PSYC 01 Introduction to Psychology - One’s own motivation has a direct impact on how an - Both positive and negative transfer

an - Both positive and negative transfer are possible.

1ST Semester – 1st Year individual learns.
BS Psychology - Learner’s Level of stability (below average, average, Anxiety
above average) and level of interest should be - Most of us carry a certain amount of anxiety, which
Lecture 2 considered tends to influence the preparation and taking of an
- Varying needs of students in terms of abilities, examination
LEARNING AND ITS PROCESSES motivation, and interest should be met. - there is a strong relationship between anxiety levels
and such measures of learning.
Environment
2.1 Definition of Learning
- Learning and subsequent changes in behavior take
More or less a permanent modification of behavior that
place as a result of interaction between the
results from activity, special training, and observation
individual and the environment.
(Munn).
Learning is a concept describing changes in behavior Factors Affecting Learning (Kahayon & Aquino)
that results from reinforced practice (Edward).
Any relatively permanent change in behavior as a result Intelligence
of practice excluding factors like fatigue, drugs, - People with higher IQs, score high in intelligence
adaptation, disease, maturation, and physical change tests, learn things more rapidly
(Hilgard). - One implication of this is that intelligence cannot be
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior define solely in terms of learning ability.
brought by experience or practice.
Chronological Age
Main Concepts - All kinds of learning depend in part on 2.3 Steps in the Learning Process
 practice or past experience chronological age.
- The data of this one has been used for the Learning is a lifetime process
 changes in behavior
construction of intelligence tests for adults. - may be apparent and deliberate
 concept of reinforcement
- may be subtle and unnoticed (like gradual
Arousal and Motivation assimilation of culture) (like solving a math
2.2 Factors Affecting Learning
- For efficient learning, the learner must desire or problem)
Teacher
- The ones who model behavior and affect or intend to learn.
How does an organism learn?
determine one’s motivation to learn. - The most fundamental condition for learning to take
- sense - interpret - respond to the consequence or
- To have an effective learning process, there should place is that the organism be in a reasonably high
outcome of their prior response (an organism is not
be state of arousal.
the same after passing this cycle.)
 Mastery of the teacher on the subject being
taught (no.1 requirement) 1. Motivation
 Personality - The dominant force which governs an individual’s
progress and ability to learn.
Teacher factor 80% Previous Learning
- An individual’s response to any particular stimulus
- The amount of transfer from previous learning will
Learner will be directly proportional to the relative strength
partially determine the rate of learning here and now.
 of their motive to reduce the tension associated with
the unsatisfied need. 7. Generalization  Conditioned stimulus
2. Goal - Transfer of knowledge across multiple situations. - The neutral stimulus that was paired with the
- Behavior being purposive, and is oriented towards a - The application of acquired knowledge and skills in unconditioned stimulus that gained the ability to
goal. a coherent manner consistent with one's prior elicit the same response as the unconditioned
learning. stimulus
3. Readiness - Learned
- Influenced by both genetic factors and the 2.4 2 Main Classification & Its Types
Combination of training and experience.  Unconditioned response
1. Associative Learning - Physiological response that is unlearned and
a. Physiological Factors - Behavior is learned through habit formation or by involuntary
- Maturation of Sense organs, etc. associating stimulus(s) and response(r). - Salivation of food
- Sensation and Perception are the Basics of - Occurs when an organism makes an association
Cognitive Learning between stimuli or events that occur together in the  Neutral Response
environment - Response that is not a result of a particular stimulus
b. Psychological Factors
- Motives a. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)  Conditioned Response
- Emotional factors - Also called stimulus substitution - learned response to the conditioned stimulus
- Self-concept - Process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, - not identical to the unconditioned response
consequently, to anticipate events
c. Experimental Factors - Learning to make an involuntary response to a
- Previously learned skills stimulus other than the original one, that normally Additional
- Concepts produces it
- method of substituting another stimulus for an  Stimulus Generalization
4. Obstacle original one to elicit a response. - The same response to stimuli that are similar
- Its presence is an occasion for learning new modes - Learner is passive
of adjustments. - Simplest form of learning  Discrimination
- Maybe the hindrances that Challenge the learner. - dogs, metronome, meat powder, and saliva - Response to a specific stimulus only after discerning
measuring device its difference from other stimuli
5. Responses
Elements  Extinction
- Varied according to one’s interpretation of the
 Unconditioned stimulus - When the conditioned response “dies out” after not
situation.
- Naturally occurring stimulus that triggers a pairing it with the unconditioned stimulus
- May take the form of a direct attack or a manner of
Physiological response
circumvention.
