 for a material with yield
strength of 42 MPa, determine:
a. the principal stresses
b.the maximum shearing stress
c. whether the material will yield using the
maximum-shearing-stress criterion
d.the factor of safety using the maximum-
shearing-stress criterion
e.whether the material will yield using the
maximum-distortion-energy criterion
f. the factor of safety using the maximum-
distortion-energy criterion

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 Example 6-3 Continues
σx = 6 MPa, σy = 18 MPa, τxy = 8 MPa
1 1
σave = (σx + σy) = (6 + 18) = 12 MPa
2 2

𝜎 𝜎𝑦 2
R= 𝑥−
+ τ𝑥𝑦 2 = −6 2 + 8 2 = 10 MPa
2

a. Principal Stresses
σ1 = σave + R = 12 + 10 = 22 MPa
σ2 = σave − R = 12 − 10 = 2 MPa

b. Maximum shearing stress

Since both σ1 and σ2 have the same sign (+ve)
𝜎1 22
τmax = = = 11 MPa
2 2
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 Example 6-3 Continues
c. Failure, using Maximum-shearing-stress criterion
𝜎𝑌 42
τY = = = 21 MPa
2 2
11 < 21; i.e. 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜏𝑌 ; Therefore there will be no failure

d. F.S. using Maximum-shearing-stress criterion

𝜏𝑌 21
F.S. = = = 1.91
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 11

e. Failure using the Maximum-distortion-energy criterion

σE = 2 + 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2
= 222
+ 22
− 22 × 2 = 21.0 MPa
𝜎1 𝜎2

21.07 MPa < 42 MPa; i.e. σE < σY therefore there will be no

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failure
 Example 6-3 Continues

f. F.S. using Maximum-distortion-energy criterion

𝜏𝑌 42
F.S. = = = 1.99
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 21.07

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THANK YOU

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