Curtin Flyash GC-2

LOW-CALCIUM FLY ASH-BASED
GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE: LONG-TERM

PROPERTIES
By
S. E. Wallah and B. V. Rangan
Research Report GC 2
Faculty of Engineering
Curtin University of Technology
Perth, Australia
2006
PREFACE
From 2001, we have conducted some important research on the development, manufacture,
behaviour, and applications of Low-Calcium Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete. This
concrete uses no Portland cement; instead, we use the low-calcium fly ash from a local coal
burning power station as a source material to make the binder necessary to manufacture
concrete.
Concrete usage around the globe is second only to water. An important ingredient in the
conventional concrete is the Portland cement. The production of one ton of cement emits
approximately one ton of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Moreover, cement production is
not only highly energy-intensive, next to steel and aluminium, but also consumes significant
amount of natural resources. In order to meet infrastructure developments, the usage of
concrete is on the increase. Do we build additional cement plants to meet this increase in
demand for concrete, or find alternative binders to make concrete?
On the other hand, already huge volumes of fly ash are generated around the world; most of
the fly ash is not effectively used, and a large part of it is disposed in landfills. As the need
for power increases, the volume of fly ash would increase.
Both the above issues are addressed in our work. We have covered significant area in our
work, and developed the know-how to manufacture low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer
concrete. Our research has already been published in more than 30 technical papers in
various international venues.
This Research Report describes the long-term properties of low-calcium fly ash-based
geopolymer concrete. Earlier, the Research Report GC1 presented the development, the
mixture proportions, and the short-term properties of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer
concrete. A subsequent Research Report GC3 covers the behaviour and strength of
reinforced geopolymer concrete structural beams and columns.
Heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete has excellent compressive

strength, suffers very little drying shrinkage and low creep, excellent resistance to sulfate
attack, and good acid resistance. It can be used in many infrastructure applications. One ton
of low-calcium fly ash can be utilised to produce about 2.5 cubic metres of high quality
geopolymer concrete, and the bulk price of chemicals needed to manufacture this concrete
is cheaper than the bulk price of one ton of Portland cement. Given the fact that fly ash is
considered as a waste material, the low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete is,
therefore, cheaper than the Portland cement concrete. The special properties of geopolymer
concrete can further enhance the economic benefits. Moreover, reduction of one ton of
carbon dioxide yields one carbon credit and, the monetary value of that one credit is
approximately 20 Euros. This carbon credit significantly adds to the economy offered by the
geopolymer concrete. In all, there is so much to be gained by using geopolymer concrete.
We are happy to participate and assist the industries to take the geopolymer concrete
technology to the communities in infrastructure applications. We passionately believe that
our work is a small step towards a broad vision to serve the communities for a better future.
For further information, please contact: Professor B. Vijaya Rangan BE PhD FIE Aust
FACI, CPEng, Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin
University of Technology, Perth, WA 6845, Australia; Telephone: 61 8 9266 1376, Email:
[email protected]
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Emeritus Professor Joseph Davidovits, Director,

Geopolymer Institute, Saint-Quentin, France, and to Dr Terry Gourley, Rocla
Australia for their advice and encouragement during the conduct of the research.
An Australian Development Scholarship supported the first author. The authors are
grateful to Mr. Djwantoro Hardjito and Mr. Dody Sumajouw, the other members of
the research team, for their contributions.
The experimental work was carried out in the laboratories of the Faculty of
Engineering at Curtin University of Technology. The authors are grateful to the
support and assistance provided by the team of talented and dedicated technical staff
comprising Mr. Roy Lewis, Mr. John Murray, Mr. Dave Edwards, Mr. Rob Cutter,
and Mr. Mike Ellis.
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS i
LIST OF FIGURES iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background 1
1.2. Objectives 2
1.3. Scope of the Work 2
1.4. Organisation of Report 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1. Introduction 4
2.2. Geopolymers 4
2.2.1. Terminology and Chemistry 4
2.2.2. Source Materials and Alkaline Liquids 6
2.2.3. Fields of Applications 8
2.2.4. Properties of Geopolymers 10
CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL WORK 12
3.1. Introduction 12
3.2. Materials 12
3.2.1. Fly Ash 12
3.2.2. Aggregates 14
3.2.3. Alkaline Liquid 15
3.2.4. Super plasticiser 15
3.3. Mixture Proportions 15
3.4. Manufacture of Test Specimens 17
3.4.1. Preparation of Liquids 17
3.4.2. Manufacture of Fresh Concrete and Casting 17
3.4.3. Manufacture of Fresh Mortar and Casting 19
i
3.5. Curing Of Test Specimens 20
3.6. Compressive Strength Test 22
3.7. Creep Test 22
3.7.1. Test Specimens 22
3.7.2. Test Parameters 23
3.7.3. Test Procedure 23
3.7.3.1. Strain Measuring Device and Reference Gauge Points 23
3.7.3.2 Test Set up and Measurement 24
3.8. Drying Shrinkage Test 26
3.8.2. Test parameters 27
3.9. Sulfate Resistance Test 28
3.9.2. Test parameters 29
3.9.3.1. Sulfate Solution 29
3.9.3.2. Change in Compressive Strength 30
3.9.3.3. Change in Mass 30
3.9.3.4. Change in Length 31
3.10. Acid Resistance Test 31
3.10.1. Tests of Geopolymer Concrete 32
3.10.2. Tests of Geopolymer Mortar 32
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF 34
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
4.2. Compressive Strength and Unit Weight 34
4.2.1 Mean compressive strength and unit-weight 34
4.2.2. Effect of age on compressive strength and unit weight 35
4.2.3. Compressive strength of specimens cured at ambient conditions 37
4.3. Creep 38
4.3.1. Test results 38
4.3.2. Effect of Compressive Strength 46
4.3.3 Correlation of Test Results with Predictions by Australian Standard 47
AS3600
ii
4.4. Drying Shrinkage 52
4.4.1. Drying shrinkage of heat-cured geopolymer concrete specimens 52
4.4.2. Drying shrinkage of heat-cured specimens versus ambient-cured 54
specimens
4.4.3 Correlation of test results with prediction by Australian Standard 55
AS3600
4.5. Sulfate Resistance 59
4.5.1. Visual appearance 59
4.5.2. Change in Length 60
4.5.3. Change in mass 61
4.5.4. Change in compressive strength 62
4.6. Acid Resistance 66
4.6.1. Visual appearance 67
4.6.2. Test on concrete specimens 68
4.6.3. Tests on mortar specimens 73
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS 75
5.2. Conclusions 77
REFERENCES 80
APPENDIX A 86
APPENDIX B 91
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Chemical structures of polysialates 5

Figure 3.1 Particle Size Distribution of Batch-1 Fly Ash 13
Figure 3.4 Fresh Geopolymer Concrete 18
Figure 3.5 Compaction of Concrete Specimens 18
Figure 3.6 Measurement of slump 19
Figure 3.7 Fresh Geopolymer Mortar 19
Figure 3.8 Compaction of Mortar Specimens 20
Figure 3.9 Dry Curing 21
Figure 3.10 Steam Curing 21
Figure 3.11 Creep Test Specimens 22
Figure 3.12 Location of Demec Gauge Points on Test Cylinders 24
Figure 3.13 Creep Test Set-up 25
Figure 3.14 Creep Test 25
Figure 3.15 Specimens for Drying Shrinkage Test 26
Figure 3.16 Horizontal length comparator with a specimen 28
Figure 3.17 Specimens for Sulfate Resistance Test 28
Figure 3.18 Specimens Soaked in Sodium Sulfate Solution 30
Figure 4.1 Change in compressive strength with age 36
Figure 4.2 Change in unit weight with age 36
Figure 4.3 Compressive strength of concrete cured at ambient condition 38
Figure 4.4 Total and drying shrinkage strain for 1CR 40
Figure 4.8 Creep strain for 1CR 41
iv
Figure 4.12 Creep coefficient for 1CR 43
Figure 4.16 Specific creep for 1CR 45
Figure 4.20 Creep of concrete of different strength 47

Figure 4.21 Maturity coefficient k3 (Gilbert 2002) 48
Figure 4.22 Correlation of Test and Predicted Creep strains: Specimen 1CR 50
Figure 4.26 Drying shrinkage of heat-cured Mixture-1 specimens 54
Figure 4.27 Drying shrinkage of heat-cured Mixture-2 specimens 54
Figure 4.28 Drying shrinkage of heat-cured and ambient-cured specimens 55
Figure 4.29 Comparison of test and predicted results for 1DS 57
Figure 4.34 Visual appearance of test specimens after exposure 60
Figure 4.35 Change in length of specimens exposed to sodium sulfate 61
solution
Figure 4.36 Change in mass of specimens soaked in sodium sulfate 61
solution and water
Figure 4.37 Compressive strength after 4 weeks of exposure 62
Figure 4.42 Visual appearance after one year of exposure in sulfuric acid 67
solution
Figure 4.43 Visual appearance of mortar specimens after one year exposure 67
in sulfuric acid solution
v
Figure 4.44 Damage to test cylinders exposed to 2% sulfuric acid solution 68
Figure 4.45 Change in mass of concrete exposed to sulfuric acid solution 69
Figure 4.46 Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete exposed to 2% 70
sulfuric acid solution
Figure 4.47 Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete exposed to 1% 70
Figure 4.48 Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete exposed to 0.5% 71
Figure 4.49 Residual compressive strength of geopolymer concrete after 71
exposure to sulfuric acid solution
Figure 4.50 Change in mass of geopolymer mortar cubes exposed to 1% 73
concentration of sulfuric acid solution
Figure 4.51 Residual compressive strength of geopolymer mortar cubes 74
exposed to various concentrations of sulfuric acid solution
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Applications of Geopolymeric Materials Based on Si:Al Atomic 9

Ratio
Table 3.1 Chemical Composition of Fly Ash (% by mass) 13
Table 3.2 Grading of Combined Aggregates 15
Table 3.3 Concrete Mixture Proportions 16
Table 3.4 Mortar Mixture Proportion 16
Table 3.5 Test Parameters for Creep Test 23
Table 3.6 Test parameters for Drying Shrinkage Test 27
Table 3.7. Test Parameters for Sulfate Resistance Test 29
Table 3.8 Test Parameters of Acid Resistance Test for Geopolymer 32
Concrete
Table 3.9 Test Parameters of Acid Resistance Test for Geopolymer Mortar 33
Table 4.1. Mean compressive strength and unit weight 35
Table 4.2. Compressive strength and sustained stress of creep specimens 39
Table 4.3. Instantaneous Strain and Instantaneous Elastic Modulus 39
Table 4.4. Final specific creep of geopolymer concrete after 1-year loading 47
Table 4.5 Basic creep coefficient (Gilbert 2002) 49
Table 4.6. Heat-cured geopolymer concrete shrinkage specimens 53
Table 4.7 Ratio of compressive strength for different test condition 65
vii
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials; it is usually

associated with Portland cement as the main component for making concrete. The
demand for concrete as a construction material is on the increase. It is estimated that
the production of cement will increase from about from 1.5 billion tons in 1995 to
2.2 billion tons in 2010 (Malhotra, 1999).
On the other hand, the climate change due to global warming, one of the greatest
environmental issues has become a major concern during the last decade. The global
warming is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases, such as CO2, to the
atmosphere by human activities. Among the greenhouse gases, CO2 contributes
about 65% of global warming (McCaffrey, 2002). The cement industry is responsible
for about 6% of all CO2 emissions, because the production of one ton of Portland
cement emits approximately one ton of CO2 into the atmosphere (Davidovits, 1994c;
McCaffrey, 2002).
Although the use of Portland cement is still unavoidable until the foreseeable future,
many efforts are being made in order to reduce the use of Portland cement in
concrete. These efforts include the utilisation of supplementary cementing materials
such as fly ash, silica fume, granulated blast furnace slag, rice-husk ash and
metakaolin, and finding alternative binders to Portland cement.
In this respect, the geopolymer technology proposed by Davidovits (1988a; 1988b)

shows considerable promise for application in concrete industry as an alternative
binder to the Portland cement. In terms of reducing the global warming, the
geopolymer technology could reduce the CO2 emission to the atmosphere caused by
cement and aggregates industries by about 80% (Davidovits, 1994c).
Inspired by the geopolymer technology and the fact that fly ash is a waste material
abundantly available, in 2001, the Geopolymer Concrete Research Group at Curtin
1
University of Technology commenced a comprehensive research programme on
‘Low-Calcium Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete’. The first part of this
research studied the development of mixture proportions, the manufacture of low-
calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete, the effect of main parameters on the
short-term engineering properties of fresh and hardened concrete (Djwantoro and
Rangan 2005).
1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this research therefore are to study the following long-term
properties of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete:
1. Creep behaviour under sustained load
2. Drying shrinkage behaviour
3. Sulfate resistance
4. Resistance to sulfuric acid
1.3 Scope of the Work
The experimental work involved conduct of long-term tests on low-calcium fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete. The tests currently available for Portland cement
concrete were used. In the experimental work, only one source of dry low-calcium
fly ash (ASTM Class F) from a local power station was used. Analytical methods
available for Portland cement concrete were used to predict the test results.
1.4 Organisation of Report
Chapter 2 gives a brief review of geopolymer technology and the past research on
geopolymers.
Chapter 3 describes the experimental work including the materials used, mixture
proportions, manufacture and curing of the test specimens, test parameters, test
procedures and equipment used for the conduct of the tests.
2
Chapter 4 presents and discusses the experimental results and the analysis of the
results.
Chapter 5 summarises and concludes the results of this study.
A list of References and Appendices are given at the end of the Report.
3
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This Chapter presents a brief review of the terminology and chemistry of

geopolymers, and past studies on geopolymers. Additional review of geopolymer
technology is available elsewhere (Hardjito and Rangan, 2005).
2.2 Geopolymers
2.2.1 Terminology and Chemistry
The term ‘geopolymer’ was first introduced by Davidovits in 1978 to describe a

family of mineral binders with chemical composition similar to zeolites but with an
amorphous microstructure. He also suggested the use of the term ‘poly(sialate)’ for
the chemical designation of geopolymers based on silico-aluminate (Davidovits,
1988a, 1988b, 1991; van Jaarsveld et. al., 2002a); Sialate is an abbreviation for
silicon-oxo-aluminate.
Poly(sialates) are chain and ring polymers with Si4+ and AL3+ in IV-fold coordination
with oxygen and range from amorphous to semi-crystalline with the empirical
formula:
M n (-(SiO2) z –AlO2) n . wH 2 O (2-1)
where “z” is 1, 2 or 3 or higher up to 32; M is a monovalent cation such as potassium

or sodium, and “n” is a degree of polycondensation (Davidovits, 1984, 1988b, 1994b,
1999). Davidovits (1988b; 1991; 1994b; 1999) has also distinguished 3 types of
polysialates, namely the Poly(sialate) type (-Si-O-Al-O), the Poly(sialate-siloxo) type
(-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O) and the Poly(sialate-disiloxo) type (-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O). The
structures of these polysialates can be schematised as in Figure 2.1.
4
Figure 2.1 Chemical structures of polysialates
Geopolymerization involves the chemical reaction of alumino-silicate oxides (Si2O5,

