CHAPTER 5:

INTRODUCTION TO
Outline
• Overview of The SQL Query Language

• Data Definition Language

• Data manipulation Language

• Data Control Language

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SQL-Overview
• SQL, pronounced ‘Sequel’ or simply S-Q-L, is a
computer programming language that was
developed especially for querying relational
databases using a non-procedural approach.
• The term non-procedural means that you can
extract information by simply telling the system
what information is needed without telling how to
perform the data retrieval. The RDBMS parses
(converts) the SQL commands and completes the
task.

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SQL-Overview…

• Extracting information from the database by using

SQL is termed querying the database.

• SQL is a language that is fairly simple to learn, in

terms of writing queries but it has considerable
complexity because it is a very powerful language.

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SQL-Overview…

• Extracting information from the database by using

SQL is termed querying the database.

• SQL is a language that is fairly simple to learn, in

terms of writing queries but it has considerable
complexity because it is a very powerful language.

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 Overview of SQL…
• SQL language is divided into four types of primary
language statements:
– DDL (Data Definition Language)
– DML (Data Manipulation Language)
– DCL (Data Control Language)
– TCL (Transaction Control Language)
• Using these statements, we can define the structure of a
database by creating and altering database objects, and we
can manipulate data in a table through updates or deletions.
• We also can control which user can read/write data or
manage transactions to create a single unit of work.

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 SQL DDL

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 DDL
• Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to

define the database structure or schema. Some examples:

– CREATE - to create objects in the database

– ALTER - alters the structure of the database

– DROP - delete objects from the database

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 Identifiers

• May contain A-Z, a-z, 0-9, _

• No longer than 128 characters( SQL Server 2012)

• Start with letter

• Cannot contain spaces

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 Data Types
Data Type Declaration Example

Boolean (TRUE/FALSE) BOOLEAN

character CHAR Bno CHAR(4)

VARCHAR Name VERCHAR(15)

exact numeric NUMERIC

DECIMAL, DEC salary DECIMAL(7,2)
INTEGER, INT
SMALLINT NoRoom SMALLINT

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 Data Types
Data Type Declaration Example

aprox numeric (e) FLOAT

REAL

DOUBLE PRECISION

datetime DATE (YYYY-MM-DD) ViewDate DATE

TIME (HH:MM:SS) ViewTime TIME

large object CHARACTER LARGE OBJECT

BINARY LARGE OBJECT

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 Scalar Operators
Data Type Meaning Example
CHAR_LENGTH length of string in characters CHAR_LENGTH(‘Bee’)

LOWER convert letters to lower-case LOWER(name)

UPPER convert letters to upper-case UPPER(name)

SUBSTRING returns a substring SUBSTRING(‘Beech’ FROM 1 TO 3)

CURRENT_DATE returns the current date

CURRENT_TIME returns the current time

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 Integrity Enhancement Feature
(IEF)

Five types of Integrity constraints defined in CREATE & ALTER:

• Required data

• Domain constraints

• Entity integrity

• Referential integrity

• Enterprise constrains

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 Required Data
• Null is distinct from blank or zero.
• When NOT NULL is specified, the system rejects any attempt to insert a null in the column.
• If NULL is specified, the system accepts NULL.

Syntax:
columnName dataType [NOT NULL | NULL]

Example:
position VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL

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 Domain Constraints
CHECK
Syntax:
CHECK (search condition)

Example:
sex CHAR NOT NULL
CHECK (sex In (‘M’, ‘F’))

salary DECIMAL NOT NULL

CHECK (salary > 10000);

bno INT
CHECK ( bno IN (SELECT branchno FROM branch) )

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 Domain Constraints
DOMAIN
Syntax:
CREATE DOMAIN domainName [AS] datatype
[DEFAULT default option ]
[CHECK (search condition)];

Example:

CREATE DOMAIN SexType AS CHAR

DEFAULT ‘M’ CHECK (VALUE IN (‘M’, ‘F’));

CREATE DOMAIN BranchNumber AS CHAR(4)

CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT bno FROM branch));

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 Domain Constraints
DOMAIN
Syntax:
DROP DOMAIN DomainName [RESTRICT | CASCADE];

• RESTRICT, domain must not be used in any existing table, view or assertion.
• CASCADE, any column based on the domain is automatically changed to use the
underlying data type, column constraint and default clause.

