Technical Training Course for Avionics and

Airframe and Powerplant Maintenance Degree

Programs

Module 1
Licence Category B1, B2 and B3

Mathematics

1.1 Arithmetic
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Copyright Notice

© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic,
mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Anadolu Üniversitesi.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance

Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3)
against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge
levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific
examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective
action where appropriate.

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Table of Contents

Module 1.1 Arithmetic _________________________________________________________________9

Fractions __________________________________________________________________________9
Types of Fractions _________________________________________________________________9
Working with Fractions_____________________________________________________________9
Decimals _________________________________________________________________________19
Working with Decimals ____________________________________________________________19
Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals ____________________________________________25
Convert a Decimal to a Fraction _____________________________________________________25
Convert a Fraction to a Decimal _____________________________________________________25
Percentages ______________________________________________________________________31
Definition ______________________________________________________________________31
Changing a Fraction to a Percentage _________________________________________________31
Changing a Percentage to a Fraction _________________________________________________31
Changing a Percentage to a Decimal _________________________________________________31
Changing a Decimal to a Percentage _________________________________________________31
Values of a Percentage of a Quantity _________________________________________________32
Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage of Another ____________________________________32
Rounding, Significant Figures, and Decimal Places ________________________________________37
Rounding _______________________________________________________________________37
Significant Figures ________________________________________________________________38
Decimal Places __________________________________________________________________39
Mean, Median, Mode and Range _____________________________________________________41
Definitions ______________________________________________________________________41
Calculating Mean ________________________________________________________________41
Calculating Median _______________________________________________________________42
Calculating Mode ________________________________________________________________42
Calculating Range ________________________________________________________________43
Angles ___________________________________________________________________________49
Definitions and Conversions ________________________________________________________49
Degrees and Radians: Measuring Angles ______________________________________________50
Acute Angles ____________________________________________________________________51
Obtuse Angles ___________________________________________________________________51
Reflex angles ____________________________________________________________________51
Right Angles ____________________________________________________________________52
Complementary Angles ___________________________________________________________52
Supplementary Angles ____________________________________________________________53
Perpendicular Lines ______________________________________________________________53
Triangles _________________________________________________________________________59

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 Properties of shapes. _____________________________________________________________59
Definitions ______________________________________________________________________59
Areas and Volume of Common Shapes _________________________________________________63
Rectangle ______________________________________________________________________63
Square _________________________________________________________________________63
Triangle ________________________________________________________________________64
Parallelogram ___________________________________________________________________64
Rhombus _______________________________________________________________________65
Trapezium ______________________________________________________________________66
Kite ___________________________________________________________________________67
Circle __________________________________________________________________________67
Other Regular Polygons ___________________________________________________________68
Summary of Quadrilaterals _________________________________________________________69
Surface Area and Volume of Common Solids ____________________________________________71
Introduction ____________________________________________________________________71
Common Solids __________________________________________________________________71
Common Conversions ______________________________________________________________81
Length _________________________________________________________________________81
Area ___________________________________________________________________________81
Volume ________________________________________________________________________82
Mass __________________________________________________________________________82

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Module 1.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:
Part-66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference B1 B2 B3
Arithmetic 1.1 2 2 2
Arithmetical terms and signs, methods of multiplication
and division, fractions and decimals, factors and
multiples, weights, measures and conversion factors,
ratio andproportion, averages and percentages, areas
and volumes, squares, cubes, square and cube roots.

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Module 1.1Arithmetic
Fractions
Types of Fractions

1. Proper Fractions. Proper fractions may be defined as fractions less than 1.

For example:

1 1 2 11
, , , etc
2 3 5 17

2. Improper Fractions. These are fractions which are greater than 1.

For example:

7 5 17 8
, , , etc
3 3 11 5

3. Mixed Numbers. These include whole numbers and vulgar fractions. For example:

1 3 4 6
1 , 2 , 6 , 27 etc
2 5 11 7

4. For all fractions, the number above the bar is called the numerator and the number below the
bar is called the denominator.

30 1
5. Simplest Form. The simplest form of is . Fractions can be expressed in simplest form by
60 2
dividing numerator and denominator by equal numbers until they will not divide further. For
example:

8 2
= in simplest form (after dividing numerator and
12 3
denominator by 4).

Working with Fractions

6. Cancelling. The process of dividing numerator and denominator by equal values is called
cancelling. For example:

27 9 3 1
= = =
81 27 9 3

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7. Converting. To convert mixed numbers to improper fractions, multiply the whole number by
the denominator and add to the numerator. For example:

3 13
2 =
5 5

To convert improper fractions to mixed numbers, divide the numerator by the denominator to
give a whole number - the remainder gives a new numerator. For example:

25 1
= 6
4 4

8. Cancelling. Cancelling improper fractions involves exactly the same process as cancelling vulgar
fractions. For example:

28 7 45 15 1
= = 7 and = = 7
4 1 6 2 2

9. Multiplication
(a) Express all mixed numbers as improper fractions

(b) Cancel vertically if possible

(c) Cancel across the multiplication sign if possible

(d) Multiply numerators together, multiply denominators together

(e) If the result is an improper fraction, convert to a mixed number

(f) Check that your answer is in the simplest form

Examples:

2 2 4 8
(1) x4 = x =
9 9 1 9
3 1 1
4 1 5 9 7 5 3 1
(2) 1 x 2 x = x x = = 1
5 3 14 5 3 14 2 2
1 1 2
10. Division
(a) Convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions
(b) Invert the fraction you are dividing by
(c) Proceed as for multiplication.