Al2O2) with alkali polysilicates yielding polymeric Si – O – Al bonds. Polysilicates
are generally sodium or potassium silicate supplied by chemical industry or
manufactured fine silica powder as a by-product of ferro-silicon metallurgy.
Equation 2-2 shows an example of polycondensation by alkali into poly (sialate-
siloxo).
(-)
NaOH, KOH
(Si2O5, Al2O2)n + nSiO2 + nH2O n(OH)3 -Si-O-Al-O-Si-(OH)3
(OH)2
(-) (-)
NaOH, KOH
n(OH)3 -Si-O-Al-O-Si-(OH)3 (Na,K)(+) –(-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-) + nH2O
(OH)2 O O O
(2-2)
Unlike ordinary Portland/pozzolanic cements, geopolymers do not form calcium-

silicate-hydrates (CSHs) for matrix formation and strength, but utilise the
polycondensation of silica and alumina precursors and a high alkali content to attain
structural strength. Therefore, geopolymers are sometimes referred to as alkali-
activated alumino silicate binders (Davidovits, 1994a; Palomo et. al., 1999; Roy,
1999; van Jaarsveld et. al., 2002a). However, Davidovits (1999; 2005) stated that
using the term ‘alkali-activated’ could create significant confusion and generate
false granted ideas about geopolymer concrete. For example, the use of the term
5
‘alkali-activated cement’ or ‘alkali-activated fly ash’ can be confused with the term
‘Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR)’ , a harmful property well known in concrete.
The last term of Equation 2-2 indicates that water is released during the chemical
reaction that occurs in the formation of geopolymers. This water is expelled from the
mixture during the curing process.
2.2.2. Source Materials and Alkaline Liquids
There are two main constituents of geopolymers, namely the source materials and the
alkaline liquids. The source materials for geopolymers based on alumino-silicate
should be rich in silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al). These could be natural minerals
such as kaolinite, clays, micas, andalousite, spinel, etc whose empirical formula
contains Si, Al, and oxygen (O) (Davidovits, 1988c). Alternatively, by-product
materials such as fly ash, silica fume, slag, rice-husk ash, red mud, etc could be used
as source materials. The choice of the source materials for making geopolymers
depends on factors such as availability, cost, and type of application and specific
demand of the end users. The alkaline liquids are from soluble alkali metals that are
usually Sodium or Potassium based.
Since 1972, Davidovits (1988c; 1988d) worked with kaolinite source material with
alkalis (NaOH, KOH) to produce geopolymers. The technology for making the
geopolmers has been disclosed in various patents issued on the applications of the so-
called “ SILIFACE-Process” . Later, Davidovits (1999) also introduced a pure
calcined kaolinite called KANDOXI (KAolinite, Nacrite, Dickite OXIde) which is
calcined for 6 hours at 750oC. This calcined kaolinite like other calcined materials
performed better in making geopolymers compared to the natural ones.
Xu and Van Deventer (1999; 2000) have also studied a wide range of alumino-
silicate minerals to make geopolymers. Their study involved sixteen natural Si-Al
minerals which covered the ring, chain, sheet, and framework crystal structure
groups, as well as the garnet, mica, clay, feldspar, sodalite and zeolite mineral
groups. It was found that a wide range of natural alumino-silicate minerals provided
potential sources for synthesis of geopolymers. For alkaline solutions, they used
6
sodium or potassium hydroxide. The test results have shown that potassium
hydroxide (KOH) gave better results in terms of the compressive strength and the
extent of dissolution.
Among the waste or by-product materials, fly ash and slag are the most potential
source of geopolymers. Several studies have been reported related to the use of these
source materials. Cheng and Chiu (2003) reported the study of making fire-resistant
geopolymer using granulated blast furnace slag combined with metakaolinite. The
combination of potassium hydroxide and sodium silicate was used as alkaline
liquids. Van Jaarsveld et. al., (1997; 1999) identified the potential use of waste
materials such as fly ash, contaminated soil, mine tailings and building waste to
immobilise toxic metals. Palomo et. al., (1999) reported the study of fly ash-based
geopolymers. They used combinations of sodium hydroxide with sodium silicate and
potassium hydroxide with potassium silicate as alkaline liquids. It was found that the
type of alkaline liquid is a significant factor affecting the mechanical strength, and
that the combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide gave the highest
compressive strength.
Van Jaarsveld et. al. (2003) reported that the particle size, calcium content, alkali
metal content, amorphous content, and morphology and origin of the fly ash affected
the properties of geopolymers. It was also revealed that the calcium content in fly ash
played a significant role in strength development and final compressive strength as
the higher the calcium content resulted in faster strength development and higher
compressive strength. However, in order to obtain the optimal binding properties of
the material, fly ash as a source material should have low calcium content and other
characteristics such as unburned material lower than 5%, Fe2O3 content not higher
than 10%, 40-50% of reactive silica content, 80-90% particles with size lower than
45 µm and high content of vitreous phase (Fernández-Jiménez & Palomo, 2003).
Gourley (2003) also stated that the presence of calcium in fly ash in significant
quantities could interfere with the polymerisation setting rate and alters the
microstructure. Therefore, it appears that the use of Low Calcium (ASTM Class F)
fly ash is more preferable than High Calcium (ASTM Class C) fly ash as a source
material to make geopolymers.
7
Swanepoel and Strydom (2002), Phair and Van Deventer (2001; 2002), Van
Jaarsveld (2002a; 2002b) and Bakharev (2005a; 2005b; 2005c) also presented studies
on fly ash as the source material to make geopolymers. Davidovits (2005) reported
results of his preliminary study on fly ash-based geopolymer as a part of a EU
sponsored project entitled ‘Understanding and mastering coal fired ashes
geopolymerisation process in order turn potential into profit’ , known under the
acronym of GEOASH.
Every source material has advantages and disadvantages. For example, metokaolin as
a source material has high dissolvability in the reactant solution, produces a
controlled Si/Al ratio in the geopolymer, and is white in colour (Gourley, 2003).
However, metakaolin is expensive to produce in large volumes because it has to be
calcined at temperatures around 500oC – 700oC for few hours. In this respect using
waste materials such as fly ash is economically advantageous.
2.2.3. Fields of Applications
According to Davidovits (1988b), geopolymeric materials have a wide range of

applications in the field of industries such as in the automobile and aerospace, non-
ferrous foundries and metallurgy, civil engineering and plastic industries. The type of
application of geopolymeric materials is determined by the chemical structure in
terms of the atomic ratio Si:Al in the polysialate. Davidovits (1999) classified the
type of application according to the Si:Al ratio as presented in Table 2.1. A low ratio
of Si:Al of 1, 2, or 3 initiates a 3D-Network that is very rigid, while Si:Al ratio
higher than 15 provides a polymeric character to the geopolymeric material. It can be
seen from Table 2.1 that for many applications in the civil engineering field a low
Si:Al ratio is suitable.
One of the potential fields of application of geopolymeric materials is in toxic waste

management because geopolymers behave similar to zeolitic materials that have been
known for their ability to absorb the toxic chemical wastes (Davidovits, 1988b).
Comrie et. al., (1988) also provided an overview and relevant test results of the
potential of the use of geopolymer technology in toxic waste management. Based on
tests using GEOPOLYMITE 50, they recommend that geopolymeric materials could
8
be used in waste containment. GEOPOLYMITE 50 is a registered trademark of
Cordi-Geopolymere SA, a type of geopolymeric binder prepared by mixing various
alumina-silicates precondensates with alkali hardeners (Davidovits, 1988b).
Table 2.1 Applications of Geopolymeric Materials Based on Si:Al Atomic Ratio
Si:Al ratio Applications

1 - Bricks
- Ceramics
- Fire protection
2 - Low CO2 cements and concretes
- Radioactive and toxic waste encapsulation
3 - Fire protection fibre glass composite
- Foundry equipments
- Heat resistant composites, 200oC to 1000oC
- Tooling for aeronautics titanium process
>3 - Sealants for industry, 200oC to 600oC
- Tooling for aeronautics SPF aluminium
20 - 35 - Fire resistant and heat resistant fibre composites
Another application of geopolymer is in the strengthening of concrete structural

elements. Balaguru et. al. (1997) reported the results of the investigation on using
geopolymers, instead of organic polymers, for fastening carbon fabrics to surfaces of
reinforced concrete beams. It was found that geopolymer provided excellent
adhesion to both concrete surface and in the interlaminar of fabrics. In addition, the
researchers observed that geopolymer was fire resistant, did not degrade under UV
light, and was chemically compatible with concrete.
In Australia, the geopolymer technology has been used to develop sewer pipeline
products, railway sleepers, building products including fire and chemically resistant
wall panels, masonry units, protective coatings and repairs materials, shotcrete and
high performance fibre reinforced laminates (Gourley, 2003; Gourley & Johnson,
2005).
9
2.2.4. Properties of Geopolymers
Previous studies have reported that geopolymers possess high early strength, low
shrinkage, freeze-thaw resistance, sulfate resistance, corrosion resistance, acid
resistance, fire resistance, and no dangerous alkali-aggregate reaction.
Based on laboratory tests, Davidovits (1988b) reported that geopolymer cement can
harden rapidly at room temperature and gain the compressive strength in the range of
20 MPa after only 4 hours at 20oC and about 70-100 MPa after 28 days. Comrie et.
al., (1988) conducted tests on geopolymer mortars and reported that most of the 28-
day strength was gained during the first 2 days of curing.
Geopolymeric cement was superior to Portland cement in terms of heat and fire
resistance, as the Portland cement experienced a rapid deterioration in compressive
strength at 300oC, whereas the geopolymeric cements were stable up to 600oC
(Davidovits, 1988b; 1994b). It has also been shown that compared to Portland
cement, geopolymeric cement has extremely low shrinkage.
The presence of alkalis in the normal Portland cement or concrete could generate
dangerous Alkali-Aggregate-Reaction. However the geopolymeric system is safe
from that phenomenon even with higher alkali content. As demonstrated by
Davidovits (1994a; 1994b), based on ASTM C227 bar expansion test, geopolymer
cements with much higher alkali content compared to Portland cement did not
generate any dangerous alkali-aggregate reaction where the Portland cement did.
Geopolymer cement is also acid-resistant, because unlike the Portland cement,

geopolymer cements do not rely on lime and are not dissolved by acidic solutions. As
shown by the tests of exposing the specimens in 5% of sulfuric acid and chloric acid,
geopolymer cements were relatively stable with the weight lose in the range of 5-8%
while the Portland based cements were destroyed and the calcium alumina cement
lost weight about 30-60% (Davidovits, 1994b). Some recently published papers
(Bakharev, 2005c; Gourley & Johnson, 2005; Song et. al., 2005a) also reported the
results of the tests on acid resistance of geopolymers and geopolymer concrete. By
observing the weight loss after acid exposure, these researchers concluded that
10
geopolymers or geopolymer concrete is superior to Portland cement concrete in
terms of acid resistance as the weight loss is much lower. However, Bakharev and
Song et. al has also observed that there is degradation in the compressive strength of
test specimens after acid exposure and the rate of degradation depended on the period
of exposure. Tests conducted by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers also revealed that
geopolymers have superior resistance to chemical attack and freeze/thaw, and very
low shrinkage coefficients (Comrie et. al., 1988; Malone et. al., 1985).
11
CHAPTER 3:
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
3.1. Introduction
This Chapter describes the experimental work. First, the materials, mixture
proportions, manufacturing and curing of the test specimens are explained. This is
then followed by description of types of specimens used, test parameters, and test
procedures.
3.2. Materials
The materials used for making fly ash-based geopolymer concrete specimens are
low-calcium dry fly ash as the source material, aggregates, alkaline liquids, water,
and super plasticiser.
3.2.1. Fly Ash
Fly ash used in this study was low-calcium (ASTM Class F) dry fly ash from Collie
Power Station, Western Australia. Three batches of fly ash were obtained during the
period of this study from 2002 to 2005.
The chemical composition of the three batches of the fly ash, given in Table 3.1, was
determined by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis. As can be seen from Table 3.1
that, for all batches of fly ash, the silicon and aluminium constitute about 80% of the
total mass and the ratio of silicon to aluminium oxide is about 2.
The particle size distribution of the fly ash is presented in Figures 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 for
Batch-1, Batch-2 and Batch-3 respectively. From the analysis of these data, it was
found that the specific surface area of the fly ash was 1.29 m2/cc,1.94 m2/cc and 1.52
m2/cc for Batch-1, Batch-2, and Batch-3 respectively. In these Figures, Graph A
shows the percentage of the volume passing and Graph B shows the percentage
volume for certain sizes. For Batch-1 fly ash, 80% of the particles were smaller than
55 µm, while for Batch-2 and Batch-3, this number was 39 µm and 46 µm
respectively.
12
Table 3.1 Chemical Composition of Fly Ash (% by mass)
Oxides Batch-1 Batch-2 Batch-3