- Unlearned  Spontaneous recovery
- Food that elicits salivation - reappearance of conditioned response to conditioned
6. Reinforcement
- Responses are reinforced if they satisfy one’s needs. stimulus after extinction
 Neutral stimulus
- It is a consequence that occurs after a behavior and
- Any kind of stimulus that causes sensory responses
increases the chances that it will occur again
only
b. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner) - Involves the perception of a stimulus that gives rise
- Organisms learn to associate a behavior and its c. Escape and Avoidance Learning to the expectation that if a particular kind of
consequence. - Operant conditioning that uses negative rather than behavior follows the perceived stimulus, another
- Learning to make voluntary responses through the positive reinforcement. stimulus will appear.
effects of positive and negative consequences - learning "what leads to what"
- Method of learning where the learner performs a Escape Learning
behavior in order to receive either a reward or - Learn to get away from or eliminate an unpleasant c. Programmed Learning
Punishment. situation - A method of self-instruction consisting of frames (a
- Learning occurs based on whether the action will be series of short steps) and responses.
repeated after the experienced consequence. Avoidance Learning - You work at your own rate.
- Learner is active - avoiding or preventing an unpleasant situation
before its occurrence. d. Social Cognitive Learning/ Imitative Learning
Reinforcement
- The shock is preceded by a warning signal. - Albert Bandura
- Any stimulus, that when following a response
- Brings together the behaviorist and cognitive
increases the chance that the response will occur
d. Multiple-response Learning principles by focusing on human learning as a
again.
- acquiring of patterns or sequences of responses in continuous interaction between the individual and
- Anything that will make the association between CS
mastering a task the social environment in which he/she lives
and CR stronger. That increases the chances that the
- a kind of learning involving more than one - Learning through imitation
behavior will occur again.
identifiable act, with the order of events usually
- Positive reinforcement
fixed by the demands of the situation 2.5 Theories on Learning
- Negative reinforcement
Punishment 2. Cognitive Learning 1. Connectionism / S-R Bond Theory (Edward Thorndike)
- Any stimulus, that when following a response - learning which involves perception and knowledge - Thorndike's view of learning suggests that it
decreases the change that the response will occur —cognitive processes necessary in order to learn consists of associations (or connections) between
again with understanding stimuli and responses.
- Consequence that follows an operant response that - more active approach to learning - By trial and error, animals identify connections
decreases(or attempts to decrease) the likelihood of - focuses on the role of cognition or thought processes between a stimulus and a satisfying consequence.
that response occurring in the future. in learning - These connections are stamped in because of the
- Punishment by application pleasure they bring S-R BOND
- Punishment by removal a. Perceptual Learning - The stimulus and its response are connected in a
- Wolfgang Kohler (1925) person's mind. This is called a stimulus-response
- solution to a problem suddenly appears, resulting in bond, or an S- R bond.
a change in perception wherein the learner come to
PRINCIPLES
know something about a stimulus situation that he
did not know before.  Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of
- results in an “aha” or eureka moment effect/exercise)
 A series of S-R connections can be chained together if
b. Sign Learning they belong to the same action sequence (law of
readiness)
  Transfer of learning occurs because of previously
encountered situations. a. Law of Primacy (Watson)
2. Law of exercise
 Intelligence is a function of the number of connections - Acts/impressions learned first will be better
- The connection between stimuli and a response can
learned remembered than those learned later
be strengthened or weakened.
- This connection can be strengthened by practicing
b. Law of Belongingness (Thorndike)
hard or it can be weakened by discontinuing the
- Associations are easily formed if they belong—
practice
2. Behaviorism (Watson) meaning, relatedness, meaningfulness and
- It states that behaviors are learned from the integration into a unified frame of reference
a. Law of Association (Kant)
environment and says that innate or inherited factors
- Learning occurs through the connection or
have very little influence on behavior.
functional relationship between two psychological
phenomena established through learning.
3. Functionalism (William James)
- Law of Contiguity- lightning and thunder
- Functionalism is a psychological philosophy that
- Law of Similarity - coffee and tea
views the mind as a functional instrument that:
- Law of Contrast- hot and cold
enables us to adapt to our environment
b. Law of Use and Disuse (Gates)
4. Gestalt / Field Theory (Wertheimer)
- All factors being equal, an association that is
- It focuses on "grouping and the entire theory
practiced or used will be strengthened; that which is
emphasizes on the fact that the whole of anything is
not is weakened.
greater than the sum of its parts
c. Law of Frequency and Recency (Watson)
2.6 3 Major Laws of Learning
- States that people remember the most recent (last)
and the most frequent material covered
1. Law of readiness
d. Law of Intensity (Carr)
- One learns best when physically, mentally,
- The strength of any behavior or experience has a
psychologically and emotionally ready
corresponding relation to learning.
- They do not learn well if they see no reason for
- The more intense the material taught, the more
learning.
likely it will be retained.
a. Law of mindset
e. Law of Forgetting (Ebbinghaus)
- Reference to the mental set of the learner at the time
- It is stated here that people tend to continually halve
that the response is to be made
their memory of newly learned knowledge in a
matter of time unless they actively review the
b. Law of apperception (Herbart)
learned material
- The process of taking the information from stimuli
(perceptions) and relating or comparing it to
3. Law of Effect
information gathered in the past
- Responses that are followed by satisfying after-
effects tend to be learned and repeated.