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 Examples:
1
3 5 3 12 3 7 7
(1)  1 =  = x =
4 7 4 7 4 12 16
4
3 3 1 3
(2)  7 = x =
4 4 7 28

2
3 5 3 16 6 1
(3)  = x = = 1
8 16 8 5 5 5
1

11. Mixed Multiplication and Division

(a) Invert all the fractions preceded by a division sign

(b) Treat the calculations as multiplication only.

Example:

3 1 5 7 9 12
1  4 x 1 =  x
4 2 7 4 2 7

7 2 12 You only turn upside down the fraction

= x x
4 9 7 you are dividing by, i.e. the fraction after
1 1 the division sign
3
7 2 12 2
= x x =
4 9 7 3
1 3 1

12. Addition
(a) Express all fractions as mixed numbers in lowest terms

(b) Add the whole numbers together

(c) To add the vulgar fractions, you must convert each fraction so that their denominators
are all the same. This is done by finding the lowest common multiple (LCM) of
thedenominators.

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 Examples:

1 1 3 659 20 2
(1) + + = = =
5 6 10 30 30 3

9 5 3 1 5 3
(2) + + 1 = 2 + + 1
4 12 8 4 12 8

1 5 3
= 3 + + +
4 12 8

6  10  9 25
= 3 + = 3 +
24 24

1 1
= 3 + 1 = 4
24 24

Note: If your addition of fractions results in an improper fraction, you must convert this to a
mixed number as shown in example (2).

13. Subtraction
The same basic procedure should be used for subtraction as for addition.

Examples:

8 2 86 2
(1) - = =
9 3 9 9
8 4 2 4 2 4
(2) - 1 = 2 - 1 = 1 + -
3 7 3 7 3 7

14  12 2
= 1 + = 1
21 21

1 3 1 3
(3) 4 - 1 = 3 + -
3 4 3 4

49
= 3 +
12

12  4  9 As numerator (4 - 9) give a negative

= 2 +
12 value, one whole unit has to be
12
converted to before the subtraction
16  9 12
= 2 +
12 of fractions is carried out.

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 7
= 2
12

14. Mixed addition and subtraction can be carried out exactly as above.

Examples:

1 7 3 679 8
(1) 4 - 5 + 3 = 2 + = 2 +
2 12 4 12 12

2
= 2
3

1 3 1 3  18  8
(2) 2 - 1 + 4 = 5 +
8 4 3 24

24  3  18  8 17
= 4 + = 4
24 24

15. Remember that your final step in any calculation must be to simplify (cancel fractions).

Example:

3 9 3 12  18  15
3 + 1 - 2 = 2 +
5 10 4 20

15 3
= 2 = 2
20 4

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions:

6 4 3 21 1
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 21 (d) 5 (e) 2
7 9 5 25 7

2. Convert the following improper fractions to mixed numbers:

11 21 53 210 99
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
3 5 7 4 8

3. Multiply and simplify the following:

6 14 2 1 2 2 3 10
(a) x (b) x 2 x 1 (c) 1 x x
7 15 3 7 5 5 8 21

4. Divide and simplify the following:

3 9 2 1 1 1
(a)  (b) 3  3 (c) 9  3
10 25 3 7 3 9

5. Evaluate the following:

7 5 3 1 15 3 17 1 1
(a) x x (b) 7 x  (c) 2 x7
10 6 14 5 24 8 29 8 4

6. Add the following fractions and mixed numbers:

2 3 3 1 2 2 3 4
(a) + (b) + + (c) + +
3 7 4 2 3 3 4 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 7
(d) + + + + (e) 3 +
2 3 4 5 6 8 16

7. Subtract the following:

1 3 3 2 2 1
(a) 1 - (b) 1 - 2 (c) 1 - 2
2 5 4 5 5 7

4 2 4 2
(d) - (e) 7 - 8
11 7 9 3

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8. Evaluate the following:

1 2 5
1  
2 5 4 1 1 5 3 7 6
(a) 2  3 1 (b) 1 2  (c)
3 8 9 2 3 42 3 3
x
4 7

1 1 4
1 x2 
(d) 5 3 5 1 3   7 1 1  1 1
(e)   1   1   (f) 3  1  2 
1 5
2  4 5   8 2 3  2 2
2 6