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 Entity Integrity
PRIMARY KEY
Syntax:
PRIMARY KEY (attribute (,…))

Example:

PRIMARY KEY (pno)

PRIMARY KEY (cno, pno)

• SQL rejects any operations that attempt to create duplication in the PK column.
• PK forbids NULL value.

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 Entity Integrity
UNIQUE
• UNIQUE permits NULL value.
• Every column that appears in a UNIQUE clause must also be declared in as NOT NULL.
• UNIQUE can appear after a column definition or separately.

Syntax:
• UNIQUE(attribute (,…))
• columnName dataType [NOT NULL| NULL] [UNIQUE]

Example:
cno VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL;
pno VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL;
UNIQUE(cno, pno);
pno VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL UNIQUE;
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 Referential Integrity
FOREIGN KEY
FOREIGN KEY clause is defined in the CREATE & ALTER TABLE statements.

Syntax:
FOREIGN KEY (FK column (,…))
REFERENCES table_name [(CK column (,…))]

Example:
FOREIGN KEY (bno) REFERENCES branch ;
FOREIGN KEY (bno) REFERENCES branch (branchNo);

• SQL rejects any INSET or UPDATE operation that attempts to create a foreign
key value without a matching CK value key.
• UPDATE or DELETE operation for a CK clause that has matching rows in
another table is dependent on the referential action specified using ON UPDATE
& ON DELETE subclauses.

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 Referential Integrity
Four options are supported when the user attempt to delete or update a CK, & there are
matching FKs:

• CASCADE: automatically delete/update the CK row & all matching (FKs) rows in child table.
• SET NULL: delete/update the CK row & set the FK values to NULL. Valid only if
NOT NULL clause is not specified for the FK.
• SET DEFAULT: delete/update the CK row & set the FK values to default. Valid only if
DEFAULT clause is specified for the FK.
• NO ACTION: rejects the delete/update operation.

Syntax:
FOREIGN KEY ( FK column (,…) )
REFERENCES tablename [ ( CK column (,…) ) ]
[ ON UPDATE [ CASCADE | SET NULL| SET DEFAULT| NO ACTION ] ]
[ ON DELETE [ CASCADE | SET NULL| SET DEFAULT| NO ACTION ] ]

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 Referential Integrity

Example:

FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES staff ON DELETE SET NULL;

FOREIGN KEY (ownerNo) REFERENCES owner ON UPDATE CASCADE;

FOREIGN KEY (MSSN) REFERENCES employee (SSN)

ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE;

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 Naming Constraints
In order to modify or delete an existing constraint, it is necessary that the constraint
have a name.

Proceed the constraint by the CONSTRIANT clause then specify a name for the
constraint.

Example:

Sex CHAR CONSTRAINT SexTypeValid

CHECK (sex IN (‘F’, ‘M’) )

Dept CHAR(4) NOT NULL CONSTRAINT DepNoInList

CHECK( Dno IN (SELECT Dept FROM DEPARTMENT))

CONSTRAINT IDISKey
PRIMARY KEY (SSN)

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 Creating a DB

Syntax
CREATE DATABASE database_name;

Example:

CRETAE DATABSE company;

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 Dropping a DB

Syntax
DROP DATABASE database_name;

Example
DROP DATABSE company;

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 Notations
Notations to define SQL statements:

• UPPER-CASE letters represents reserved words.

• Lower-case letters represents user-defined words.

• | indicates a choice among alternatives; (e.g. a | b | c).

• { } indicates a required element.

• [ ] indicates an optional element.

• … indicates optional repetition of an item zero or more times.

• Underlined words represent default values.

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 Creating a Table
Syntax
CREATE TABLE tablename
{ ( {columnName dataType [NOT NULL | NULL] [UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption ]
[CHECK (search condition)] (,…) }
[PRIMARY KEY (column (,…) ) , ]
[UNIQUE (column (,…) ) (,…) ]
[FOREIGN KEY (FK column(,…))
REFERENCES tablename [(CK column(,…))]
[ON UPDATE ReferentialAction]
[ON DELETE ReferentialAction] (,…) ]
[CHECK (search condition) (,…) ] ) } ;

• DEFAULT clause provide a default value for a particular column.