SiO2 53.36 47.80 48.0
Al2O3 26.49 23.40 29.0
Fe2O3 10.86 17.40 12.7
CaO 1.34 2.42 1.78
Na2O 0.37 0.31 0.39
K2O 0.80 0.55 0.55
TiO2 1.47 1.328 1.67
MgO 0.77 1.19 0.89
P2O5 1.43 2.00 1.69
SO3 1.70 0.29 0.5
Cr 0.00 0.01 0.016
MnO 0.00 0.12 0.06
Ba 0.00 0.00 0.28
Sr 0.00 0.00 0.25
V 0.00 0.00 0.017
ZrO2 0.00 0.00 0.06
LOI* 1.39 1.10 1.61
*Loss on ignition
10 100
9
% by Volume Passing size
% by Volume in interval
8 80
7
6 60
5
4 40
3
2 20
1
0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Size (µm )
Figure 3.1 Particle Size Distribution of Batch-1 Fly Ash
13
10 100
9

8 80
7
6 60
5
4 40
3
2 20
1
0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Size (µm )
10 100
9

8 80
7
6 60
5
4 40
3
2 20
1
0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Size (µm )
3.2.2. Aggregates
Local aggregates, comprising 20 mm, 14 mm and 7 mm coarse aggregates and fine

aggregates, in saturated surface dry condition, were used. The coarse aggregates
were crushed granite-type aggregates and the fine aggregate was fine sand. The
fineness modulus of combined aggregates was 5.0. The grading of the aggregates is
as presented in Table 3.2.
14
Table 3.2 Grading of Combined Aggregates
Sieve Aggregates Combination BS

Size *) 882:92
20 mm 14 mm 7 mm Fine
19.00 mm 93.34 99.99 100.00 100.00 99.00 95-100
9.50 mm 3.89 17.40 99.90 100.00 69.03
3.75 mm 0.90 2.99 20.10 100.00 37.77 35-55
2.36 mm 0.88 1.07 3.66 100.00 31.63
1.18 mm 0.87 0.81 2.05 99.99 31.01
600 µm 0.85 0.70 1.52 79.58 23.67 10-35
300 µm 0.75 0.59 1.08 16.53 5.57
150 µm 0.54 0.42 0.62 1.11 0.72 0-8
*) 15% (20 mm) + 20% (14 mm) + 35% (7 mm) + 30% (Fine)
3.2.3. Alkaline Liquid
The alkaline liquid used was a combination of sodium silicate solution and sodium
hydroxide solution. The sodium silicate solution (Na2O= 13.7%, SiO2=29.4%, and
water=55.9% by mass) was purchased from a local supplier in bulk. The sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) in flakes or pellets from with 97%-98% purity was also
purchased from a local supplier in bulk. The NaOH solids were dissolved in water to
make the solution.
3.2.4. Super Plasticiser
In order to improve the workability of fresh concrete, high-range water-reducing

naphthalene based super plasticiser was added to the mixture.
3.3. Mixture Proportions
An extensive study on the development and the manufacture of low-calcium fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete has been in progress at Curtin when the present research
was undertaken. Some results of that study have already been reported in several
publications (Hardjito et. al., 2002a; Hardjito et. al., 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2005a,
2005b; Rangan et. al., 2005a, 2005b). Complete details of that study are available in
a Research Report by Hardjito and Rangan (2005). Based on that study, two different
15
mixture proportions were formulated for making concrete specimens and one
mixture proportion for mortar specimens.
The mixture proportions per m3 for concrete are given in Table 3.3, while Table 3.4
presents the mixture proportion for mortar. Note that there were only two differences
between the concrete Mixture-1 and Mixture-2 (Table 3.3). In Mixture-1, the
concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution was 8 Molars (M), and there was no
extra added water. In Mixture-2, the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution
was 14 Molars (M), and the mixture contained extra added water. These two mixture
proportions were selected to yield two different concrete compressive strengths. The
mixture proportion for mortar was selected based on concrete Mixture-1, by
removing the coarse aggregates from the composition and adjusting the mass of the
remaining elements so that the relative proportions of the elements remained
approximately similar to that of concrete Mixture-1.
Table 3.3 Concrete Mixture Proportions
Mass (kg/m3)
Materials Mixture-1 Mixture-2
20 mm 277 277
Coarse
14 mm 370 370
aggregates:
7 mm 647 647
Fine sand 554 554
Fly ash (low-calcium ASTM Class F) 408 408
Sodium silicate solution( SiO2/Na2O=2) 103 103
Sodium hydroxide solution 41 (8M) 41 (14M)
Super Plasticiser 6 6
Extra water 0 22.5
Table 3.4 Mortar Mixture Proportion
Materials Mass (kg/m3)

Fine sand 1052
Fly ash (low-calcium ASTM Class F) 774
Sodium silicate solution ( SiO2/Na2O=2) 196
Sodium hydroxide solution (8M) 78
Super Plasticiser 12
16
3.4. Manufacture of Test Specimens
3.4.1. Preparation of Liquids
The sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solids were dissolved in water to make the solution.
The mass of NaOH solids in a solution varied depending on the concentration of the
solution expressed in terms of molar, M. For instance, NaOH solution with a
concentration of 8M consisted of 8x40 = 320 grams of NaOH solids (in flake or
pellet form) per litre of the solution, where 40 is the molecular weight of NaOH. The
mass of NaOH solids was measured as 262 grams per kg of NaOH solution of 8M
concentration. Similarly, the mass of NaOH solids per kg of the solution for 14M
concentration was measured as 404 grams. Note that the mass of NaOH solids was
only a fraction of the mass of the NaOH solution, and water was the major
component.
The sodium silicate solution and the sodium hydroxide solution were mixed together
at least one day prior to use to prepare the alkaline liquid. On the day of casting of
the specimens, the alkaline liquid was mixed together with the super plasticizer and
the extra water (if any) to prepare the liquid component of the mixture.
3.4.2. Manufacture of Fresh Concrete and Casting
The fly ash and the aggregates were first mixed together in the 80-litre capacity
laboratory concrete pan mixer for about 3 minutes. The liquid component of the
mixture was then added to the dry materials and the mixing continued for further
about 4 minutes to manufacture the fresh concrete (Figure 3.4).
The fresh concrete was cast into the moulds immediately after mixing, in three layers
for cylindrical specimens and two layers for prismatic specimens. For compaction of
the specimens, each layer was given 60 to 80 manual strokes using a rodding bar, and
then vibrated for 12 to 15 seconds on a vibrating table (Figure 3.5).
17
Figure 3.4 Fresh Geopolymer Concrete
Figure 3.5 Compaction of Concrete Specimens
Before the fresh concrete was cast into the moulds, the slump value of the fresh
concrete was measured as shown in Figure 3.6.
18
Figure 3.6 Measurement of Slump
3.4.3. Manufacture of Fresh Mortar and Casting
The fly ash and the fine sand were first mixed together in a Hobart mixer for about 3
minutes. The liquid component of the mixture was then added to the dry materials
and the mixing continued for further about 4 minutes to manufacture the fresh mortar
(Figure 3.7). The fresh mortar was cast into the moulds immediately after mixing
and compacted by vibrating the moulds for 20 seconds on a vibrating table
(Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.7 Fresh Geopolymer Mortar
19
Figure 3.8 Compaction of Mortar Specimens
3.5. Curing Of Test Specimens
After casting, the test specimens were covered with vacuum bagging film to
minimise the water evaporation during curing at an elevated temperature. Two types
of heat curing were used in this study, i.e. dry curing and steam curing. For dry
curing, the test specimens were cured in the oven (Figure 3.9) and for steam curing,
they were cured in the steam curing chamber (Figure 3.10). Based on Curtin studies,
the specimens were heat-cured at 60oC for 24 hours (Hardjito et. al., 2002a, 2002b;
Hardjito et. al., 2003, 2004a, 2004b; Hardjito & Rangan, 2005; Hardjito et. al.,
2005a, 2005b; Rangan et. al., 2005a, 2005b).
After the curing period, the test specimens were left in the moulds for at least six
hours in order to avoid a drastic change in the environmental conditions. After
demoulding, the specimens were left to air-dry in the laboratory until the day of test.
Some series of specimens were not heat-cured, but left in ambient conditions at room
temperature in the laboratory.
20
Figure 3.9 Dry (oven) Curing
Figure 3.10 Steam Curing
21
3.6. Compressive Strength Test
For each series of tests, a set of standard size cylinders were made. The size of
cylinders was either 100 mm diameter by 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter by 300
mm high depending on the type of test. The cylinders were tested in compression in
accordance with the test procedures given in the Australian Standard, AS 1012.9-
1999, Methods of Testing Concrete – Determination of the compressive strength of
concrete specimens (1999).
3.7. Creep Test
3.7.1. Test Specimens
Test specimens for the creep test were 150x300 mm cylinders as shown in Figure
3.11. Eight cylinders were prepared for each test. Three cylinders were used for
measuring the creep, two companion cylinders measured the drying shrinkage and
the other three cylinders were used for the compressive strength test.
Figure 3.11 Creep Test Specimens
22
3.7.2. Test Parameters
Creep strains were measured for two geopolymer concrete mixtures, Mixture-1 and
Mixture-2 as given in Table 3.3. Two types of curing, namely, dry curing and steam
curing, were used. The test parameters for creep test are summarised in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 Test Parameters for Creep Test
Test Designation Mixture Curing type

1CR Mixture-1 Dry
2CR Mixture-1 Steam
3CR Mixture-2 Dry
4CR Mixture-2 Steam
3.7.3. Test Procedure
The creep tests were performed in accordance with the Australian Standard, AS
1012.16-1996, Methods of Testing Concrete – Determination of creep of concrete
cylinders in compression (1996a). The sustained load was applied on the 7th day after
casting of the specimens.
3.7.3.1. Strain Measuring Device and Reference Gauge Points
Prior to the commencement of the test, the creep specimens and the companion
shrinkage specimens were attached with demec gauge points as shown in Figure
3.12.
23
50 mm
200 mm
50 mm
Figure 3.12 Location of Demec Gauge Points on Test Cylinders
3.7.3.2 Test Set up and Measurement
The three specimens for creep test were placed in a specially-built creep testing
frame with a hydraulic loading system as shown in Figure 3.13. Before the creep
specimens were loaded, the 7-th day compressive strength of geopolymer concrete
was determined by testing the three cylinders reserved for the compressive strength
test. The creep specimens were applied with a load corresponding to 40 percent of
the measured mean compressive strength of concrete. This load was maintained as
the sustained load throughout the duration of the test. The strain values were
measured and recorded immediately before and after the loading. Strains experienced
by the control shrinkage specimens were measured at the same time as the strain
measurements on creep specimens. The strain values were measured and recorded at
2 hours, 6 hours, and then every day for the first week, after loading. The
measurements then continued once a week until the fourth week. After that, the
measurements were done once in 2 weeks until the twelfth week and the once every
four weeks until one year. Figure 3.14 shows the creep test in progress.
24
Pressure digital indicator
Load cell
To pump
Spherical seat Pressure transducer
Test cylinders
Base plate
Figure 3.13 Creep Test Set-up
Figure 3.14 Creep Test
25
The creep tests were conducted in a laboratory room where the temperature was
maintained at about 23oC, but the relative humidity could not be controlled. The
relative humidity varied between 40% and 60% during the test.
3.8. Drying Shrinkage Test
Test specimens for drying shrinkage test were 75x75x285 mm prisms with the gauge
studs as shown in Figure 3.15. Three specimens were prepared for each type of test.
In addition, for each type of test, four 100x200 mm cylindrical specimens were also
prepared for compressive strength test.
Figure 3.15 Specimens for Drying Shrinkage Test
26
3.8.2. Test parameters
As for the creep test, Mixture-1 and Mixture-2 (Table 3.2) were also used for drying
shrinkage test. Two types of curing were used for each Mixture. The test parameters
for the drying shrinkage test are given in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Test Parameters for Drying Shrinkage Test
Test Designation Mixture Curing type

1DS Mixture-1 Dry
2DS Mixture-1 Steam
3DS Mixture-2 Dry
4DS Mixture-2 Steam
Heat-cured versus
5DS Mixture-1
Ambient-cured
The procedure for drying shrinkage test is based on the Australian Standard, AS
1012.13-1992, Methods of Testing Concrete – Determination of the drying shrinkage
of concrete for samples prepared in the field or in the laboratory (1992). The
shrinkage strain measurements started on the third day after casting the concrete. On
the third day after casting, the specimens were demoulded and the first measurement
was taken. Horizontal length comparator (Figure 3.16) was used for length
measurements. The next measurement was on the fourth day of casting, considered
as Day 1 for the drying shrinkage measurements. The measurements then continued
every day in the first week, once a week until the fourth week, once in two weeks
until the twelfth week, and then once in four weeks until one year.
During the drying shrinkage tests, the specimens were kept in a laboratory room
where the temperature was maintained at approximately at 23oC. The relative
humidity of the room varied between 40% and 60%.
27
Figure 3.16 Horizontal Length Comparator with Drying Shrinkage Test Specimen
3.9. Sulfate Resistance Test
Test specimens for compressive strength and change in mass test were 100x200 mm
cylinders, whereas for change in length test the specimens were 75x75x285 mm
prisms (Figure 3.17). Four specimens were prepared for each compressive strength
and change in mass test, while three specimens were prepared for each change in
length test.
Figure 3.17 Specimens for Sulfate Resistance Test
28
3.9.2. Test parameters
The sulphate resistance of geopolymer concrete was evaluated by measuring the

residual compressive strength, change in mass, and change in length after sulfate
exposure. The test parameters for sulphate resistance test are presented in Table 3.7.
Only Mixture-1(Table 3.3) was used and the test specimens were dry cured at 60oC
for 24 hours.
Table 3.7. Test Parameters for Sulfate Resistance Test
Parameter to Test Condition of Exposure period