5 3 1
 
 2 7  1 2 16 4 3
(g) 2 x   3  4  (h)
 7 24   2 3 2 1 1
 
3 4 6

 1 2  3 1
 3   1  1 
 2 3 5 3
(i)
3 1

7 3

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Answers

20 31 108 146 15
1. a) b) c) d) e)
7 9 5 25 7

2 1 4 1 3
2. a) 3 b) 4 c) 7 d) 52 e) 12
3 5 7 2 8

4 1
3. a) b) 2 c)
5 4

5 1
4. a) b) 1 c) 3
6 6

1
5. a) b) 12 c) 2
8

2 11 13 9 9
6. a) 1 b) 1 c) 2 d) 1 e) 3
21 12 60 20 16

9 13 26 6 2
7. a) b) - c) - d) e) -1
10 20 35 77 9

61 5 4 3 19
8. a) 4 b) - c) 2 d) e) 1
72 7 9 5 55

5 5 5 11
f) g) 1 h) - i) 1
6 12 36 24

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Decimals
Working with Decimals
1. Decimals are a very important and particular set of fractions. They are fractions whose
denominators are powers of 10, i.e. 10, 100, 1000, 10000 etc (do not be concerned about the
meaning of 'powers of 10', you will deal with this later in the course). Decimals are not written in
the usual fraction form, but in shorthand using a decimal point.

Examples:

1 1 1
a) = 0.1 b) = 0.01 c) = 0.001
10 100 1000

7 7
d) 5 = 5.7 e) 63 = 63.07
10 100

2. If you have difficulty in relating decimals to fractions, the following table may help.

THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS TENTHS HUNDREDTHS THOUSANDTHS

1 1 1
1000 100 10 1
10 100 1000
5 3 4 6 7 9 2
The number in the table is 5346.792; it consists of 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 4 tens, 6 units, 7
tenths, 9 hundredths and 2 thousandths.

3. The number of digits after the decimal point is called decimal places.

Examples:

a) 27.6 has one decimal place

b) 27.16 has two decimal places

c) 27.026 has three decimal places

d) 101.2032 has four decimal places

4. In addition of decimals, particular care must be taken to ensure that decimal points are in line.

Example: Evaluate 27.3 + 0.021 + 68.3 27.3

0.021
+ 68.3
95.621

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5. Similarly, in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.

Example: Evaluate 27.3 - 4.36 27.3 27.3 can also be

- 4.36 written as 27.30
22.94

6. When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal point until the final answer is obtained, then
count the number of decimal places in both the numbers being multiplied. This is the number of
decimal places in the answer.

Example: Evaluate 27.3 x 9.31 Note: Total of 3 decimal places.

273
931
245 700
8 190
273
254 163 Answer = 254.163 (3 dpl.)

Note: It does not matter which you multiply first (i.e. the 9, the 3 or the 1) providing ‘00’ is placed
before the answer when multiplying out the 100’s (in this case the 9) and ‘0’ is placed before the
answer when multiplying out the 10’s (in this case the 3) So the above calculation could have
looked like this:
273
931
273
8 190
245 700
254 163 The answer is the same

7. In division, it is easier to divide by a whole number than by a decimal. To make the divisor (the
number you are dividing by) into a whole number, move the decimal point a specific number of
places to the right. You must then also move the decimal point in the dividend (the number you
are dividing into) to the right by the same number of decimal places.

Example: Evaluate 24.024  4.62 We have moved the decimal

point 2 places in both the
2402.4  462 divisor and the dividend, but the
answer is unaltered
5.2
= 462)2402.4
2310
924
924

An approximate answer could be calculated as follows: 24.024 24   5

4.62 5

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Worksheet

1. Calculate the sum of the following:

a) 0.251 + 10.298 b) 18.098 + 210.099 c) 0.025 + 10.995

2. Evaluate:

a) 21.76 - 18.51 b) 32.76 - 20.086 c) 10.75 - 19.999

3. Find the product of:

a) 5.05 x 13.8 b) 1.27 x 0.871 c) -1.01 x 0.89

4. Calculate:

a) 42.39 0.09 b) 3.375  1.5 c) 0.002  0.8

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Answers

1. a) 10.549 b) 228.197 c) 11.02

2. a) 3.25 b) 12.674 c) -9.249

3. a) 69.69 b) 1.10617 c) -0.8989

4. a) 471 b) 2.25 c) 0.0025

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Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals
Convert a Decimal to a Fraction
Write the number over the appropriate power of 10 and, if possible, cancel to lowest terms.

Examples:

8 4
a) 0.8 = =
10 5

25 1
b) 6.25 = 6 + = 6
100 4

37
c) 0.037 =
1000

Convert a Fraction to a Decimal

Divide the numerator by the denominator.

Examples:

4 0.80
a) = 5 4.00
5

3 0.375
b) =
8 8 3.000

5 0.8333
c) = .......the 3 will re-occur for ever
6 6 5.0000

Here, we cut off the result to the number of decimal places required.

5
Thus = 0.83 correct to 2 decimal places
6

5
or = 0.8333 correct to 4 decimal places
6

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following decimals to proper fractions in their simplest form:

a) 0.73 b) 0.02 c) 0.004

2. Convert the following proper fractions to decimals to 2 decimal places:

5 13 3
a) b) c)
8 15 200

3. Place in ascending order of magnitude:

1 3 2 7
a) , 0.167 and b) , 0.44 and
6 20 5 16

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Answers

73 1 1
1. a) b) c)
100 50 250

2. a) 0.63 0.87 0.02

3 1 2 7
3. a) , and 0.167 b) , and 0.44
20 6 5 16

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Percentages

Definition.
A percentage is a fraction whose denominator is 100.

3
Example: 3% means
100

Changing a Fraction to a Percentage

To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100%.

3 3
Example: as a percentage = x 100% = 60%
5 5

Changing a Percentage to a Fraction

To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.

8% 8 2
Examples: a) 8% as a fraction =  
100% 100 25

12 21 % 25 1 25 1
b) 12 ½ % as a fraction =  x  
100% 2 100 200 8

Changing a Percentage to a Decimal

To convert a percentage to a decimal, firstly, convert the percentage to a fraction, then convert the
fraction to a decimal.

65
Examples: a) 65% as a fraction = , as a decimal = 0.65
100

32 21
b) 32 ½ % as a fraction = , as a decimal = 0.325
100

Changing a Decimal to a Percentage

To convert a decimal to a percentage, firstly, convert the decimal to a fraction, then convert the fraction
to a percentage.

Examples:
21 2.1
a) 0.021 as a fraction = ,= , as a percentage = 2.1%
1000 100

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 37 3.7
b) 0.037 as a fraction = ,= , as a percentage = 3.7%
1000 100

Values of a Percentage of a Quantity

To find the value of a percentage of a quantity, express the percentage as a fraction and multiply by the
quantity.

Examples:
2
4 12 2
a) 4% of 60 = x 60 = = 2
100 5 5
5

1
3 2 7 105
b) 3 ½ % of 1500 = x 1500 = x 1500 = = 52 ½
100 200 2

Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage of Another

To express one quantity as a percentage of another, make a fraction of the 2 quantities and multiply by
100.

Examples:

12
a) 12 as a percentage of 50 = x 100 = 24%
50

4
b) 4 as a percentage of 60 = x 100 = 6.67%
60

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Worksheet

1. Calculate:

a) 4% of 30 b) 0.8% of 360 c) 1.5% of 60

d) 120% of 75 e) 80% of 90

2. Express:

a) 30 as a percentage of 50

b) 24 as a percentage of 16

c) 0.5 as a percentage of 12.5

d) 3.2 as a percentage of 2.4

e) 0.08 as a percentage of 0.72

3. Express as a proper fraction:

a) 0.6 b) 0.35 c) 0.48 d) 0.05

e) 0.325 f) 25% g) 13% h) 4.5%

i) 16 ⅓ %

4. Express as a percentage:

2
a) 0.43 b) 0.025 c) 1.25 d)
3
3 1 3
e) f) g)
7 12 8

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Answers

1
1. a) 1 or 1.2 b) 2.88 c) 0.9 d) 90 e) 72
5

1 1
2. a) 60% b) 150% c) 4% d) 133 % e) 11 %
3 9

3 7 12 1 13
3. a) b) c) d) e)
5 20 25 20 40

1 13 9 49
f) g) h) i)
4 100 200 300

2 6
4. a) 43% b) 2.5% c) 125% d) 66 % e) 42 %
3 7

1 1
f) 8 % g) 37 %
3 2

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Rounding, Significant Figures, and Decimal Places
Rounding
Rounding is the process of reducing the number of significant digits in a number. The result of rounding
is a "shorter" number having fewer non-zero digits yet similar in magnitude. The result is less precise but
easier to use.

For example: 73 rounded to the nearest ten is 70, because 73 is closer to 70 than to 80.
Methods of Rounding

Common Method: This method is commonly used in mathematical applications, for example in
accounting. It is the one generally taught in elementary mathematics classes. This method is also known
as Symmetric Arithmetic Rounding or Round-Half-Up (Symmetric Implementation)

 Decide which is the last digit to keep.

 Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more (this is called rounding up)
 Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less (this is called rounding down)

Examples:
 3.044 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit, 4, is less than 5).
 3.045 rounded to hundredths is 3.05 (because the next digit, 5, is 5 or more).
 3.0447 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit, 4, is less than 5).

For negative numbers the absolute value is rounded.

Examples:
 −2.1349 rounded to hundredths is −2.13
 −2.1350 rounded to hundredths is −2.14

Round to Even Method: This method is also known as unbiased rounding, convergent rounding,
statistician's rounding or bankers' rounding. It is identical to the common method of rounding except
when the digit(s) following the rounding digit start with a five and have no non-zero digits after it. The
new algorithm is:

 Decide which is the last digit to keep.

 Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 6 or more, or a 5 followed by one or more non-zero digits.
 Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less
 Otherwise, all that follows the last digit is a 5 and possibly trailing zeroes; then change the last
digit to the nearest even digit. That is, increase the rounded digit if it is currently odd; leave it if it
is already even.

With all rounding schemes there are two possible outcomes: increasing the rounding digit by one or
leaving it alone. With traditional rounding, if the number has a value less than the half-way mark
between the possible outcomes, it is rounded down; if the number has a value exactly half-way or

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greater than half-way between the possible outcomes, it is rounded up. The round-to-even method is
the same except that numbers exactly half-way between the possible outcomes are sometimes rounded
up - sometimes down.
Although it is customary to round the number 4.5 up to 5, in fact 4.5 is no nearer to 5 than it is to 4 (it is
0.5 away from both).

When dealing with large sets of scientific or statistical data, where trends are important, traditional
rounding on average biases the data upwards slightly. Over a large set of data, or when many
subsequent rounding operations are performed as in digital signal processing, the round-to-even rule
tends to reduce the total rounding error, with (on average) an equal portion of numbers rounding up as
rounding down. This generally reduces the upwards skewing of the result.

Round-to-even is used rather than round-to-odd as the latter rule would prevent rounding to a result of
zero.

Examples:
 3.016 rounded to hundredths is 3.02 (because the next digit (6) is 6 or more)
 3.013 rounded to hundredths is 3.01 (because the next digit (3) is 4 or less)
 3.015 rounded to hundredths is 3.02 (because the next digit is 5, and the hundredths digit (1) is
odd)
 3.045 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit is 5, and the hundredths digit (4) is
even)
 3.04501 rounded to hundredths is 3.05 (because the next digit is 5, but it is followed by non-zero
digits)

Significant Figures
Rounding to nsignificant figures is a form of rounding. Significant figures (also called significant digits)
can also refer to a crude form of error representation based around significant figure rounding.

Rounding to n significant figures is a more general-purpose technique than rounding to n decimal places,
since it handles numbers of different scales in a uniform way.

Rules of Significant Figures

 All non-zero digits are significant. Example: '123.45' has five significant figures: 1,2,3,4 and 5.
 Zeros appearing in between two non-zero digits are significant. Example: '101.12' has five
significant figures: 1,0,1,1,2.
 All zeros appearing to the right of an understood decimal point or non-zeros appearing to the
right of a decimal after the decimal point are significant. Example: '12.2300' has six significant
figures: 1,2,2,3,0 and 0. The number '0.00122300' still only has six significant figures (the zeros
before the '1' are not significant). In addition, '12.00' has four significant figures.
 All zeros appearing in a number without a decimal point and to the right of the last non-zero
digit are not significant unless indicated by a bar. Example: '1300' has two significant figures: 1
and 3. The zeros are not considered significant because they don't have a bar. However, 1300.0
has five significant figures.

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However, this last convention is not universally used; it is often necessary to determine from context
whether trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are intended to be significant.

Digits may be important without being 'significant' in this usage. For instance, the zeros in '1300' or
'0.005' are not considered significant digits, but are still important as placeholders that establish the
number's magnitude. A number with all zero digits (e.g. '0.000') has no significant digits, because the
uncertainty is larger than the actual measurement.

Examples:

Rounding to 2 significant figures:

 12,300 becomes 12,000

 13 stays as 13
 0.00123 becomes 0.0012
 0.1 becomes 0.10 (the trailing zero indicates that we are rounding to 2 significant figures).
 0.02084 becomes 0.021
 0.0125 becomes 0.012 in unbiased rounding, while it is 0.013 in biased.

One issue with rounding to n significant figures is that the value of n is not always clear. This occurs
when the last significant figure is a zero to the left of the decimal point. For example, in the final
example above, when 19 800 is rounded to 20 000, it is not clear from the rounded value what n was
used - n could be anything from 1 to 5. The level of rounding can be specified explicitly. The abbreviation
s.f. is sometimes used, for example "20,000 to 2 s.f."

Scientific notation could be used to reduce the ambiguity, as in (2.0 × 104). As always, the best approach
is to state the uncertainty separately and explicitly, as in 20,000 ± 1%, so that significant-figures rules do
not apply.

A less common method of presenting ambiguous significant figures is underlining the last significant
figure of a number, for example "20000"

Decimal Places
The precision of a value describes the number of digits that are used to express that value. In a scientific
setting this would be the total number of digits (sometimes called the significant digits) or, less
commonly, the number of fractional digits or places (the number of digits following the point). This
second definition is useful in financial and engineering applications where the number of digits in the
fractional part has particular importance.

In both cases, the term precision can be used to describe the position at which an inexact result will be
rounded. For example, in floating-point arithmetic, a result is rounded to a given or fixed precision,
which is the length of the resulting significand. In financial calculations, a number is often rounded to a
given number of places (for example, to two places after the point for many world currencies).

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As an illustration, the decimal quantity 12.345 can be expressed with various numbers of significant
digits or decimal places. If insufficient precision is available then the number is rounded in some manner
to fit the available precision. The following table shows the results for various total precisions and
decimal places, with the results rounded to nearest where ties round up or to an even digit (the most
common rounding modes).

Note that it is often not appropriate to display a figure with more digits than that which can be
measured. For instance, if a device measures to the nearest gram and gives a reading of 12.345 kg, it
would create false precision if you were to express this measurement as 12.34500 kg.

Rounded to ‘n’ Rounded to ‘n’

n
significant digits decimal places

Five 12.345 12.34500

Four 12.35 12.3450

Three 12.3 12.345

Two 12 12.35

One 1 × 101 12.4

Zero n/a 12

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Mean, Median, Mode and Range
Definitions
The Mean, Median and Mode of a set of numbers are three types of “average” of the set. However, the
“Mean” is the term most commonly taken as the average.

Mean: The sum of a set of data divided by the

number of data

Median: The middle value or the mean of the

middle two values, when the data is
arranged in numerical order.

Mode: The value (number) that appears the most.

It is possible to have more than one mode,
and it is possible to have no mode.

Calculating Mean
To find the mean, you need to add up all the data, and then divide this total by the number of values in
the data.

Example 1: Find the Mean of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

Adding the numbers up gives: 2 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 5 + 7 + 8 = 32

There are 7 values, so you divide the total by 7: 32 ÷ 7 = 4.57...

So the mean is 4.57 (2 d.p.)

Example 2: Find the Mean of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

Adding the numbers up gives: 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 7 = 25

There are 6 values, so you divide the total by 6: 25 ÷ 6 = 4.33...

So the mean is 4.33 (2 d.p.)

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Calculating Median
To find the median, you need to put the values in order, then find the middle value. If there are two
values in the middle then you find the mean of these two values.

Example 1: Find the median of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The numbers in order: 2 , 2 , 3 , (5) , 5 , 7 , 8

The middle value is marked in brackets, and it is 5.

So the median is 5

Example 2: Find the median of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

The numbers in order: 2 , 3 , (3 , 4) , 6 , 7

This time there are two values in the middle. They have been put in brackets. The median is found by
calculating the mean of these two values: (3 + 4) ÷ 2 = 3.5

So the median is 3.5

Calculating Mode
The mode is the value which appears the most often in the data. It is possible to have more than one
mode if there is more than one value which appears the most.

Example 1: Find the mode of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The data values: 2 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 5 , 7 , 8

The values which appear most often are 2 and 5. They both appear more time than any of the other
data values.

So the modes are 2 and 5

Example 2: Find the mode of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

The data values: 2 , 3 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7

This time there is only one value which appears most often - the number 3. It appears more times than
any of the other data values.

So the mode is 3

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Calculating Range
To find the range, you first need to find the lowest and highest values in the data. The range is found by
subtracting the lowest value from the highest value.

Example 1: Find the range of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The data values: 2 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 5 , 7 , 8

The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 8. Subtracting the lowest from the highest gives:8 - 2 = 6

So the range is 6

Example 2: Find the range of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

The data values: 2 , 3 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7

The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 7. Subtracting the lowest from the highest gives:…7 - 2 = 5

So the range is 5

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Worksheet

1. A data set contains these 12 values: 3, 5, 9, 4, 5, 11, 10, 5, 7, 7, 8, 10

(a) What is the mean?

(b) What is the median?
(c) What is the mode?
(d) What is the range?

2. Calculate the mean, median, mode and range for each set of data below:

(a) 3, 6, 3, 7, 4, 3, 9
(b) 11, 10, 12, 12, 9, 10, 14, 12, 9
(c) 2, 9, 7, 3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 4, 9

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Answers

1 (a) 7 (b) 7 (c) 5 (d) 8

2 (a) Mean = 5
Median = 4
Mode = 3
Range = 6

(b) Mean = 11
Median = 11
Mode = 12
Range = 5

(c)
Mean = 5.5
Median = 5
Mode = 5
Range = 7

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Angles
Definitions and Conversions
We can specify an angle by using a point on each ray and the vertex. The angle below may be specified
as angle ABC or as angle CBA; you may also see this written as
ABC or as CBA. Note how the vertex point is always given in the middle.

Example:

Many different names exist for the same angle. For the angle below, PBC, PBW, CBP, and
WBA are all names for the same angle.

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Degrees and Radians: Measuring Angles

We measure the size of an angle using degrees. We can also use radians to measure angles.

There are 2radians in 360o

The radius of a circle fits around the circumference 6.28 (or 2 ) times. 1 radian = 57.3 degrees. To
no
convert from degrees to radians, use x 2where no is the number of degrees
360

Note: Degrees can be further subdivided into minutes and seconds.

60 seconds = 1 minute

60 minutes = 1 degree

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Acute Angles

An acute angle is an angle measuring between 0 and 90 degrees.

Example:

The following angles are all acute angles.

Obtuse Angles

An obtuse angle is an angle measuring between 90 and 180 degrees.

Example:

The following angles are all obtuse.

Reflex angles

A reflex angle is an angle measuring between 180 and 360 degrees

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Right Angles

A right angle is an angle measuring 90 degrees. Two lines or line segments that meet at a right angle are
said to be perpendicular. Note that any two right angles are supplementary angles (a right angle is its
own angle supplement).

Complementary Angles

Two angles are called complementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals 90
degrees. One of the complementary angles is said to be the complement of the other.

Example:

These two angles are complementary.

Note that these two angles can be "pasted" together to form a right angle!

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Supplementary Angles

Two angles are called supplementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals 180
degrees. One of the supplementary angles is said to be the supplement of the other.

Example:

These two angles are supplementary.

Note that these two angles can be "pasted" together to form a straight line!

Perpendicular Lines

Two lines that meet at a right angle are perpendicular. They are also said to be “normal” to each other.

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following angles to radians

a) b) c)

d) e) f)

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Answers

1. a) ¼radians b) ¼radians c) ½radians

d)
23
radians e) 2/5radians f) 2/3radians
180

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Triangles
Properties of shapes.
The 3 properties of shapes that we are going to look at are:

1. The number of sides

2. The interior angles (the angles inside).
3. The length of the sides.

These properties help use to remember which shapes are which and why they are so called (in some
cases).

