Done by: Eng.

Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

Homework 4
Q.4:
a) Define the loading effect of a system.
The system's incapability to faithful measure, record, or control the input signal
(measured) in undistorted form is called the (loading effect).
b) Give a practical example for explaining this effect.
For example, when a well-calibrated voltmeter is connected across a high-
resistance circuit may give misleading readings. While the same voltmeter gives a more
dependable reading when connected to a low-resistance circuit.
Q.5:
a) What are the analog instruments.
They are the Devices in which their output (display) is a continuous function
of time and because a constant relation with their inputs.
b) Is there any importance of these instrument.

c) What are the types of the analog instruments?

Types of Analog Instruments:
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC).
2. Moving Iron.
3. Electrodynamometer.
4. Induction.
5. Electrostatic.
6. Thermocouple.
7. Rectifier.
8. Hot wire.
d) What is the indicating analog instrument? What are the groups of this
instrument?
The are those instruments which indicate the measured quantity by the use of
dial and pointer.
The analog indicating instrument may be divided into two groups:
• Electronic instruments.
• Electromechanical instruments.
e) What is the difference between the electronic and Electromechanical instruments?
electronic instruments rely on electronic circuits and digital processing for
measurement, while electromechanical instruments use mechanical movements to
indicate measured values on an analog scale.
Q.6:
a) Describe the electromechanical indicating instrument.
The are the measuring instruments that Convert the effect of a measured
quantity into a mechanical force which transmitted to the pointer moving over a
calibrated scale. The moving system of the instrument is mounted on a Pivoted spindle.

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

b) What are the essential forces required for satisfactory operation of an indicating
instrument?
Four satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, three types of forces are
these:
1. Deflection force.
2. Controlling force.
3. Damping force.
c) Describe the deflection force?
It is also called the mechanical or operating force. This force which is
proportional to the measured quantity current deflects the instrument, Pointer. The
system producing this force is called deflection System. The Deflection system acts as
the instrument Prime mover responsible for the Pointer deflection.
d) What the different effects that the deflection torque is produced by any one of
them?
The deflection torque is caused by one of the following effects produced by the
system Current or Voltage:
1. Magnetic effect
2. Thermal effect
3. Electromagnetic effect
4. Induction effect
5. Hall effect
e) What are the functions of the deflection torque?
The Deflection torque (td) resulted from the deflection system overcomes:
1. The inertia of moving system.
2. The controlling torque provided by the controlling system.
3. The damping torque provided by the damping system.

Homework 5
Q.7:
a) What is the difference between the controlling force and system.
The controlling force is a specific force that acts in opposition to the deflection
force, while the controlling system encompasses the entire mechanism or set of
components responsible for generating and applying that controlling force. The
controlling system is a broader concept that includes the means by which the force is
produced and applied to maintain the instrument's accuracy and functionality.
b) What are the important functions of the controlling system?
The important functions of the Controlling system are:
1. It produces a force equal and opposite to the deflection force in order to make
the pointer deflection at definite magnitude.
2. It brings position the moving system back to zero position when the force
causing the movement of moving system is removed.
c) By which means the controlling torque is provided?
Controlling torque is generally provided by springs sometimes gravity control
is used.

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

d) Describe with the help of figures the gravity control and determine the controlling
torque resulted from it.
Gravity Central: It consists of small weight
of adjustable position attached to the moving system as
show in the fig. below.
• This wight is called controlling weight (W)
produces a controlling torque due gravity.
• At the pointer zero position (θ = 0), the controlling
torque is zero. This is illustrated by position A in
Fig. (4).
• When the system deflects through an angle θ, the
Figure 3: Gravity control.
weight position changes.
• The control weight acts at a distance L from the
center.
• The weight component which is trying to resistor the
pointer back to zero is the controlling torque.
• Controlling torque, 𝑇𝑐 = 𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) × 𝐿 = 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
where, k = w l = Gravity constant

Figure 4: The angle.

e) What are the essential requirements for employing the spring control?
For employing the Spring Control in an instrument, following essential
requirements must be met:
1. The spring should be non-magnetic.
2. The spring should be free from mechanical stress.
3. The spring should have a small resistance sufficient cross-sectional area.
4. It should have a low resistance temperature coefficient.

Q.8:
a) Write the torque equation produced by the spiral spring.
The controlling torque produced by a spiral spring is given by:
𝐸𝐵𝑡 3
𝜏𝐶 = 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑄
12𝐿
b) What are the merits of spring control?
1. The scale is uniform.
2. The reading can be taken accurately.
3. The system is not in need be in a vertical position.
4. The leveling is not required for the spring control.
c) What are the demerits of the gravity control?
1. The scale is non-uniform.
2. The reading cannot be taken accurately.
3. The system must be used in a vertical position only.
4. proper leveling is required for the gravity control.