Specimens
study Specimen (weeks)
Change in SSD*
Cylinder
compressive 1, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, 52
100x200 mm Dry
strength
Prism
Up to 52 weeks
75x75x285
Change in length SSD* (1 year)
mm
Up to 52 weeks
Cylinder SSD*
Change in mass
100x200 mm (1 year)
* Saturated-surface-dry
The test procedure for sulfate resistance test was developed by modifying the related
Standards for normal Portland cement and concrete (Standards-ASTM, 1993, 1995,
1997; Standards-Australia, 1996b). The test specimens were immersed in sulfate
solution on the 7th day after casting.
3.9.3.1. Sulfate Solution
Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) solution with 5% concentration was used as the standard
exposure solution for all tests. The specimens were immersed in the sulfate solution
in a container (Figure 3.18); the volume proportion of sulfate solution to specimens
29
was four to one. In order to maintain the concentration, the solution was replaced
every month.
Figure 3.18 Specimens Soaked in Sodium Sulfate Solution
3.9.3.2. Change in Compressive Strength
The change in compressive strength after sulfate exposure was determined by testing
the compressive strength of the specimens after selected periods of exposure. The
specimens were tested either in SSD (saturated-surface-dry) condition or in dry
condition. For the SSD condition, the specimens were removed from the sulphate
solution, wiped clean, and then tested immediately in compression. For the dry
condition, the specimens were removed from the sulphate solution, left to air-dry for
a week in the laboratory ambient condition, and then loaded in compression.
3.9.3.3. Change in Mass
Change in mass of specimens was measured after selected periods of exposure up to

one year. On the day the mass was measured, the specimens were removed from the
sulphate solution, and wiped clean prior to the measurement. Mass measurements
were done using a laboratory scale. The specimens were returned to the sulphate
solution container immediately after the measurement was done.
30
3.9.3.4. Change in Length
The specimens used for change in length test were 75x75x285 mm prisms with
gauge studs, similar to those used for drying shrinkage tests as described in Section
3.8. Change in length of the specimens after sulfate exposure was measured for the
selected periods up to one year. Prior to the measurements, the specimens were
removed form the sulphate solution, and wiped clean. Immediately after the
measurement finished, the specimens were returned to the sulphate solution
container. Horizontal Length Comparator (Fig. 3.16) was used to measure the change
in length of the specimens.
3.10. Acid Resistance Test
Acid resistance test was conducted on geopolymer concrete and geopolymer mortar.
Because no universal or widely accepted standard procedures for acid resistance test
exist, the type and concentration of the acid solution to which the specimens were
exposed varied. Sulfuric acid is one type of acid solution that is frequently used to
simulate the acid attack in sewer pipe systems. In such systems, sulfuric acid attack
is a particular problem as it is generated bacterially from hydrogen sulfide. To test
the acid resistance of geopolymer concrete, Hime (2003) suggested that the
specimens be exposed to sulfuric acid solution with a concentration of pH = 1. This
value of pH was also used by Gourley & Johnson (2005) to simulate the acid attack
on sewer pipes. Mehta (1985) and Li and Zhao (2003) used 1% and 2% sulfuric acid
concentration to simulate the sulfuric acid attack on concrete. Based on those past
studies, to evaluate the acid resistance of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete, the
specimens were soaked in sulfuric acid solution with selected concentrations ranging
from 0.25% to 2% with the measured pH ranges from about 0.9 to 2.1, up to one year
of exposure. The test specimens were immersed in sulfuric acid solution in a
container; the ratio of the volume of the acid solution to the volume of the specimens
was 4. The solution was stirred every week and replaced every month. The acid
resistance of geopolymer concrete and geopolymer mortar was then evaluated based
on the change in compressive strength and the change in mass after acid exposure.
31
3.10.1. Tests on Geopolymer Concrete
The test specimens for acid resistance test on geopolymer concrete were 100x200
mm cylinders for both the compressive strength test and the change in mass test. The
test parameters are summarised in Table 3.8. Mixture-1 (Table 3.3) was used for all
tests and the specimens were dry cured at 60oC for 24 hours.
Table 3.8 Test Parameters of Acid Resistance Test on Geopolymer Concrete
Parameters to Concentration of Exposure period

Specimens
study acid solution (weeks)
Residual 0.5%
Cylinder
compressive 1% 1, 4, 12, 24 & 52
100x200 mm
strength 2%
Up to 52 weeks
Change in Cylinder 2%
mass 100x200 mm (1 year)
For compressive strength test, the specimens were tested in saturated-surface-dry

(SSD) condition. On the day of test, the specimens were removed from the acid
solution container and wiped clean before testing. Specimens for change in mass test
were also removed from the acid solution container and wiped clean prior to the
measurement. Immediately after mass measurement using a laboratory scale, the
specimens were returned to the acid solution container.
3.10.2. Tests on Geopolymer Mortar
The test specimens for acid resistance test on geopolymer mortar were 75 mm cubes
for both compressive strength test and change in mass test. Table 3.9 gives the test
parameters for acid resistance test on mortar.
The mixture proportion of geopolymer mortar is given in Table 3.4. As for concrete,
the specimens were dry cured at 60oC for 24 hours. Test procedures were the same as
for the geopolymer concrete as described in Section 3.10.1.
32
Table 3.9 Test Parameters of Acid Resistance Test on Geopolymer Mortar
Parameters to Concentration of Exposure period

Specimens
study acid solution (weeks)
Residual 0.25%
compressive Cube 75 mm 0.5% 1, 4, 12, 24 & 52
strength 1%
Up to 52 weeks
Change in 1%
Cube 75 mm
mass (1 year)
33
CHAPTER 4:
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
4.1. Introduction
In this Chapter, the test results are presented and discussed. The test results cover the
effect of age on the compressive strength and unit-weight, and the long-term
properties of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. The long-term
properties include creep under sustained load, drying shrinkage, sulphate resistance,
and resistance to sulphuric acid.
Test specimens were made using geopolymer concrete Mixture-1 and Mixture-2, and
the geopolymer mortar. The details of these mixtures, the manufacturing process,
and the test details are given in Chapter 3.
Each test result plotted in the Figures or given in the Tables is the mean value of
results obtained from at least three specimens.
4.2. Compressive Strength and Unit Weight
4.2.1 Mean Compressive Strength and Unit Weight
For each batch of geopolymer concrete made in this study, 100x200 mm cylinders
specimens were prepared. At least three of these cylinders were tested for
compressive strength at an age of seven days after casting. The unit weight of
specimens was also determined at the same time. For these numerous specimens
made from Mixture-1 and Mixture-2 and cured at 60oC for 24 hours, the average
results are presented in Table 4.1.
34
Table 4.1. Mean Compressive Strength and Unit Weight
Compressive strength
Unit weight (kg/m3)
Curing (MPa)
Mixture
type Standard Standard
Average Average
Deviation Deviation
Dry curing
Mixture-1 58 6 2379 17
(oven)
Steam
56 3 2388 15
curing
Dry curing
Mixture-2 45 7 2302 52
(oven)
Steam
36 8 2302 49
curing
4.2.2. Effect of Age on Compressive Strength and Unit Weight
In order to study the effect of age on compressive strength and unit weight, 100x200
mm cylinders were made from several batches of Mixture-1. The specimens were
cured in the oven (dry curing) for 24 hours at 60oC. The test results are presented in
Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.1 presents the ratio of the compressive strength of specimens at a particular
age as compared to the compressive strength of specimens from the same batch of
geopolymer concrete tested on the 7th day after casting. These test data show that the
compressive strength increases with age in the order of 10 to 20 percent when
compared to the 7th day compressive strength.
35
125
Ratio of compressive strength (%) 100
75
50
25
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Age (weeks)
Figure 4.1 Change in Compressive Strength of Heat-cured Geopolymer

Concrete with Age
Figure 4.2 presents the change in unit weight of concrete specimens left in the
laboratory at room temperature as a percentage of the value at one week after casting.
The unit weight of geopolymer concrete decreased slightly in the order of about 2
percent in the first few weeks but remained almost constant after that.
105
Ratio of unit weight (%)
100
95
90
85
80
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Age (weeks)
Figure 4.2 Change in Unit Weight of Heat-cured Geopolymer Concrete with Age
The test data shown in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 demonstrate the long-term
stability of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.
36
4.2.3. Compressive Strength of Specimens Cured at Ambient Conditions
In order to study the effect of curing in ambient conditions on the compressive

strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete, three batches of geopolymer concrete
were made using Mixture-1. The test specimens were 100x200 mm cylinders. The
first batch, called May 05, was cast in the month of May 2005, while the second
batch (July 05) was cast in the month of July 2005 and the third batch (September
05) in September 2005. The ambient temperature in May 2005 during the first week
after casting the concrete ranged from about 18 to 25oC, while this temperature was
around 8 to 18oC in July 2005 and 12 to 22oC in September 2005. The average
humidity in the laboratory during those months was between 40% and 60%.
The test cylinders were removed from the moulds one day after casting and left in
laboratory ambient conditions until the day of test.
The test results plotted in Figure 4.3 show that the 7th day compressive strength of
ambient-cured geopolymer concrete and the subsequent strength gain with respect to
age depend on the ambient temperature at the time of casting. The 7th day
compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete increased as the average
ambient temperature at casting increased. Also, the compressive strength of ambient-
cured geopolymer concrete significantly increased with the age.
In contrast, as reported in Section 4.2.1 and Section 4.2.2, fly ash-based geopolymer
concrete specimens cured at 60o C for 24 hours reached substantially larger 7th day
compressive strength than those cured in ambient conditions. Furthermore, the
strength gain with age of heat-cured geopolymer concrete specimens is not
significant (Figure 4.2).
The reasons for the differences in the behaviour of heat-cured versus ambient-cured
fly ash-based geopolymer concrete are not clear. Fundamental research in this area is
needed.
37
60
Compressive strength (MPa)

50
40
May-05
30 Jul-05
Sep-05
20
10
0
0 4 8 12
Age (weeks)
Figure 4.3 Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete Cured in Ambient

Condition
4.3. Creep
The creep behaviour of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete was studied for Mixture-1
and Mixture-2. The details of these Mixtures are given in Table 3.3 of Chapter 3.
The test specimens were 150x300 mm cylinders. They were cured at 60o C for 24
hours either by using dry curing in an oven or steam curing. The creep tests
commenced on the 7th day after casting the test specimens and the sustained stress
was 40% of the compressive strength on that day. The specimens made from
Mixture-1 were designated as 1CR and 2CR, and those made using Mixture-2 were
called 3CR and 4CR. Specimens 1CR and 3CR were dry-cured, and specimens 2CR
and 4CR were steam-cured.
4.3.1. Test Results
Table 4.2 presents the 7th day compressive strength and the applied sustained stress
of creep specimens. It must be noted that dry curing resulted in higher compressive
strength than steam curing in the case of both Mixture-1 and Mixture-2.
38
Table 4.2. Compressive Strength and Sustained Stress of Creep Specimens
Test Designation 7th Day compressive Sustained stress

strength (MPa) (MPa)
1CR(dry) 67 27
2CR(steam) 57 23
3CR(dry) 47 19
4CR(steam) 40 16
Table 4.3 gives the sustained stress and the instantaneous strain measured
immediately after the application of the sustained load. Using these data, the
instantaneous elastic modulus was calculated as sustained stress/instantaneous strain.
The values of instantaneous elastic modulus, given in Table 4.3, are similar to those
reported earlier for fly ash-based geopolymer concrete (Hardjito et al 2004c, Hardjito
and Rangan 2005).
Table 4.3. Instantaneous Strain and Instantaneous Elastic Modulus
Test Sustained Instantaneous Instantaneous

Designation stress (MPa) strain Elastic Modulus (MPa)
(microstrain)
1CR 27 902 29574
2CR 23
851 26852
3CR 19
828 22913
4CR 16
761 21144
Figures 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7 present the total strain and the drying shrinkage strain
measured for a period of 52 weeks (one year). The total strain was measured on the
specimens in the creep test rig, while the drying shrinkage strain was obtained from
the companion unloaded specimens left in the vicinity of the creep specimens.
39
1600
1400
total strain
Strain ( microstrain)
1200
1000
800
600
400
drying shrinkage strain
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time under load (days)
Figure 4.4 Total Strain and Drying Shrinkage Strain for 1CR
1600
1400
total strain
Strain (microstrain)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
1600
1400
total strain
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
40
1600
1400
1200
total strain
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Creep strain data was obtained by subtracting the drying shrinkage strain from the
total strain. The creep strain including the instantaneous elastic strain data for
specimens 1CR, 2CR, 3CR, and 4CR are presented in Figures 4.8, 4.9, 4.10 and
4.11.
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 4.8 Creep Strain Data for 1CR
41
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
42
The creep coefficient, taken as the ratio of the creep strain to the instantaneous
strain, for the test specimens are show in Figures 4.12 to 4.15.
0.6
0.5
Creep coefficient
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 4.12 Creep Coefficient for 1CR
0.7
0.6
Creep coefficient
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
43
0.7
0.6
Creep coefficient
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0.7
0.6
Creep coefficient
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
The specific creep, defined as the creep strain per unit stress, data for the test
specimens are presented in Figure 4.16, 4.17, 4.18 and 4.19.
44
16
( microstrain per MPa)