Let's start with a shape that has 3 sides: TRIANGLES(tri- means 3).

Triangles ALWAYS have 3 sides.

The interior angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees.

Definitions
Here are the triangles you are expected to know about:

1. Equilateral Triangle
2. Isosceles Triangle
3. Right- Angled Triangle
4. Scalene Triangle

2. Congruent and Similar Triangles

Congruent and Similar are two words usually applied to triangles but can equally be applied to other
shapes.

Congruent triangles are two triangles which have equal angles and are the same size (i.e. identical in
every way) but may be oriented differently.

Similar triangles are two triangles which have the same angles but are of different size.

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3. Equilateral Triangle

An equilateral triangle has got 3 sides of equal length and 3 angles that are equal.
Since ALL the angles in a triangle add up to 180º then 180 divided by 3 must be 60º.

The clue is in the name EQUILateral.

4. Isosceles Triangle

An Isosceles triangle has got two sides of equal length and 2 angles equal.

What is the value of the angle at the top of this Isosceles triangle?

The answer is 80˚. All angles in a triangle add up to 180˚ so 180 - (50 + 50) = 80˚

So an isosceles triangle has only got two sides of equal length and two angles the same.

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5. Right- Angled Triangle

The right angled triangle contains a right angle (an angle of 90˚)

In a right angled triangle what must the other two angles add up to 90˚ because all the angles in a
triangle add up to 180˚ and a Right Angled Triangle has got one angle of 90˚.

6. Scalene Triangle

A scalene triangle is the easiest of them all. The scalene triangle has got NO sides of equal length and
NO angles the same.

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Areas and Volume of Common Shapes

Rectangle

The area A of any rectangle is equal to the product of the length l and the width w.

Formula: A = lw

Square

The area A of any square is equal to the square of the length s of a side.

Formula: A = s2

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Triangle

The area A of any triangle is equal to one-half the product of any base b and corresponding height h.

Formula: A = ½ bh

Parallelogram

A parallelogram is a 4 sided shape with the 2 opposing sides parallel to each other.

The area A of any parallelogram is equal to the product of any base b and the corresponding height h.

Formula: A = bh

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Rhombus

A rhombus is a parallelogram with all 4 sides equal length. The diagonals bisect the interior angles
equally and the diagonals intersect each other at right angles.

The area A of any rhombus is equal to one-half the product of the lengths d1 and d2 of its diagonals.

Formula: A = ½ d1d2

or

Formula: A = bh as in the parallelogram

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Trapezium

A trapezium has only 2 sides parallel. (UK definition)

The area A of any trapezium is equal to one-half the product of the height h and the sum of the bases,
B1, B2 and B3.

Formula: A = ½ h (b1 + b2)

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Kite

A Kite shape has no sides parallel. The area can be found by

Formula:A = ½ d1d2

Circle

The area A of any circle is equal to the product of  and the square of the radius r.

Formula: A = r2

Sector Area Theorem

The area A of any sector with an arc that has degree measure n and with radius r is equal to the product
of the arc's measure divided by 360 multiplied by times the square of the radius.

Formula: A = (n/360)(r2)

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Other Regular Polygons

Regular polygons are any polygons that are equilateral and equiangular.

The area A of any regular polygon with perimeter P and apothem of measure a is equal to one-half the
product of the perimeter and the apothem.

This formula can be derived if you make 5 triangles inside the shape. The area of each triangle is ½ Sa
(1/2 base x height).

The total area is therefore 5 x ½ Sa (in the case of the pentagon shown – the 5 only represent the
number of sides). But 5 x S is the total perimeter of the shape, so:

Formula: A = ½ aP

The angle shown  is one equal portion of 360 degrees. In the case of the pentagon, it is 360/5 = 72 o.
Hence the internal angle of any polygon can be found by calculating the supplement of the external
angle.

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Summary of Quadrilaterals
SQUARE
4 Sides equal
4 right angles
Diagonals bisect each other at right angles
Diagonals are equal

RECTANGLE
2 pairs of opposite sides equal and parallel
4 right angles
Diagonals are equal and bisect each other

RHOMBUS
4 sides equal , opposite sides parallel
Diagonals bisect each other but are not of equal length

PARALLELOGRAM
2 pairs opposite sides equal and parallel
Diagonals bisect each other but are not of equal length

TRAPEZIUM / TRAPEZOID
1 pair opposite sides parallel
or

KITE
2 pairs of adjacent sides equal
Longer diagonal bisects shorter at right angles

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Surface Area and Volume of Common Solids
Introduction

There are special formulas that deal with solids, but they only deal with right prisms. Right prisms are
prisms that have two special characteristics - all lateral edges are perpendicular to the bases, and lateral
faces are rectangular. The figure below depicts a right prism.

Common Solids

1. Right Prism Area

The lateral area L (area of the vertical sides only) of any right prism is equal to the perimeter of the base
times the height of the prism (L = Ph).

The total area T of any right prism is equal to two times the area of the base plus the lateral area.

Formula: T = 2B + Ph

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2. Right Prism Volume

The volume V of any right prism is the product of B, the area of the base, and the height h of the prism.