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

Q.9:
a) Describe the damping force.
Damping force is a force applied to a moving system in an instrument to
counteract and reduce oscillations, ensuring that the system comes to rest quickly and
smoothly. The damping force is crucial in preventing overshooting or oscillations
beyond the final position, especially when the system is subjected to external
disturbances.
b) When the instrument is said to be:
1. Under damped:
- If the moving system oscillates about the final position with sometimes to
rest, the instrument is underdamped.
2. Overdamped:
- While the instrument is said to be overdamped, if the moving system
moves slowly to the final steady position.
3. Critically damped:
- The instrument is said to be critically damped if the moving system
reaches the final position rapidly but smoothly without oscillations.
c) What are the different methods of producing damping torque?
The damping torque is produced by one of the following methods:
1. Air friction damping.
2. Fluid friction damping.
3. Eddy current damping.
d) Describe the eddy current method of producing the damping torque.
Methods of eddy Current Damping:
1. Damping torque of metal disc:
In eddy current damping, a rotating aluminum disk is placed on the spindle. As
shown in the figure, the disk's orientation is such that when it rotates, it cuts
the flux lines of the permanent magnet. When the pointer oscillates, the disk
rotates under the influence of the damping magnetic field cuts the flux lines,
induce an e.m.f. in the disk, the induce e.m.f. circulates current through the
closed path. This current is called eddy current and is of direction opposing the
cause producing it. The interaction between the magnet and the disk fields
causes relative motion between the disc and the field. This motion produces an
opposing torque which reduces the pointer oscillations bringing it to rest.
The eddy current method of producing damping torque involves the use of a rotating
aluminum disk in the presence of a permanent magnet. Here is a detailed description of the
process:
1. Setup:
- A thin aluminum disk is attached to the spindle or moving system of the instrument.
- The instrument is designed so that the aluminum disk can rotate freely.
2. Magnetic Field Interaction:
- A permanent magnet is positioned in proximity to the aluminum disk, creating a
magnetic field.
- The orientation of the aluminum disk is such that, when it rotates, it cuts across the
flux lines of the permanent magnet's magnetic field.
3. Eddy Current Induction:
- When the pointer or moving system of the instrument undergoes oscillations, the
attached aluminum disk also oscillates.

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

- As the disk rotates within the magnetic field, it cuts the magnetic flux lines,
inducing an electromotive force (e.m.f.) in the disk according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.
4. Eddy Current Circulation:
- The induced e.m.f. causes circulating currents to flow through the closed path of
the aluminum disk. These currents are known as eddy currents.
- The direction of these eddy currents is such that they oppose the cause producing
them, which, in this case, is the motion of the disk within the magnetic field.
5. Damping Torque Generation:
- The interaction between the magnetic field and the circulating eddy currents results
in a relative motion between the aluminum disk and the magnetic field.
- This relative motion produces an opposing torque, known as the damping torque,
which acts to reduce the oscillations of the pointer or moving system.
6. Damping Effect:
- The damping torque generated by the eddy current method helps bring the moving
system to rest quickly and smoothly, preventing overshooting and oscillations
around the final position.
This method of eddy current damping is effective in providing damping torque without
introducing significant friction. It contributes to the stability and rapid settling of the
instrument's pointer or moving system, ensuring accurate and reliable measureme nts.

Homework 6
Q.8:
a) What are the forms of damping devices using Eddy current damping method?
1. A metal former carrying the instrument working on oil.
2. A thin aluminum disk is attached to the instrument moving system.
3. Damping torque of metal disc.

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

b) Draw the schematic diagram of the metal forms used for producing the damping
torque by Eddy current method.

c) Write the equations of Eddy current, damping force, and damping torque resulted
from the metal former device.
1. Eddy Current:
𝐸𝑒 𝐵𝑑𝑅𝜔 𝐵𝑅𝑏𝑡𝜔
𝐼𝑒 = = =
𝑅𝑒 𝜌𝑑 𝑘𝜌
𝑘
𝑏𝑡
2. Damping force:
𝐵2 𝑅𝑑𝑏𝑡𝜔
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐵𝐼𝑒 𝑑 =
𝑘𝜌
3. Damping torque:
𝐵2 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑏𝑡𝜔
𝑇𝐷 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝑅 =
𝑘𝜌

d) Draw the schematic diagram of the aluminum disc used for producing Eddy
current damping torque.

e) Explain briefly the operation principle of the aluminum disc producing Eddy
current damping torque.
In eddy current damping, a rotating aluminum disk is placed on the spindle. As
shown in the figure, the disk's orientation is such that when it rotates, it cuts the flux
lines of the permanent magnet. When the pointer oscillates, the disk rotates under the
influence of the damping magnetic field cuts the flux lines, induce an e.m.f. in the disk,
the induce e.m.f. circulates current through the closed path.