12
Specific creep
8
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 4.16 Specific Creep for 1CR
24
20
(microstrain per MPa)
Specific creep
16
12
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
32
28
24
Specific creep
20
16
12
8
4
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
45
32
28

24
Specific creep
20
16
12
8
4
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
The test results in Figures 4.8 to 4.19 shows that the creep data fluctuated slightly
over the period of sustained loading. This might be due to the variations in the
relative humidity of the laboratory room where the creep test rig was housed.
The test results generally indicate that fly ash-based geopolymer undergoes lesser
creep compared to Portland cement concrete. Warner et al (1998) illustrated that for
Portland cement concrete the specific creep of 60 MPa concrete after one year was
about 50 to 60 microstrain/MPa, while this value after six months was about 30 to 40
microstrain/MPa for 80 MPa concrete and about 20 to 30 microstrain/MPa for 90
MPa concrete. Similarly, Malhotra and Mehta (2002) reported that the specific creep
of high-performance high volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete was about 24 to 32
microstrain/MPa after one year. Those values are generally larger than the values
given in Figures 4.16 to Figure 4.19 for geopolymer concrete. This fact becomes
more obvious when the creep data of geopolymer concrete are compared with the
values predicted by the draft Australian Standard for Concrete Structures AS3600
(2005) as discussed in Section 4.3.3.
4.3.2. Effect of Compressive Strength
The effect of concrete compressive strength on the creep of fly ash-based

geopolymer concrete is illustrated in Figure 4.20. The test data show that the specific
creep of geopolymer concrete decreased as the compressive strength increased. This
46
test trend is similar to that observed in the case of Portland cement concrete as
reported by Neville et al (1983), (Gilbert, 1988), Warner et al (1998) and Neville
(2000).
The values of specific creep of geopolymer concrete after one year of loading are
summarised in Table 4.4. It can be seen that the specific creep values differ
significantly between geopolymer concretes with compressive strength of 47, 57, and
67 MPa, whereas this value for geopolymer concrete with compressive strength of 40
MPa is almost the same as that of 47 MPa concrete.
35
30
25
Specific creep
67 MPa (1CR)
20 57 MPa (2CR)
15 47 MPa (3CR)
40 MPa (4CR)
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 4.20 Effect of Compressive Strength on Creep of Geopolymer Concrete
Table 4.4. Specific Creep of Geopolymer Concrete
Compressive strength Specific creep after one year

Designation
(MPa) loading (x10-6/MPa)
1CR 67 15
2CR 57 22
3CR 47 28
4CR 40 29
4.3.3 Correlation of Test Results with Predictions by Australian Standard AS3600
There are many methods available in the literature to predict the creep of Portland
cement concrete. Based on extensive studies, Gilbert (2002) has proposed a simple
47
method to calculate the creep coefficient of Portland cement concrete. This method is
incorporated in the draft version of the forthcoming Australian Standard for Concrete
Structures AS3600 (2005). In this Section, Gilbert’ s method is used to predict the
creep coefficients of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete reported in this work.
The Gilbert expression for calculating the creep coefficient is given by the following
equation:
ϕ cc = k 2 k 3 k 4 k 5ϕ cc.b (4-1)
The factor k2 , given by Equation 4-2, describes the development of creep with time
and depends on the hypothetical thickness (th). In Equation 4-2, t is the time (in days)
since first loading and α2 is given by Equation 4-3.
α 2 t 0.8
k2 = (4-2)
t 0.8 + 0.15t h
α 2 = 1.0 + 1.12e −0.008t h

(4-3)
The factor k3 is the maturity coefficient as given by Figure 4.21. For the strength
ratio, f’ c is the characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days and
fcm is the mean value of the compressive strength of concrete at relevant age.
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Strength ratio (fcm/f’c)
Figure 4.21 Maturity Coefficient k3 (Gilbert 2002)
48
The factor k4 accounts for the environment and is taken equal to 0.7 for an arid
environment, 0.65 for an interior environment, 0.60 for a temperate environment and
0.5 for a tropical/coastal environment.
The factor k5 accounts for the relative humidity and the member size and is given by
Equations 4-4a and 4-4b.
When f’ c < 50 MPa:
k5 = 1.0 (4-4a)
When 50 MPa < f’ c < 100 MPa:
k5 = (2.0 - α3) – 0.02 (1.0 - α3) f’ c (4-4b)
Where
0 .7
α3 = (4-5)
k 4α 2
The hypothetical thickness (th) is given by Equation 4-6, where A is the cross-
sectional area of the member and ue is that part of the perimeter of the member cross-
section which is exposed to the atmosphere.
2A
th = (4-6)
ue
The basic creep coefficient ( ϕ cc.b ) is given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Basic Creep Coefficient (Gilbert 2002)
f’ c 25 32 40 50 65
20 80 100
(MPa)
ϕ cc.b 5.2 4.2 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.5
The comparison of the experimental results with the values calculated by Gilbert’ s
method is given in Figures 4.22 to 4.25. The details of the calculations are given in
Appendix A. Because the effect of age on the compressive strength of heat-cured fly
ash-based geopolymer concrete is not significant (see Section 4.2.2), the strength
ratio fcm/f’ c is taken as equal to 1.0 and the maturity coefficient, k3 = 1.1 (Figure
49
4.21). The environmental factor, k4 is taken as equal to 0.65 (interior environment)
because the creep tests were conducted in an interior environment.
3000
2500
2000
f’c = 67 MPa
1500
1000
Test
500
Prediction
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Time (weeks)
Figure 4.22 Correlation of Test and Predicted Creep Strain Data: Specimen 1CR
3000
2500
2000
f’c = 57 MPa
1500
1000
Test
500
Prediction
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Time (weeks)
50
3500
3000
Strain (microstrain) 2500
f’c = 47 MPa
2000
1500
1000
Test
500
Prediction
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Time (weeks)
3500
3000
2500
f’c = 40 MPa
2000
1500
1000
Test
500
Prediction
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Time (weeks)
Figures 4.22 to 4.25 show that the measured strains of fly ash-based geopolymer
concrete are significantly smaller than the predicted values. As discussed earlier in
Section 4.3.1, the creep strains of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete are generally
smaller than that of Portland cement concrete. The exact reasons for this difference
in behaviour are not known. However, it has been suggested by Davidovits (2005a)
that the smaller creep strains of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete may be due to
‘block-polymerisation’ concept. According to this concept, the silicon and
aluminium atoms in the fly ash are not entirely dissolved by the alkaline liquid. The
51
‘polymerisation’ that takes place only on the surface of the atoms is sufficient to
form the ‘blocks’ necessary to produce the geopolymer binder. Therefore, the insides
of the atoms are not destroyed and remain stable, so that they can act as ‘micro-
aggregates’ in the system.
In Portland cement concrete, the creep is primarily caused by the cement paste. The
aggregates are generally inert component of the mixtures, and function to resist the
creep of the cement paste. Therefore, the aggregate content in the concrete is a
significant factor influencing the creep of the concrete as the creep will decrease with
the increase in the quantity of the aggregates. The proportion of aggregates in the
mixtures of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete used in this work is approximately
similar to that used in Portland cement concrete. However, the presence of the
‘micro-aggregates’ due to the ‘block-polymerisation’ concept mentioned above gives
the effect of increasing the aggregate content in the concrete. In other words, the
presence of the ‘micro-aggregates’ increases the creep resisting function of the fly
ash-based geopolymer concrete which results in smaller creep compared to Portland
cement concrete without ‘micro-aggregates’ .
4.4. Drying Shrinkage
The drying shrinkage behaviour of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete was studied
for Mixture-1 and Mixture-2. The proportions of these Mixtures and the details of the
drying shrinkage tests are given in Chapter 3. The drying shrinkage measurements
commenced on the third day after casting. Therefore, the age ‘zero’ in the drying
shrinkage strain versus age in days plots shown in Figures 4.26 to 4.33 represents
three days after casting when the first initial measurements were taken.
4.4.1. Drying Shrinkage of Heat-cured Geopolymer Concrete Specimens
The test specimens, heat-cured at 60oC for 24 hours, were identified as given in
Table 4.6. The 7th day compressive strengths of the Mixtures are also given in Table
4.6.
52
Table 4.6. Heat-cured Geopolymer Concrete Shrinkage Specimens
7th Day
Test Curing type
Type of mixture compressive
Designation
strength (MPa)
1DS Mixture-1 dry 65
2DS Mixture-1 steam 57
3DS Mixture-2 dry 50
4DS Mixture-2 steam 41
Figures 4.26 and 4.27 show the drying shrinkage strain versus age in days plots of
heat-cured test specimens. It can be seen from these Figures that heat-cured fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete undergoes very low drying shrinkage. For all test
specimens, the drying shrinkage strain after one-year period was only around 100
micro strains.
The test data plotted in Figures 4.26 and 4.27 show that the drying shrinkage strains
fluctuated slightly over the period of measurement. This could be attributed to the
moisture movement from the environment to the concrete or vice versa which causes
reversible shrinkage or swelling of the concrete. Also, there were some minor
differences in the measured values of drying shrinkage strains between dry and steam
cured specimens. However, these variations are considered to be insignificant in the
context of the very low drying shrinkage experienced by the heat-cured geopolymer
concrete specimens.
Water is released during the chemical reaction process of geopolymers (Davidovits

1999, Hardjito and Rangan 2005). In heat-cured fly ash-based geopolymer concrete,
most of the water released during the chemical reaction may evaporate during the
curing process. Because the remaining water contained in the micro-pores of the
hardened concrete is small, the induced drying shrinkage is also very low. In
addition, as for the creep (see Section 4.3.3), the presence of the ‘micro-aggregates’
in fly ash-based geopolymer concrete may also increase the restraining effect of the
aggregates on drying shrinkage.
53
600
500
Drying shrinkage strain

1DS (Dry curing)
400 2DS (Steam curing)
(microstrain) 300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400
Age (days)
Figure 4.26 Drying Shrinkage of Heat-cured Mixture-1 Specimens
600
500
3DS (Dry curing)

400 4DS (Steam curing)
(microstrain)
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Age (days)
Figure 4.27 Drying Shrinkage of Heat-cured Mixture-2 Specimens
4.4.2. Drying Shrinkage of Heat-cured Specimens versus Ambient-cured Specimens
A series of drying shrinkage specimens, designated as 5DS, were made using a batch
of Mixture-1. One set of these specimens was left in the ambient conditions of the
laboratory and another set of specimens was heat-cured in the oven at 60oC for 24
hours. These sets of specimens were cast in November 2005. The test results
obtained from these two sets of specimens are presented in Figure 4.28. The 7th day
compressive strength of the specimens was 27 MPa for ambient-cured specimens and
61 MPa for heat-cured specimens.
54
1400
1200
1000
(microstrain)
800
Ambient curing
600
Heat curing
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Age (days)
Figure 4.28 Drying Shrinkage of Heat-cured and Ambient-cured Specimens
It can be seen that the drying shrinkage strains of the specimens cured in ambient
conditions are many folds larger than those experienced by the heat-cured specimens.
As noted earlier, water is released during chemical reaction process of geopolymers.
In the specimens cured in ambient conditions, this water may evaporate over a period
of time causing significantly large drying shrinkage strains especially in first two
weeks as can be seen in Figure 4.28.
4.4.3 Correlation of Test results with Predictions by Australian Standard AS3600
The measured drying shrinkage strains are compared with the values predicted by a
method proposed by Gilbert (2002) for inclusion in the forthcoming Australian
Standard for Concrete Structures AS3600 (2005).
The method proposed by Gilbert divides the total shrinkage strain (εcs) into
endogenous shrinkage (εcse) and drying shrinkage (εcsd). Endogenous shrinkage is
taken as the sum of chemical shrinkage and thermal shrinkage. The total shrinkage
strain is given by Equation 4-7 and the endogenous shrinkage at any time t (in days)
after concrete placement is given by Equation 4-8.
ε cs = ε cse + ε csd (4-7)
55
ε cse = ε cse * (1.0 − e −0.1t ) (4-8)
Where εcse* is the final endogenous shrinkage and may be taken as
*
ε cse = ( 0 . 06 f ’c − 1 . 0 ) × 50 × 10 −6
(4-9)
in which f’ c is in MPa.
The drying shrinkage at time t (in days) after the commencement of drying may be
taken as
ε csd = k1k 4ε csd .b (4-10)
ZKHUH csd.b is given by Equation 4-11. In Equation 4- csd.b

*
depends on the quality
of the local aggregates and may be taken as 800 x 10-6 for Sydney and Brisbane, 900
x 10-6 for Melbourne and 1000 x 10-6 elsewhere.
ε csd .b = (1.0 − 0.008 f ’c ) × ε csd .b * (4-11)
The factor k1 in Equation 4-10 is given by Equation 4-12, and the factor k4, as for
creep as discussed previously, is taken equal to 0.7 for an arid environment, 0.65 for
an interior environment, 0.6 for a temperate inland environment and 0.5 for a tropical
or near-coastal environment.
α1t 0.8
k1 = (4-12)
t 0.8 + 0.15t h
where
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e −0.005t h
(4-13)
and the hypothetical thickness, th is the same as is given by Equation 4-6.
The measured shrinkage strains are compared with the predictions by Gilbert method
in Figures 4.29 to 4.33. In these calculations, the factor k4 was taken as equal to 0.65
as the test specimens were exposed to an interior environment and the value of f’ c
56
was taken as the 7th day compressive strength of the test specimens as given in Table
4.6 and in Section 4.4.2.
700
Strain (microstrain) 600
500
400
test, drying shrinkage
300 prediction, total shrinkage
200 prediction, drying shrinkage
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Age (days)
Figure 4.29 Comparison of Test and Predicted Shrinkage Strains for 1DS
800
700
600
500
400 test, drying shrinkage

prediction, drying shrinkage
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Age (days)
57
800
700
600
500
test, drying shrinkage
400
prediction, total shrinkage
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Age (days)
900
800
700
600
300 prediction, drying shrinkage
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Age (days)
It can be seen from Figures 4.29 to 4.32 that the measured drying shrinkage strains of
heat-cured fly ash-based geopolymer concrete specimens are significantly smaller
than the predicted values. On the other hand, for the specimens cured in ambient
conditions (Figure 4.33), the drying shrinkage strains are significantly larger than the
predicted values.
58
1400
1200
1000
800
600

prediction, total shrinkage
200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Age (days)
4.5. Sulfate Resistance
A series of tests were performed to study the sulfate resistance of fly ash-based
geopolymer concrete. The details of the tests are described in Chapter 3. The test
specimens were soaked in 5% sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) solution. The sulfate
resistance was evaluated based on visual appearance, change in length, change in
mass, and change in compressive strength after sulfate exposure up to one year
period. All specimens were made using Mixture-1. The change in mass and change
in length test specimens were made using fly ash from Batch-1, while fly ash from
Batch-2 was used for the change in compressive strength test specimens. For
comparison, some specimens were soaked in tap water and some were left in the
laboratory ambient conditions. All specimens were heat-cured at 60oC for 24 hours.
4.5.1. Visual Appearance
The visual appearances of test specimens after different exposures are shown in
Figure 4.34. It can be seen that the visual appearance of the test specimens after
soaking in sodium sulfate solution up to one year revealed that there was no change
in the appearance of the specimens compared to the condition before they were
exposed. There was no sign of surface erosion, cracking or spalling on the
59
specimens. The specimens soaked in tap water also showed no change in the visual
appearance (Figure 4.34).
Soaked in 5% Soaked in Left in

sodium sulfate water ambient
solution condition
Figure 4.34 Visual Appearance of Geopolymer Concrete Specimens after One Year
of Exposure
4.5.2. Change in Length
Test results on the change in length of the specimens soaked in sodium sulfate
solution up to one year period are presented in Figure 4.35. It can be seen that the
change in length is extremely small and less than 0.015%.
Tikalsky and Carasquillo (1992) stated that concrete specimens that suffer an
expansion in the order of 0.5% must be considered as failed under sulphate attack.
The change in length of 0.015% experienced by heat-cured geopolymer concrete is
far from this limit of 0.5%. The change in length of geopolymer concrete is also
smaller than that of Portland cement concrete. For example, Wee et al (2000)
observed that the change in length of Portland cement concrete with water/binder
ratio of 0.4 to 0.5 was about 0.035 to 0.1% after 32 weeks of immersion in 5%
sodium sulfate solution.
Therefore, the test results shown in Figure 4.35 demonstrate that the heat-cured fly
ash-based geopolymer concrete has excellent resistance to sulphate attack.
60
0.100
0.080
Length change in %
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.000
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Exposure period (weeks)
Figure 4.35 Change in Length of Geopolymer Concrete Specimens Exposed to

Sodium Sulfate Solution
4.5.3. Change in Mass
Figure 4.36 presents the test results on the change in mass of specimens soaked in
sodium sulfate solution up to one year period as a percentage of the mass before
exposure. For comparison, Figure 4.36 also presents the change in mass of specimens
soaked in water for the corresponding period. It can be seen that there was no
reduction in the mass of the specimens, as confirmed by the visual appearance of the
specimens in Figure 4.34. There was a slight increase in the mass of specimens due
to the absorption of the exposed liquid. The increase in mass of specimens soaked in
sodium sulphate solution was approximately 1.5% after one year of exposure. In the
case of specimens soaked in tap water, this increase in mass was about 1.8%.
102
PPercentage to initial mass (%)
101
Soaked in sodium
sulfate solution
100
Soaked in water
99
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Figure 4.36 Change in Mass of Specimens Soaked in Sodium Sulfate Solution and
Water
61
4.5.4. Change in Compressive Strength
Change in compressive strength was determined by testing the specimens after 4

weeks, 8 weeks, 12 weeks, 24 weeks and 52 weeks (1 year) of soaking in sulphate
solution. For each period of exposure, the test specimens were made using a different
batch of geopolymer concrete (Mixture-1). For comparison, for every period of
exposure, a set of specimens from the same batch was also prepared, soaked in tap
water, and tested for compressive strength. Another set of specimens from the same
batch was also made and tested for compressive strength on the seventh day after
casting. The compressive strength of these specimens without any exposure was
taken as the reference compressive strength.
The test specimens soaked in liquids were removed from the immersion container,
wiped clean, and tested immediately in saturated-surface-dry (SSD) condition. The
test results for various exposure periods are presented in Figure 4.37 to Figure 4.41.
70
60
1 - 7th day compressive
50 strength (no exposure)
2 - soaked in sodium
40
sulfate solution
30 for 4 weeks
3 - soaked in water for 4
20 weeks
10
0
1 2 3
Exposure conditions
Figure 4.37 Compressive Strength of Geopolymer concrete After 4 Weeks of

Exposure
62
70
60

50 1 - 7th day compressive
strength (no exposure)
40 2 - soaked in sodium
sulfate solution
30 for 8 weeks
20 weeks
10
0
1 2 3
Exposure conditions
Figure 4.38 Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete After 8 Weeks of

Exposure
70
60

sulfate solution
30 for 12 weeks
20 weeks
10
0
1 2 3
Exposure conditions

Exposure
70
60

sulfate solution
30 for 24 weeks
20 weeks
10
0
1 2 3
Exposure conditions

Exposure
63
70
60
sulfate solution
30 for 52 weeks
20 weeks
10
0
1 2 3
Exposure conditions

Exposure
The test data shown in Figures 4.37 to 4.41 are recast in the first three columns of
Table 4.7 in the form of ratio of compressive strength after periods of exposure to the
reference 7th day compressive strength of specimens with no exposure. These test
results show that exposure of heat-cured fly ash-based geopolymer concrete to 5%
sodium sulfate solution caused very little change in the compressive strength.
In order to study the effect of specimen condition at the time of test on the
compressive strength of specimens exposed to sulfate solution, another set of
specimens were made using a single batch of Mixture-1. After various periods of
exposure, the specimens were removed from the sulfate solution and left to dry in the
laboratory ambient conditions for about one week before testing. The results of these
tests are presented in Table 4.7 under the heading ‘Dry condition’ . The trend of these
test data is also similar to that observed for the specimens tested in SSD condition.
64
Table 4.7 Change in Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete for Different
Test Conditions
Ratio of compressive strength to 7th day compressive strength

Exposure (no exposure), %
period SSD condition Dry condition
(weeks) Sulfate Water Sulfate Water
exposure exposure exposure exposure
4 102 101 103 *
8 93 96 * *
12 95 97 107 *
24 105 108 102 *
36 * * 107 *
52 111 103 111 *
* Not tested
It can also be seen from Table 4.7 that the period of exposure seems not to have
considerable effect on the compressive strength. The variations in the data are
considered to be insignificant. Test results also indicate that the effect of condition
of specimens at the time of compression test (SSD or Dry condition) is insignificant.
As can be seen from Table 4.7, the difference and the variation of the compressive
strength for various periods of exposure for both the conditions are marginal.
The deterioration of Portland cement concrete due to sulfate attack can be attributed
to the formation of expansive gypsum and ettringite which can cause expansion,
cracking and spalling in the concrete. Sulfates can react with various products of
hydrated cement paste to form gypsum and ettringite (Lea, 1970; Neville, 2000).
Sulfate ions in concrete could react with portlandite to form gypsum or react with
calcium aluminate hydrate to form calcium sulfoaluminate or ettringite. The
formation of gypsum and ettringite due to sulfate attack is very expansive since these
elements could absorb moisture so that their volume of solid phase could increase to
about 124% and 227%. Mehta (1983) also stated that the sulfate attack could lower
the stiffness of the cement paste and increase the water-absorption capacity of the
ettringite. Besides the disruptive expansion and cracking, sulfate attack could also
cause loss of strength of concrete due to the loss of cohesion in the hydrated cement
paste and of adhesion between it and aggregate particles (Neville, 2000).
65
Various studies have been reported to identify the role of fly ash as supplementary
cementing material in Portland cement concrete in improving the sulfate resistance
concrete (Malhotra & Mehta, 2002; Tikalsky & Carrasquillo, 1992; Torii et. al.,
1995). Some important factors identified which contributes to better resistance to
sulfate attack include the low content of calcium oxide in fly ash or calcium
hydroxide in concrete and the fine and discontinuous pore structure that results in
low permeability.
Fly ash-based geopolymer concrete undergoes a different mechanism to that of

Portland cement concrete and the geopolymerisation products are also different from
hydration products. The main product of geopolymerisation, as given by Equation 2-
2 is not susceptible to sulfate attack like the hydration products. Because there is
generally no gypsum or ettringite formation in the main products of
geopolymerisation, there is no mechanism of sulfate attack in fly ash-based
geopolymer concrete. However, to some extent, the formation of gypsum and
ettringite might happen depending on the presence of calcium in the concrete as
identified by Song et al (2005b). The source of calcium could be either from the fly
ash or the aggregates.
In the present work, low-calcium fly ash was used as the source material. The test
results presented in this Section clearly demonstrate the excellent resistance of heat-
cured low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete to sulfate attack.
4.6. Acid Resistance
Acid resistance of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete was studied by soaking

concrete and mortar specimens in various concentrations of sulfuric acid solution up
to one year, and by evaluating the behaviour in terms of visual appearance, change in
mass and change in compressive strength after exposure. Mixture-1 (Table 3.3) was
used to manufacture the concrete specimens and, the mortar specimens were made
using the mixture proportion given in Table 3.4. Fly ash from Batch-2 was used for
all concrete and mortar specimens. The test specimens were heat-cured at 60oC for
24 hours. The sulphuric acid solution was stirred each week and was replaced every
month.
66
4.6.1. Visual Appearance
Figure 4.42 compares the visual appearance of the geopolymer concrete specimens
after soaking in various concentrations of sulfuric acid solution for a period of one
year with the specimen without acid exposure and left in ambient conditions of the
laboratory. It can be seen that the specimens exposed to sulfuric acid undergoes
erosion of the surface. The damage to the surface of the specimens increased as the
concentration of the acid solution increased.
2% sulfuric 1% sulfuric 0.5% sulfuric Left at ambient

acid solution acid solution acid solution condition
Figure 4.42 Visual Appearance after One Year Exposure in Sulfuric Acid Solution
Erosion of specimen surfaces was also observed in geopolymer mortar specimens

after one year of exposure in sulfuric acid solution, as shown in Figure 4.43. The
severity of the damage and the distortion of the shape of specimens depended on the
concentration of the solution, as seen in Figure 4.43.
67
1% sulfuric acid 0.5% sulfuric acid 0.25% sulfuric acid Ambient condition
Figure 4.43 Visual Appearance of Geopolymer Mortar Specimens after One Year
Exposure in Sulfuric Acid Solution
The visual inspection of the broken pieces of concrete cylinders after the
compression test revealed that the acid damage of the specimens, soaked in 2%
sulphuric acid solution for one year, seems to have occurred in the outer 20 mm shell
of the 100 mm diameter test cylinders (Figure 4.44).
Figure 4.44 Damage to Test Cylinders Exposed to 2% Sulfuric Acid Solution
4.6.2. Test on Concrete Specimens
For the change in compressive strength test, 100x200 mm geopolymer concrete

cylinders were soaked in 2%, 1%, and 0.5% concentrations of sulfuric acid. For
68
change in mass test, the specimens were soaked only in 2% concentration of sulfuric
acid, the highest among the three chosen concentrations.
Figure 4.45 shows the change in mass after sulfuric acid exposure up to a period of
one year. The test results show that there is a slight mass gain during the first week
of exposure due to the mass of solution absorbed by the concrete, as also indicated
by the change in mass of specimens soaked in water (Figure 4.36). The mass loss
shown in Figure 4.45 is about 3% after one year of exposure. However, by taking
into account the mass of absorbed solution, using the rate of water absorption
discussed in Section 4.5.3 as a reference, the net mass loss after one year of exposure
could be around 5% of the initial mass before soaking. This mass loss is considerably
smaller that of Portland cement concrete. By exposing to 5% sulfuric acid and
hydrochloric acid, Davidovits (1994b) reported that geopolymeric cements remained
stable in acidic environment with mass loss in the range of 5-8%, compared to 30 to
60% mass loss of calcium-aluminate cement and total destruction of Portland
cements. The period of exposure was not stated in the work. Song et al (2005a) also
showed the superiority of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete in acidic environment
compared to Portland cement concrete. By exposing the concrete to 10% sulfuric
acid solution, it was found that the mass loss of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete
was less than 3% after 56 days of exposure while the Portland cement concrete lost
41% of the mass after just 28 days of exposure. Gourley and Johnson (2005) also
reported similar results by using a repeated immersion test in sulfuric acid with
pH=1. After about 30 cycles, the geopolymer concrete lost only less than 2% of mass
while the Portland cement concrete had about 11% mass loss.
69
102
100
Change in mass (%)
98
96
94
92
90
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Exposure time (weeks)
Figure 4.45 Change in Mass of Geopolymer Concrete Exposed to 2% Concentration

of Sulfuric Acid Solution
Figures 4.46 to 4.48 show the change in compressive strength of geopolymer

concrete for three different concentrations of sulfuric acid solution. Each of these
Figures presents the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete after 4 weeks, 12
weeks, 24 weeks and 52 weeks of acid exposure, and compares these results with
reference to the compressive strength of unexposed specimens tested one week after
casting. The specimens exposed to 2% of sulfuric acid solution were made using a
different batch of concrete for each exposure period and, therefore, there were minor
variations in the reference compressive strength from batch to batch. The specimens
exposed to 1% or 0.5% sulfuric acid solution were made using the same batch for all
the exposure periods.
70
70
Tested at one week after
Compressive strength (MPa) 60 casting
50 soaked in 2% sulfuric acid

solution
40
30 Exposure period:
1 - 4 weeks
2 - 12 weeks
20 3 - 24 weeks
4 - 52 weeks
10
0
1 2 3 4
Exposure period
Figure 4.46 Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete Exposed to 2% Sulfuric

Acid Solution
70
60
Comp. Strength (MPa)
50 Exposure period:
1 - No exposure
2 - 4 weeks
40
3 - 12 weeks
4 - 24 weeks
30
5 - 52 weeks
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Exposure period
Figure 4.47 Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete Exposed to 1% Sulfuric

Acid Solution
71
60
50
Comp. strength (MPa)

40 Exposure period:
1 - No exposure
2 - 4 weeks
30 3 - 12 weeks
4 - 24 weeks
20 5 - 52 weeks
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Exposure period
Figure 4.48 Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete Exposed to 0.5%

Sulfuric Acid Solution
Figure 4.49 summarises the test data presented in Figures 4.46 to 4.48 in terms of the
residual compressive strength of geopolymer concrete after acid exposure as a
percentage of the 7th day compressive strength of unexposed specimens.
120
strength/unexposed 7 th day
compressive strength (%)
100
Residual compressive
80
60
40
20 2% 1% 0.50%
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Exposure tim e (w eeks)
Figure 4.49 Residual Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete after Exposure

to Sulfuric Acid Solution
It can be seen from Figure 4.49 that the degradation in the compressive strength of
geopolymer concrete due to sulfuric acid exposure depends on the concentration of
the acid solution and the period of exposure. The degradation in compressive
strength increased as the concentration of the acid solution and the period of
72
exposure increased. For geopolymer concrete exposed to 2% sulfuric acid solution,
the rate of degradation was fast during the first six months but after that the change
was not significant up to one year of exposure. A relatively constant rate of strength
degradation throughout the exposure period was observed for geopolymer concrete
exposed to 1% sulfuric acid solution. On the other hand, for geopolymer concrete
exposed to 0.5% sulfuric acid solution, the change in compressive strength during the
first six months of exposure was negligible but the degradation became significant
between the exposure periods of six months and one year. For the geopolymer
concrete exposed to 0.5% concentration of sulphuric acid solution the compressive
strength decreased about 20% after one year exposure. This value was about 52%
and 65% respectively for geopolymer concrete exposed to 1% and 2% concentration.
The degradation in compressive strength of geopolymeric materials exposed to

sulfuric acid solution was also reported by Song et al (2005a) and Bakharev (2005c).
Song et al noted that the reduction in compressive strength was in the range of 32 to
37% after 56 days of exposure to 10% sulfuric acid solution. Bakharev suggested
that the degradation in strength is related to depolymerisation of aluminosilicate
polymers in acidic media and the formation of zeolites.
The acid resistance of geopolymer concrete must be considered in relation to the

performance of Portland cement concrete in a similar environment. Past research
data have shown that geopolymeric materials perform much better in acid resistance
compared to Portland cement (Davidovits 1994, Song et al 2005, Gourley and
Johnson 2005). The better performance of geopolymeric materials than that of
Portland cement in acidic environment might be attributed to the lower calcium
content of the source material as a main possible factor since geopolymer concrete
does not rely on lime like Portland cement concrete. Some studies have been
reported on better performance in acidic environment of concrete containing lower
calcium content than Portland cement. Bakharev (2003) reported the resistance of
alkali-activated slag (AAS) concrete to acid attack. It was found that AAS concrete
with about 40% CaO performed better than Portland cement concrete with 65% of
CaO. The reduction in compressive strength of AAS concrete was about 33%
compared to 47% strength reduction of Portland cement concrete. Chang et al (2005)
studied the acid resistance of Portland cement concretes with various supplementary
73
cementitious materials. They observed that concretes produced by mixing Portland
cement with silica fume and fly ash had the lowest calcium content and, therefore,
performed the best among the other mixtures in acidic environment.
4.6.3. Tests on Mortar Specimens
The geopolymer mortar test specimens (75 mm cubes) were exposed to 1%, 0.5%,
and 0.25% concentrations of sulfuric acid solution and the change in compressive
strength was determined. The change in mass was determined only for the highest
concentration (1%). The purpose of these tests was to evaluate the effect of the
coarse aggregate on the aid resistance of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.
The average 7th day compressive strength of mortar cubes was 41 MPa with a
standard deviation of 4 MPa. The average unit weight was 2015 kg/m3 with a
standard deviation of 75 kg/m3.
Figure 4.50 presents the change in mass of geopolymer mortar cubes for exposure
periods up to one year. The mass loss after one year of exposure was about 1.5%, but
the net mass loss would be slightly higher after allowing for the mass of absorbed
solution.
102
100
Change in mass (%)
98
96
94
92
90
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Figure 4.50 Change in Mass of Geopolymer Mortar Cubes Exposed to 1%

Concentration of Sulfuric Acid Solution
74
Figure 4.51 presents the change in compressive strength of geopolymer mortar cubes
exposed to the different concentrations of sulfuric acid solution with reference to the
average 7th day compressive strength of unexposed specimens.
100
strength/unexposed 7th day
1% 0.5% 0.25%
compressive strength (%) 80
Residual compressive
60
40
20
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Exposure time (weeks)
Figure 4.51 Residual Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Mortar Cubes Exposed

to Various Concentrations of Sulfuric Acid Solution
As for the geopolymer concrete specimens, there was degradation in the compressive
strength of geopolymer mortar cubes exposed to sulfuric acid solution. The general
trends of test data presented in Figure 4.51 are similar those shown in Figure 4.49.
However, the extent of degradation in compressive strength of mortar specimens was
larger compared to that of concrete specimens. The decrease in the compressive
strength of geopolymer mortar cubes after one year of exposure was about 55%, 75%
and 88% for acid solution concentration of 0.25, 0.5% and 1% respectively.
The test results suggest that the degradation in the compressive strength is mainly
due to the degradation of the geopolymer matrix rather than the aggregates. Since the
mortar contained about 50% (by mass) of binder, when compared to about 23% (by
mass) of binder in the concrete, the extent of degradation in the compressive strength
of mortar was larger than that of concrete. It appears that the percentage mass of
aggregates in a mixture influence the sulfuric acid resistant of geopolymer concrete,
in addition to the effect of type of aggregates as observed by Song et. al(2005b).
75
CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSIONS
5.1. Introduction
This Chapter presents a brief summary of the study and a set of conclusions.
In this work, the long-term properties of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer

concrete were studied. The long-term properties included in the study were creep,
drying shrinkage, sulfate resistance, and sulfuric acid resistance.
Fly ash-based geopolymer concrete in this study utilised the low-calcium (ASTM
Class F) dry fly ash as the source material. The alkaline liquid comprised a
combination of sodium silicate solution and sodium hydroxide solids in flakes or
pellets form dissolved in water. Coarse and fine aggregates used in the local concrete
industry were used. The coarse aggregates were crushed granite-type aggregates
comprising 20 mm, 14 mm and 7 mm and the fine aggregate was fine sand. High
range water reducer super plasticiser was used to improve the workability of fresh
geopolymer concrete.
The mixture proportions used in this study were developed based on previous study
on fly ash-based geopolymer concrete (Hardjito and Rangan, 2005). Two different
mixtures, Mixture-1 and Mixture-2, were used for the concrete specimens and one
mixture for the mortar specimens. The average compressive strength of Mixture-1
was around 60 MPa and that of Mixture-2 was about 40 MPa.
Tests specimens were manufactured in the laboratory using the equipments normally
used for Portland cement concrete, such as a pan mixer, steel moulds and vibrating
table. The aggregates were first mixed with the fly ash in the pan mixer for about 3
minutes. The alkaline liquid was mixed with the super plasticiser and extra water (if
any). The liquid component of the mixture was then added to the dry mix and the
mixing continued for another 4 minutes. The fresh concrete was then cast into the
moulds in three layers for cylindrical specimens or two layers for prismatic
specimens. The specimens were compacted layer by layer by using 60 to 80 manual
76
strokes by a rodding bar, followed by vibration on a vibrating table for 12 to 15
seconds.
After casting, most of the specimens were heat-cured at 60oC for 24 hours. Some
specimens were cured in ambient conditions of the laboratory. For heat-curing, either
steam curing or dry (oven) curing was used.
Test procedures used in this study were based on available or modified procedures
normally used for Portland cement concrete either from the available standards such
as the Australian Standard or ASTM, or from the previously published works in the
areas within this study.
The creep behaviour of fly-ash based geopolymer concrete was studied for both
Mixture-1 and Mixture-2. For each mixture, 150x300 mm cylinders were made. The
test specimens were heat-cured either in the oven or in the steam-curing chamber.
The specimens were loaded on the 7th day after casting. The sustained stress on the
specimens was about 40 percent of the 7th day compressive strength. The creep tests
were conducted up to a period of one year.
As in the case of creep test, Mixture-1 and Mixture-2 were also used to study the
drying shrinkage behaviour of heat-cured geopolymer concrete. In addition, a series
of specimens made from Mixture-1 were cured in ambient conditions of the
laboratory, without any heat-curing. The shrinkage test specimens were 75x75x285
mm prisms for drying shrinkage test and 100x200 mm cylinders for compressive
strength test. For heat-cured specimens the drying shrinkage was observed for the
period up to one year, while for ambient-cured specimens it was observed only up to
three months period. The initial measurement, considered as age ‘zero’ , took place
on the 3rd day after casting the specimens.
For sulfate resistance tests, only Mixture-1 was used. The test specimens were
immersed in 5% sodium sulfate solution for various periods of exposure up to one
year. The sulfate resistance was evaluated based on the change in mass, change in
length and change in compressive strength of the specimens after sulfate exposure.
77
The test specimens were 100x200 mm cylinders for change in mass and change in
compressive strength tests and 75x75x285 mm prisms for change in length test.
The sulfuric acid resistance of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete was studied for
Mixture-1. In addition, the sulfuric acid resistance test was also conducted on
geopolymer mortar specimens to study the effect of the coarse aggregates on the acid
resistance of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. The concentration of sulfuric acid
solution was 2%, 1% and 0.5% for soaking concrete specimens and 1%, 0.5% and
0.25% for soaking mortar specimens. The sulfuric acid resistance of geopolymer
concrete and geopolymer mortar was evaluated based on the mass loss and the
residual compressive strength of the test specimens after acid exposure up to one
year. The test specimens were 100x200 mm cylinders for concrete specimens and 75
mm cubes for mortar specimens.
For each type of test, companion specimens were prepared and tested to determine
the 7th day compressive strength. As the 7th day compressive strength did not change
significantly, this value was used as a standard or reference compressive strength to
which the other values of compressive strength were compared.
Calculations were performed to predict the creep and drying shrinkage of

geopolymer concrete using Gilbert (2002) method incorporated in the draft version
of the forthcoming Australian Standard for Concrete Structures AS3600 (2005). The
test results were compared with the calculated values.
5.2. Conclusions
Based on the test results, the following conclusions are drawn:

1. There is no substantial gain in the compressive strength of heat-cured fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete with age.
2. Fly ash-based geopolymer concrete cured in the laboratory ambient conditions
gains compressive strength with age. The 7th day compressive strength of
ambient-cured specimens depends on the average ambient temperature during the
first week after casting; higher the average ambient temperature higher is the
compressive strength.
78
3. Heat-cured fly ash-based geopolymer concrete undergoes low creep. The specific
creep, defined as the creep strain per unit stress, after one year ranged from 15 to
29 x 10-6/MPa for the corresponding compressive strength of 67 MPa to 40 MPa.
4. The creep coefficient, defined as the ratio of creep strain-to-instantaneous strain,
after one year for heat-cured geopolymer concrete with compressive strength of
40, 47 and 57 MPa is around 0.6 to 0.7; for geopolymer concrete with
compressive strength of 67 MPa this value is around 0.4 to 0.5. These values are
about 50% of those experienced by Portland cement concrete, as predicted by
Gilbert method given in the draft Australian Standard for Concrete Structures
AS3600 (2005).
5. The heat-cured fly ash-based geopolymer concrete undergoes very little drying
shrinkage in the order of about 100 micro strains after one year. This value is
significantly smaller than the range of values of 500 to 800 micro strain for
Portland cement concrete, as predicted by Gilbert method given in the draft
Australian Standard for Concrete Structures AS3600 (2005).
6. The drying shrinkage strain of ambient-cured specimens is in the order of 1500
microstrains after three months. This value is many folds larger than that of heat-
cured specimens, and the most part of that occurs during the first few weeks.
7. The test results demonstrate that heat-cured fly ash-based geopolymer concrete
has an excellent resistance to sulfate attack. There is no damage to the surface of
test specimens after exposure to sodium sulfate solution up to one year. There are
no significant changes in the mass and the compressive strength of test specimens
after various periods of exposure up to one year. These test observations indicate
that there is no mechanism to form gypsum or ettringite from the main products
of polymerisation in heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.
8. Exposure to sulfuric acid solution damages the surface of heat-cured geopolymer
concrete test specimens and causes a mass loss of about 3% after one year of
exposure. The severity of the damage depends on the acid concentration.
9. The sulfuric acid attack also causes degradation in the compressive strength of
heat-cured geopolymer concrete; the extent of degradation depends on the
concentration of the acid solution and the period of exposure. However, the
sufuric acid resistance of heat-cured geopolymer concrete is significantly better
than that of Portland cement concrete as reported in earlier studies.
79
10. The tests on heat-cured geopolymer mortar specimens indicate that the
degradation in the compressive strength due to sulfuric acid attack is mainly due
to the degradation in the geopolymer matrix rather than the aggregates. The
degradation in compressive strength of mortar specimens is larger than that of
concrete specimens due to the larger geopolymer matrix content by mass of
mortar specimens.
80
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Standards-Australia. (1996a). Methods of testing concrete - Determination of creep
of concrete cylinders in compression. AS 1012.16-1996.
Standards-Australia. (1996b). Method of testing portland and blended cements -
Length change of portland and blended cement mortars exposed to a sulfate
solution. AS 2350.14-1996.
Standards-Australia. (1999). Methods of testing concrete - Determination of the
compressive strength of concrete specimens. AS 1012.9-1999.
Standards-Australia. (2005). Concrete Structures. Draft for Public Comment
(Revision of AS 3600 - 2001).
Swanepoel, J. C., & Strydom, C. A. (2002). Utilisation of fly ash in a geopolymeric
material. Applied Geochemistry, 17(8), 1143-1148.
Tikalsky, P. J., & Carrasquillo, R. L. (1992). Influence of Fly Ash on the Sulfate
Resistance of Concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 89(1), 69-75.
Torii, K., Taniguchi, K., & Kawamura, M. (1995). Sulfate Resistance of High Fly
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85
van Jaarsveld, J. G. S., van Deventer, J. S. J., & Lorenzen, L. (1997). The potential
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86
APPENDIX A
Creep Strain Calculations by Gilbert’s Method
87
Creep Prediction - Gilbert’s Method (1CR)
Compressive strength (MPa) f’c 67
Elastic strain (microstrain) ce 902
Hypothetical thickness (mm) th 75
Interior environment k4 0.65
Basic creep coefficient cc.b 1.96
fcm/f’c 1
Maturity coefficient k3 1.1
2 1.615
3 0.667
k5 0.887
t (days) k2 cc(t) cc(t) cc ce

-6 -6
( x 10 ) ( x 10 )
0 0.000 0.000 0 902
0.083 0.019 0.024 22 924
0.25 0.046 0.057 52 954
1 0.132 0.164 148 1050
2 0.216 0.269 243 1145
3 0.285 0.354 319 1222
4 0.343 0.426 384 1287
5 0.393 0.489 441 1344
6 0.438 0.545 492 1394
7 0.479 0.595 537 1440
14 0.684 0.849 767 1669
21 0.813 1.011 912 1815
28 0.906 1.126 1016 1918
42 1.031 1.282 1157 2059
56 1.114 1.384 1249 2152
70 1.174 1.458 1316 2219
84 1.219 1.515 1367 2269
112 1.283 1.595 1439 2342
147 1.337 1.662 1500 2402
168 1.361 1.691 1526 2429
196 1.386 1.722 1554 2457
231 1.411 1.753 1582 2485
252 1.423 1.768 1596 2498
280 1.437 1.785 1611 2514
308 1.448 1.800 1624 2527
336 1.458 1.812 1636 2538
364 1.467 1.823 1645 2548
88
fcm/f’c 1
2 1.615
3 0.667
k5 0.953

-6 -6
( x 10 ) ( x 10 )
0 0.000 0.000 0 851
0.083 0.019 0.029 25 876
0.25 0.046 0.069 59 910
1 0.132 0.199 169 1020
2 0.216 0.326 278 1129
3 0.285 0.430 366 1217
4 0.343 0.517 440 1291
5 0.393 0.594 505 1356
6 0.438 0.661 563 1414
7 0.479 0.723 615 1466
14 0.684 1.031 878 1729
21 0.813 1.227 1045 1896
28 0.906 1.367 1163 2015
42 1.031 1.556 1324 2176
56 1.114 1.681 1431 2282
70 1.174 1.771 1507 2358
84 1.219 1.839 1565 2416
112 1.283 1.936 1648 2499
147 1.337 2.017 1717 2568
168 1.361 2.053 1747 2599
196 1.386 2.091 1780 2631
231 1.411 2.128 1812 2663
252 1.423 2.147 1827 2678
280 1.437 2.167 1845 2696
308 1.448 2.185 1860 2711
336 1.458 2.200 1873 2724
364 1.467 2.214 1884 2735
89
fcm/f’c 1
2 1.615
3 0.667
k5 1.0

-6 -6
( x 10 ) ( x 10 )
0 0.000 0.000 0 829
0.083 0.019 0.035 29 858
0.25 0.046 0.083 69 897
1 0.132 0.237 197 1025
2 0.216 0.390 323 1152
3 0.285 0.513 425 1254
4 0.343 0.618 512 1340
5 0.393 0.709 587 1416
6 0.438 0.790 654 1483
7 0.479 0.863 715 1543
14 0.684 1.232 1020 1849
21 0.813 1.466 1214 2043
28 0.906 1.632 1352 2181
42 1.031 1.858 1540 2368
56 1.114 2.007 1663 2492
70 1.174 2.114 1752 2581
84 1.219 2.196 1819 2648
112 1.283 2.312 1916 2745
140 1.328 2.393 1983 2811
168 1.361 2.452 2031 2860
196 1.386 2.497 2069 2898
224 1.406 2.534 2099 2928
252 1.423 2.563 2124 2953
280 1.437 2.588 2145 2973
308 1.448 2.609 2162 2991
336 1.458 2.628 2177 3006
364 1.467 2.644 2190 3019
90
fcm/f’c 1
2 1.615
3 0.667
k5 1.0

-6 -6
( x 10 ) ( x 10 )
0 0.000 0.000 0 761
0.083 0.019 0.039 30 791
0.25 0.046 0.092 70 832
1 0.132 0.264 201 962
2 0.216 0.433 330 1091
3 0.285 0.570 434 1195
4 0.343 0.686 522 1284
5 0.393 0.788 600 1361
6 0.438 0.878 668 1430
7 0.479 0.959 730 1491
14 0.684 1.368 1042 1803
21 0.813 1.629 1240 2001
28 0.906 1.814 1381 2142
42 1.031 2.065 1572 2333
56 1.114 2.230 1698 2460
70 1.174 2.349 1789 2550
84 1.219 2.440 1858 2619
112 1.283 2.569 1956 2718
140 1.328 2.659 2024 2786
168 1.361 2.724 2074 2836
196 1.386 2.775 2113 2874
224 1.406 2.815 2144 2905
252 1.423 2.848 2169 2930
280 1.437 2.876 2190 2951
308 1.448 2.899 2208 2969
336 1.458 2.920 2223 2984
364 1.467 2.937 2236 2998
91
APPENDIX B
Shrinkage Strain Calculations by Gilbert’s Method
92
Shrinkage Prediction -
Gilbert’s Method (1DS)
Final endogenous shrinkage cse* 145
Quality of aggregate csd.b* 1000 x10-6, Perth
Basic drying shrinkage csd.b 480 x10-6
1 1.735
t (days) cse k1 csd cs

-6
(x10 ) (x10-6) (x10-6)
0 0 0.000 0 0
1 14 0.204 64 77
2 26 0.327 102 128
3 38 0.422 132 169
4 48 0.499 156 204
5 57 0.565 176 233
6 65 0.622 194 259
7 73 0.672 210 283
14 109 0.909 284 393
24 132 1.091 340 472
28 136 1.140 356 492
42 143 1.260 393 536
57 145 1.339 418 562
70 145 1.387 433 578
84 145 1.426 445 590
105 145 1.468 458 603
143 145 1.520 474 619
175 145 1.548 483 628
196 145 1.563 488 633
224 145 1.579 493 638
252 145 1.591 497 642
280 145 1.602 500 645
308 145 1.611 503 648
337 145 1.619 505 650
364 145 1.626 507 652
93
Shrinkage Prediction - Gilbert’s
Method (2DS)
1 1.735

-6 -6 -6
(x10 ) (x10 ) (x10 )
0 0 0.000 0 0
1 12 0.204 72 84
2 22 0.327 116 137
3 31 0.422 149 180
4 40 0.499 177 216
5 48 0.565 200 247
6 55 0.622 220 275
7 61 0.672 238 299
14 91 0.909 321 413
24 110 1.091 386 496
28 114 1.140 403 517
42 119 1.260 445 565
57 121 1.339 473 594
70 121 1.387 490 611
84 121 1.426 504 625
105 121 1.468 519 640
143 121 1.520 537 658
175 121 1.548 547 668
196 121 1.563 553 674
224 121 1.579 558 679
252 121 1.591 563 684
280 121 1.602 567 688
308 121 1.611 570 691
337 121 1.619 573 694
364 121 1.626 575 696
94
Method (3DS)
1 1.735

-6 -6 -6
(x10 ) (x10 ) (x10 )
0 0 0.000 0 0
1 10 0.204 80 89
2 18 0.327 127 146
3 26 0.422 164 190
4 33 0.499 195 228
5 39 0.565 220 260
6 45 0.622 243 288
7 50 0.672 262 312
14 75 0.909 355 430
24 91 1.091 425 516
28 94 1.140 445 539
42 99 1.260 491 590
57 100 1.339 522 622
70 100 1.387 541 641
84 100 1.426 556 656
105 100 1.468 573 673
143 100 1.520 593 693
175 100 1.548 604 704
196 100 1.563 609 709
224 100 1.579 616 716
252 100 1.591 621 721
280 100 1.602 625 725
308 100 1.611 628 728
337 100 1.619 631 731
364 100 1.626 634 734
95
Method (4DS)
1 1.735

-6 -6 -6
(x10 ) (x10 ) (x10 )
0 0 0.000 0 0
1 7 0.204 89 96
2 13 0.327 143 156
3 19 0.422 184 203
4 24 0.499 218 242
5 29 0.565 247 276
6 33 0.622 272 305
7 37 0.672 294 330
14 55 0.909 397 452
24 66 1.091 476 543
28 69 1.140 498 566
42 72 1.260 550 622
57 73 1.339 585 658
70 73 1.387 606 679
84 73 1.426 623 696
105 73 1.468 641 714
143 73 1.520 664 737
175 73 1.548 676 749
196 73 1.563 683 756
224 73 1.579 690 763
252 73 1.591 695 768
280 73 1.602 700 773
308 73 1.611 704 777
337 73 1.619 707 780
364 73 1.626 710 783
96
Method (5DS)
1 1.735

-6 -6 -6
(x10 ) (x10 ) (x10 )
0 0 0.000 0 0
1 3 0.204 104 107
2 6 0.327 167 172
3 8 0.422 215 223
4 10 0.499 254 265
5 12 0.565 288 300
6 14 0.622 317 331
7 16 0.672 342 358
14 23 0.909 463 487
24 28 1.091 556 584
28 29 1.140 581 610
42 31 1.260 642 672
57 31 1.339 682 713
70 31 1.387 707 738
84 31 1.426 727 758
97

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LOW-CALCIUM FLY ASH-BASED

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE: LONG-TERM

S. E. Wallah and B. V. Rangan

Heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete has excellent compressive

The authors are grateful to Emeritus Professor Joseph Davidovits, Director,

Figure 2.1 Chemical structures of polysialates 5

Figure 4.20 Creep of concrete of different strength 47

Table 2.1 Applications of Geopolymeric Materials Based on Si:Al Atomic 9

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials; it is usually

In this respect, the geopolymer technology proposed by Davidovits (1988a; 1988b)

1.3 Scope of the Work

1.4 Organisation of Report

Chapter 5 summarises and concludes the results of this study.

This Chapter presents a brief review of the terminology and chemistry of

2.2.1 Terminology and Chemistry

The term ‘geopolymer’ was first introduced by Davidovits in 1978 to describe a

where “z” is 1, 2 or 3 or higher up to 32; M is a monovalent cation such as potassium

Geopolymerization involves the chemical reaction of alumino-silicate oxides (Si2O5,

Unlike ordinary Portland/pozzolanic cements, geopolymers do not form calcium-

2.2.2. Source Materials and Alkaline Liquids

2.2.3. Fields of Applications

According to Davidovits (1988b), geopolymeric materials have a wide range of

One of the potential fields of application of geopolymeric materials is in toxic waste

Table 2.1 Applications of Geopolymeric Materials Based on Si:Al Atomic Ratio

Si:Al ratio Applications

Another application of geopolymer is in the strengthening of concrete structural

Geopolymer cement is also acid-resistant, because unlike the Portland cement,

3.2.1. Fly Ash

Oxides Batch-1 Batch-2 Batch-3

Figure 3.1 Particle Size Distribution of Batch-1 Fly Ash

% by Volume Passing size

Figure 3.2 Particle Size Distribution of Batch-2 Fly Ash

% by Volume Passing size

Figure 3.3 Particle Size Distribution of Batch-3 Fly Ash

Local aggregates, comprising 20 mm, 14 mm and 7 mm coarse aggregates and fine

Sieve Aggregates Combination BS

3.2.3. Alkaline Liquid

3.2.4. Super Plasticiser

In order to improve the workability of fresh concrete, high-range water-reducing

3.3. Mixture Proportions

Table 3.3 Concrete Mixture Proportions

Table 3.4 Mortar Mixture Proportion

Materials Mass (kg/m3)

3.4.1. Preparation of Liquids

3.4.2. Manufacture of Fresh Concrete and Casting

Figure 3.5 Compaction of Concrete Specimens

3.4.3. Manufacture of Fresh Mortar and Casting

Figure 3.7 Fresh Geopolymer Mortar

3.5. Curing Of Test Specimens

Figure 3.10 Steam Curing

3.7. Creep Test

3.7.1. Test Specimens

Figure 3.11 Creep Test Specimens

Table 3.5 Test Parameters for Creep Test

Test Designation Mixture Curing type

3.7.3. Test Procedure

3.7.3.1. Strain Measuring Device and Reference Gauge Points

Figure 3.12 Location of Demec Gauge Points on Test Cylinders

3.7.3.2 Test Set up and Measurement

Spherical seat Pressure transducer