Formula: V = Bh

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3. Pyramid Volume

A pyramid is a polyhedron with a single base and lateral faces that are all triangular. All lateral edges of
a pyramid meet at a single point, or vertex.

The volume V of any pyramid with height h and a base with area B is equal to one-third the product of
the height and the area of the base. This applies even if the prism is not a ‘right-prism’ i.e. the axis is
not perpendicular to the base. The height however, is still measured perpendicular to the base as
shown below.

Formula: V = 1
3 Bh

A regular pyramid is a pyramid that has a base that is a regular polygon and with lateral faces that are all
congruent isosceles triangles.

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4. Cylinder Volume

The volume V of any cylinder with radius r and height h is equal to the product of the area of a base and
the height.

Formula: V = r2h

5. Cylinder Surface Area

For any right circular cylinder with radius r and height h, the total surface area T is two times the area of
the base (2r2) plus the curved surface area (2rh).

Formula: T = 2r h + 2r2

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6. Cone Volume

The volume V of any cone with radius r and height h is equal to one-third the product of the height and
the area of the base.

Formula: V = 1
3 r2h

7. Cone Surface Area

The total surface area T of a cone with radius r and slant height l is equal to the area of the base (r2)
plus  times the product of the radius and the slant height.

Formula: T = r l + r2

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8. Sphere Volume and Surface Area

The volume V for any sphere with radius r is equal to four-thirds times the product of and the cube of
the radius. The area A of any sphere with radius r is equal to 4times the square of the radius.

Volume Formula: V = 4
3 r3

Surface Area Formula: A = 4r2

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Worksheet

1. A grave is dug 2m x 1m x 1m deep. The earth removed is piled into a pyramid of circular base 2
m diameter. Find the height of the pyramid (in terms of ).

Give the answer in m, cm and mm.

2. A right prism has ends 10 cm x 10 cm and is 50 cm long. It is drilled lengthwise with an 8 cm drill
through its full length. Find

a) the remaining volume of the prism material. Give the answer in terms of  and in mm3
b) the surface area of the inside of the hole. Give the answer in terms of  and in mm2

3. Find the surface area of a right cone with base radius 3 inches and perpendicular height of 4
inches. Leave the answer in terms of  and include the base area.

4. Find the ratio of the ‘surface area to volume’ of spheres of the following diameters:

a) 2m
b) 4m
c) 8m

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Answers

1. 6/ m, 600/ cm, 6000/ mm

2. a) (5 x 106) - (8 x 105 ) mm3

b) 400 cm2, 40,000 mm2

3. 24 in2

4. a) 3:1
b) 1½ :1
c) ¾:1

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Common Conversions
Length
imperial> metric
metric > imperial
1 inch [in] 2.54 cm
1 millimetre [mm] 0.0394 in
1 foot [ft] 12 in 0.3048 m
1 centimetre [cm] 10 mm 0.3937 in
1 yard [yd] 3 ft 0.9144 m
1 metre [m] 100 cm 1.0936 yd
1 mile 1760 yd 1.6093 km
1 kilometre [km] 1000 m 0.6214 mile
1 nautical mile 1.15 mile 1.852 km

Area
imperial> metric metric > imperial

1 sq inch [in2] 6.4516 cm2 1 sq cm [cm2] 100 mm2 0.1550 in2

1 sq foot [ft2] 144 in2 0.0929 m2 1 sq m [m2] 10,000 cm2 1.1960 yd2

1 sq yd [yd2] 9 ft2 0.8361 m2 1 hectare [ha] 10,000 m2 2.4711 acres

1 acre 4840 yd2 4046.9 m2 1 sq km [km2] 100 ha 0.3861 mile2

1 sq mile [mile2] 640 acres 2.59 km2

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Volume
metric> imperial imperial> metric
3 3 3
1 cu cm [cm ] 0.0610 in 1 cu inch [in ] 16.387 cm3

1 cu decimetre [dm3] 1,000 cm3 0.0353 ft3 1 cu foot [ft3] 1,728 in3 0.0283 m3

1 cu metre [m3] 1,000 dm3 1.3080 yd3 1 fluid ounce [fl oz] 28.413 ml
3
1 litre [l] 1 dm 1.76 pt 1 pint [pt] 20 fl oz 0.5683 l

1 hectolitre [hl] 100 l 21.997 gal 1 gallon [gal] 8 pt 4.5461 l

USA measure > metric

1 fluid ounce 1.0408 UK fl oz 29.574 ml

1 pint (16 fl oz) 0.8327 UK pt 0.4731 l

1 gallon 0.8327 UK gal 3.7854 l

imperial> metric
Mass
1 ounce [oz] 437.5 grain 28.35 g
metric > imperial
1 pound [lb] 16 oz 0.4536 kg
1 milligram [mg] 0.0154 grain
1 stone 14 lb 6.3503 kg
1 gram [g] 1,000 mg 0.0353 oz
1 hundredweight [cwt] 112 lb 50.802 kg
1 kilogram [kg] 1,000 g 2.2046 lb
1 slug 14.6 kg
1 kilogram [kg] 1,000 g 0.068 slug
1 long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.016 t
1 tonne [t] 1,000 kg 0.9842 long ton (UK)
1 short ton (US) 2,000 lb 0.907 t

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