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

f) Write the equations of Eddy current, damping force, and damping torque resulted
from the aluminum disc device.
1. Eddy Current:
𝐸𝑒 𝐵𝑙𝑑𝜔 𝐵𝑙𝑑𝑏𝑡𝜔
𝐼𝑒 = = =
𝑅𝑒 2𝜌(𝑑 + 𝑙) 2𝜌(𝑑 + 𝑙)
𝑏𝑡
2. Damping force:
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑑𝑏𝑡𝜔
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐵𝐼𝑒 𝑙 =
2𝜌 (𝑑 + 𝑙)
3. Damping torque:
𝐵2 𝑙 2𝑑2 𝑏𝑡𝜔
𝑇𝐷 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝑑 =
2𝜌 (𝑑 + 𝑙)
Q.9:
a) Why are the analog ammeter and voltmeter being of the same class?
Because all the analog ammeters and voltmeters are basically current
measuring devices, while the instrument measuring power is called a power- meter or
a wattmeter.
b) What are the essential requirements of a measuring instruments?
1. The instrument should be made in a circuit don't alter the circuit condition .
2. The power consumed by them for their operation is small.
c) Explain briefly the reasons behind making the resistance of analog ammeter of
small value while that of analog voltmeter of high value.
The ammeter resistance should be small so that it absorbs small power and
caused small voltage to drop across it. For obtaining a small magnitude of both
voltmeter current and power, 𝑅 𝑉 should be of high value.
d) What are the types of analog ammeters and voltmeters?
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
2. Moving Iron
3. Electrodynamometer
4. Induction
5. Electrostatic
6. Thermocouple
7. Rectifier
8. Hot wire

Q.10:

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

a) Draw the schematic diagram of PMMC instrument.

b) Explain briefly the construction of PMMC instrument.

Construction of PMMC Instrument:
- The general features of this instrument are shown in the figures aside. The
instrument moving coil is of either rectangular or circular in shape.
- It has a number of turns of fine wire.
- The coil is free to move about its vertical axis as it is suspended.
- The coil is placed in a uniform horizontal and radial magnetic field of a
permanent magnet of horseshoes.
- The iron core is spherical if the coil is circular and is cylindrical if the coil is
rectangular. The iron core increases the deflection torque, which in turn increases
the instrument sensitivity.
- The controlling torque is provided by the hairspring.
- The damping torque is provided by eddy current damping, which is obtained by
an aluminum former moving in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
- The pointer is carried by a spindle and moves over a graduated scale.
- The pointer has a lightweight so that it can deflect rapidly.
- The mirror is placed below the pointer to get accurate readings by removing the
parallax.
c) What is the difference between the PMMC instrument and D'Arsonal
galvanometer?
The working principle of this instrument is the same as that of a D'Arsonal
galvanometer. The difference between the PMMC instrument and the galvanometer is
that the PMMC instrument is provided with a pointer and a scale.

d) Derive the torque equation of the PMMC instrument.

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 Done by: Eng. Theyazan Al-Dhubaibi

Torque Equation: Deflection Torque 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝐼 = 𝐺𝐼. Where,

𝐺 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝐵 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 (𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 𝑤𝑏/𝑚2 ).
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚 2 ).
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑘𝜃. 𝜃 ∝𝐼
At final steady deflection:
𝑘
𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝐶 ⇒ 𝐼 = ( ) 𝜃
𝐺
Q.11:
a) Design the single-range PMMC ammeter using D'Arsonal galvanometer for
measuring both low and high currents.
a. The DC ammeter is composed of a basic
movement of D'Arsonal galvanometer, and a low
resistance called shunt, as shown in the
corresponding figure.
b. The coil winding of the basic movement is small
and light and can only carry a small current
because of the construction of accurate instruments with a bigger coil.
c. For making the ammeter suitable for measuring both low and high currents,
the shunt resistance can be designed using the following calculation:
𝑉𝑠ℎ = 𝑉𝑚 , ⟹ 𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝑅 𝑠ℎ = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
∴ 𝑅𝑠ℎ =
𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚 ⟹ 𝑅𝑠ℎ = ⟹ 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐼
∴ 𝑅 𝑚 = ( − 1) 𝑅𝑠ℎ = (𝑚 − 1)𝑅 𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑚
𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑚 =
𝐼𝑚
𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚
= 𝑚 − 1, ∴ 𝑅𝑠ℎ =
𝑅 𝑠ℎ 𝑚− 1
𝑅𝑚 𝐼
𝑚= +1 =
𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝐼𝑚