NIC

A NIC (network interface controller) card, also known as a network adaptor or

network interface card, is a circuit board that is installed on a computer to
connect to the network.
The network interface card is equipped with a processor and memory
(including RAM and ROM). The communication between the network
interface card and the local area network is carried out in a serial
transmission mode through a cable or a twisted pair. The communication
between the network interface card and the computer is carried out in
parallel transmission through the I/O bus on the computer motherboard.
Therefore, an important function of the network interface card is to perform
serial/parallel conversion. Because the data rate on the network and the data
rate on the computer bus are not the same, the network interface card must
be equipped with a memory chip that caches the data.
A NIC provides a computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to a network.
It implements the physical layer circuitry necessary for communicating with a
data link layer standard, such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Each card represents a
device and can prepare, transmit and control the flow of data on the
network .NIC is a Wi-Fi adapter that is built in to device. Also, a NIC is an
adapter card that plugs in to the motherboard, and is connected through
network cabling to the network. Lastly, a NIC is a USB adapter that can
connect to the WI-FI network.

A Network Interface Card, operates at Layer 2 of the network - it has a physical

component, but it also has a MAC address, and when transmitting data, it
includes its MAC address in the header as the Source MAC Address - this
makes it Layer 2 as a device is associated with the highest. Level it
operates on (also, per Cisco). When receiving data, the NIC is the
device that decides to accept or reject (drop) the data packet based on
the destination MAC address in the header.

Types of network interface cards

While the standard NIC is a plastic circuit board that slides into a computer to
connect with the motherboard, there are multiple ways this connection can
occur:

 Wireless. These are NICs that use an antenna to provide wireless reception
through radio frequency waves. Wireless NICs are designed for Wi-Fi
connections.
 Wired. These are NICs that have input jacks made for cables. The most
popular wired LAN technology is Ethernet.

 USB. These are NICs that provide network connections through a device
plugged into the USB port.

 Fibre optics. These are expensive and more complex NICs that are used as
a high-speed support system for network traffic handling on server
computers. This support could also be accomplished by combining
multiple NIC.
There are six primary components of a NIC card:

 Controller: The controller is like a mini CPU, processing data that is

received. As a core part of a network adapter, the controller directly
decides its performance.
 Boot ROM (Read-only memory) socket: This socket on the card enables
boot ROM capability, which permanently stores instructions for the
computer. Boot ROM allows workstations without a disk to connect to
the network, increasing security and lowering the cost of hardware.
 NIC port for the cable/transceiver: Usually, this port will connect with an
Ethernet cable for the transceiver directly, which can generate and
receive the electronic signals that are put on the network cable or fibre
cable.
 BUS interface: This interface is on the side of the circuit board, which
serves as the connection between the NIC and computer or server via
being plugged into their expansion slot.
 LED indicators: Indicators are used to help users identify the working
status of a network card, as in whether there is a connection between
the card and the network.

 Profile bracket: There are two types of profile brackets in the market. One is
called the full-height bracket with a length of 12 cm, and the other is the
low-profile bracket with a length of 8 cm. This bracket can help users fix the
NIC in the expansion slot of a computer or server.

Advantage Of Network Interface Card

 The information move is exceptionally dependable among the hubs.

 Enormous measure of information can be shared or moved between
numerous clients.
 The web speed for correspondence making conceivable is normally high
in gigabytes.
 By using numerous ports of NIC cards that are given, a few peripherals
can get stopped.
 Disadvantage Of Network Interface card

 Badly designed if there should arise an occurrence of wired link NIC, as

it isn’t convenient like a remote switch.
 The design should be legitimate for better correspondence.
 Information is unstable.
 By using numerous ports of NIC cards that are given, a few peripherals
can get stopped.

ROUTER
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one
LAN to another if both networks support the same set of protocols. So
a router is typically connected to at least two LANs and the internet service
provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form of packets, which are data
frames with their destination address added. Router also strengthens the
signals before transmitting them. That is why it is also called repeater.
Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the
OSI model. They are responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data
packets among the connected computer networks. When a data packet arrives,
the router inspects the destination address, consults its routing tables to
decide the optimal route and then transfers the packet along this route.
Features of Routers
 A router is a layer 3 or network layer device.
 It connects different networks together and sends data packets from one
network to another.
 A router can be used both in LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs
(Wide Area Networks).
 It transfers data in the form of IP packets. In order to transmit data, it
uses IP address mentioned in the destination field of the IP packet.
 Routers have a routing table in it that is refreshed periodically according
to the changes in the network. In order to transmit data packets, it
consults the table and uses a routing protocol.
 In order to prepare or refresh the routing table, routers share information
among each other.
 Routers provide protection against broadcast storms.
 Routers are more expensive than other networking devices like hubs,
bridges and switches.
 Routers are manufactured by some popular companies like –Cisco D-
Link, HP, 3COM etc.
 A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet
can take to reach its destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may
be of these two types −
 Static − In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is
suitable only for very small networks that have maximum two to three
routers.
Dynamic − in a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers
through protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger
networks where manual feeding may not be feasible due to large number of routers.
Types of routers:
Wired and wireless routers
These routers are mostly used in homes and small offices. Wired routers share
data over cables and create wired local area networks (LANs), while wireless
routers use antennas to share data and create wireless local area networks
(WLANs).

. Edge router

This is a wired or wireless router that distributes data packets between one
and more networks but not within a network. As their name indicates, edge
routers are placed at the edge or boundary of networks, and typically connect
to Internet service providers (ISPs) or other organizations’ networks. Their job
is to keep your network communicating smoothly with other networks.

 Core router

These wired or wireless routers distribute data packets within networks, but
not between multiple networks. They’re designed to become the backbone of
your network and do the heavy lifting of data transfer, which is why they’re
usually high-performance.
 Virtual routers

Unlike physical routers, virtual routers are pieces of software that allow
computers and servers to operate like routers. They’ll share data packets just
as physical routers do. They can offer more flexibility than physical devices
since they can be scaled as the business grows; they can also help get remote
offices up and running on your network more quickly.

Advantages of the router:

 It provides sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic isolation
 Reduce network traffic by creating collision domains
 Reduce network traffic by creating broadcast domains
 Can connect different network architecture, such as Ethernet and token
 They are configurable which allows the network manager to make policy
based on routing decisions.
Disadvantages of the router:

 A router is more expensive than bridge or repeaters

 Router only work with rotatable network protocol, not all protocol are
routable
 The router is slower than bridge or repeaters because they must analyze
data transmission from the physical to the network layer
 Dynamic router communication causes additional network traffic
 Are relatively complex device

 Switch
 Switch is a network device that connects other devices
to Ethernet networks through twisted pair cables. It uses packet
switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on the
network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the
devices connected to it. Switches are one of the traffic directors on the
network, and traditionally operate at layer 2.

There are several types of switches in networking:

 Virtual switches are software-only switches instantiated inside VM hosting

environments.

 Routing switches connect LANs. In addition to doing MAC-based Layer 2

switching, they perform routing functions at OSI Layer 3 (network layer),
directing traffic based on IP address in each packet.

 Managed switches let a user adjust each port on the switch. This enables
monitoring and configuration changes.

 Unmanaged switches enable Ethernet devices to pass data automatically

using auto negotiation, which determines parameters such as data rate.
The configuration is fixed and cannot be edited.

 Smart switches can be configured to enable more control over data

transmissions, but they have more limitations compared to managed
switches. Smart switches are also known as partially managed switches.
  Stackable switches are fixed switches that may be connected to one
another via a backplane cable interface to form a single logical switch
from two or more physical switches.

 Modular switches are switch cards for modular or chassis-based

switches and can be inserted into a sizable, fixed-form factor chassis
that can accommodate two or more cards. Since switch interfaces can
be changed as needed, this kind of switch gives the greatest flexibility
and upgradeability.

 Advantages Of Switch
 Increases Capacity –
They increment the accessible data transfer capacity of the
organization.

 Reduces Burden –
They help in lessening the outstanding burden on individual host PCs.

 Increment Presentation –
They increment the presentation of the organization.

 Less casing Impacts –

Networks that use switches will have fewer casing impacts. This is
because of the way that switches make impact areas for every
association.

 Straightforward –
Switches can be associated straightforwardly with workstations.
Disadvantages of Switches:
 Costly –
They are more costly in contrast with network spans.
 Tough Availability issues –
Network availability issues are hard to be followed through the
organization switch.
. Issues in traffic broadcasting –
Broadcast traffic might be problematic.
 Defenceless –
If switches are in the indiscriminate mode, they are defenceless
against security assaults for example caricaturing IP address or
catching Ethernet outlines.
 Need for Proper Planning –
Proper planning and arrangement are required to deal with multicast
parcels.
  BRIDGE
The bridge is a networking device that connects the larger LAN networks with
the group of smaller LAN networks.
A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs
together with a larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network
aggregation is known as bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware
device but operates at the OSI model’s data link layer and is also known as a
layer of two switches. In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link
layer (layer 2). The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the
incoming traffic and determine whether to filter or forward it. Basically, a
bridge in computer networks is used to divide network connections into
sections, now each section has separate bandwidth and a separate collision
domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.

Types of Bridges:
There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:
1. Transparent bridge
2. Source routing bridge
3. Translational bridge

Transparent Bridge:

Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the network. This

bridge doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion of any
station. The prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward
the data according to the MAC address.

Source Routing Bridge:

Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM specifically for
token ring networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the data
frames by the source station to perform the routing operation so that once
the frame is forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.

Translational Bridge:

Translational bridges convert the received data from one networking system
to another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data between two
different types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data from a
token ring to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to
connect both the networking system and transmit data .

Uses of Bridge
 Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate
multiple LANs together.

 On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to

accept or reject the data.
 In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of
the network.
 Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination
address is unavailable.
 It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.
 The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the
MAC address is available.

Advantages:
 Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two
network topologies together.
 It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.
 It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different
segments.
 Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into multiple
LAN segments.
 Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software
except the bridge itself.
 Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.
Disadvantages:
 Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.
 Slow in speed.
 Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC
address of the device on the network.
 As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual
filtering of data is not possible.
 During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic
and broadcast storms can be formed.
Functions of Bridges in the Network
 The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.
 To control the traffic in the network.
 It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.
 It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.
 HUB
Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology
which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets
are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the all hosts connected
through Hub remain one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out
the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect multiple
devices in a network. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.
A hub works at the physical layer of the OSI model. A switch works at the data
link layer of the OSI model. A hub has many ports in it. A computer which
intends to be connected to the network is plugged in to one of these ports.
When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port, without
considering whether it is destined for a particular destination or not.

Types of Hub

.Active Hub: - These are the hubs that have their power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a
repeater as well as a wiring centre. These are used to extend the maximum
distance between nodes.

 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and
power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the
network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend
the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network
devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
Features of Hubs
 A hub operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.
 A hub cannot filter data. It is a non-intelligent network device that sends
message to all ports.
 It primarily broadcasts messages. So, the collision domain of all nodes
connected through the hub stays one.
 Transmission mode is half duplex.
 Collisions may occurs during setup of transmission when more than one
computers place data simultaneously in the corresponding ports.
 Since they lack intelligence to compute best path for transmission of
data packets, inefficiencies and wastage occur.
 They are passive devices; they don’t have any software associated with
it.
 They generally have fewer ports of 4/12.

 Advantages Of HUBS
  Centralization − Centralization in the context refers to the fact that all
the communication between devices on a network is funnelled through
a single, which is the hub this means the hub is the central point of
control for the network, and all communication must pass through it
that’s why, saying centralization.
 Easy to use − Hubs are simple devices that do not require any
configuration or software installation to manage them. Simply connect
the devices to the hub they will start communicating with each other.
 Cost-effectiveness − Hubs are relatively less expensive compared to
other networking devices such as switches and routers.
 Basic network connectivity − a hub provides basic network
connectivity by allowing devices to communicate with each other in a
LAN. This is useful for small-size networks, where only a few devices
need to be connected.
Disadvantages of Hub
 Limited Bandwidth − Hubs have a limited amount of bandwidth, which
is shared among all the devices connected to them. As more devices
are added to the network, the available bandwidth decreases, leading
to slower data transfer speeds. In contrast, switches have dedicated
bandwidth for each port, which enables faster communication and
prevents network congestion.
 Single Point of Failure − A hub is a central point in a network where all
the devices connect. If the hub fails, the entire network becomes
down. This means that a single point of failure can cause a network-
wide outage, which is the measure disadvantage. Switches have
dedicated bandwidth for each port, which provides faster
communication and avoids network traffic.
 Security Vulnerabilities − hubs work at the physical layer of the
ISO/OSI model, which means they don’t have any security features.
This makes them vulnerable to attacks, such as eavesdropping and
data interception. Switches on the other hand works at the data link
layer and offer security features such as VLANs, MAC filtering, and
port security.
CABLE
Cables are a type of networking hardware used to connect a network device to
one or more other network devices, or to connect two or more devices to a
single computer or network device. Network cables act as a medium through
which information and data travel from one network device to another. The
type of cable used for a network depends on the network’s topology, size, and
procedure. The different types of network cables act as the supporting basis of
the network infrastructure. Cables are layer (physical layer) they are
implemented for carrying data from one place to another.

There are 4 different types of network cabling

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cables have a single copper conductor at the centre, while a plastic layer
provides insulation between the centre conductor and braided metal shield. The
metal shield blocks outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and
other computers.

Coaxial cabling is highly resistant to signal obstruction, although it can be

complex to install. It can handle greater cable lengths between network devices
than twisted pair cables. The two types of coaxial cables are thick coaxial and
thin coaxial.

Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic cables possess a centre glass core surrounded by multiple layers of
protective materials. They avoid electrical obstruction by transmitting light
instead of electronic signals, making them perfect for environments with large
amounts of electrical interference. Fibre optic cables have become the standard
for connecting networks across buildings because of their resistance to
moisture and lighting.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Often referred to colloquially as simply Ethernet cables, STP cables employ a

special type of copper telephone wiring used for business installations. An
external shield functioning as a ground is added to the standard twisted pair of
telephone wires.
Shielded twisted pair cables can be perfect if you want to set up cables in an
area with potential interference and risks to an unshielded twisted pair cable’s
electrical current. Shielded twisted pair cables can also help to expand the

distance between the cables.

Advantages

 Easy installation.
 It has a higher capacity as compared to UTP cable.
 It is shielded that provides a higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages

 Cables are bigger in diameter more expensive compared to UTP or

coaxial cable.