• PRIMARY KEY clause specify the column(s) that form the table’s PK.
• FOREIGN KEY clause specify a foreign key in the table and relate it to another table.
• Column-Based CHECK vs. Tuple-Based CHECK.
• Constraints may be given names using CONSTRAINT clause.
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 Creating a Table
DEPARTMENT( Dname, Dnumber)

CREATE TABLE department (

Dname VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,
Dnumber INT NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (Dnumber),
UNIQUE (Dname),
CHECK (Dname NOT LIKE ‘% Inc.’ AND Dnumber > 70)
);

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 Creating a Table
EMPLOYEE( Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, Salary, Dno)

CREATE DOMAIN SexType AS CHAR

CHECK (VALUE IN (‘M’, ‘F’));

CREATE TABLE employee (

Fname VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,
Lname VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,
SSN CHAR(9) NOT NULL,
DOB DATE,
Address VARCHAR(30),
Sex SexType DEFAULT ‘F’,
Salary DECIMAL(10,2),
Dno INT NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (SSN),
FOREIGN KEY (Dno) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE
);
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 Creating a Table
CREATE TABLE employee (
…… ,
Sex CHAR DEFAULT ‘F’
CONSTRAINT SexValue CHECK (Sex IN (‘M’, ‘F’)) ,

CONSTRAINT EmpSSN PRIMARY KEY (SSN),

CONSTRAINT EmpFK
FOREIGN KEY (Dno) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE
);

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 Changing a Table Definition

ALTER consists of six options to:

• Add a column to table

• Drop a column from a table
• Add a table constraint
• Drop a table constraint
• Set a default for a column
• Drop a default for a column

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 Changing a Table Definition
Syntax
ALTER TABLE tablename
[ADD [COLUMN] ColumnName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption] [CHECK (search condition)] ]
[DROP[COLUMN] ColumnName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]]
[ADD [CONSTRAINT [Constraint Name]] TableConstraint Definition]
[DROP CONSTRAINT ConstraintName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]]
[ALTER ColumnName SET DEFAULT DefaultOption]
[ALTER ColumnName DROP DEFAULT] ;

• RESTRICT, drop operation is rejected if the column is referenced by another

database object.

• CASCADE, drop operation drops all column from objects it is referenced by.

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 Changing a Table Definition
Example:
Add an attribute for keeping track of jobs of staff in the company schema.

ALTER TABLE company.staff

ADD job VARCHAR(12);

Example:
Remove the address attribute from the staff table.

ALTER TABLE company.staff

DROP address CASCASE;

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 Changing a Table Definition

Example:
Change the staff table by removing the default of ‘Assistant’ for the position column
and setting the default for the sex column to female.

ALTER TABLE staff

ALTER position DROP DEFAULT;

ALTER TABLE staff

ALTER sex SET DEFAULT ‘F’;

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 Changing a Table Definition
Example:
Change the PropertyForRent table by removing the constraint that the staff are not
allowed more than 100 properties at a time (StaffNotHandlingTooMuch).

ALTER TABLE PropertyForRent

DROP CONSTRAINT StaffNotHandlingTooMuch CASCADE;

Example:
Change the employee table by making name a primary key other than Id.

ALTER TABLE Employee

DROP CONSTRAINT IDISKey CASCADE
ADD CONSTRAINT NameIsKey PRIMARY KEY (name);

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 Changing a Table Definition

Example:
Change the Client table by adding a new column representing the preferred number
of rooms.

ALTER TABLE Client

ADD PrefNoRooms PropertyRooms;

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 Removing a Table

Syntax
DROP TABLE tablename [RESTRICT | CASCADE];

• RESTRICT, drop operation is rejected if there are any other objects that depend for
their existence upon the existence of the table to be dropped.

• CASCADE, drop operation drops all dependent objects.

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 Creating an Index
Index is a structure that provides accelerated access to rows of a table based on
the value of one or more attributes.
Indexes are updated every time the underlying tables are modified.
Created only on base tables.

Syntax
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX IndexName
ON tableName (columnName [ASC | DESC] [,…])

Example:

CRETAE UNIQUE INDEX StaffInd ON staff (StaffNo);

CREATE INDEX RentInd ON PropertyForRent (city, rent);

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 Removing an Index

Syntax
DROP INDEX Indexname;

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SQL-DML
 Data Manipulation Language
(DML) Statements

The main SQL data manipulation language statements are:

SELECT

INSERT INTO

UPDATE

DELETE FROM

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 Simple Queries
Syntax
SELECT [DISTINCT|ALL]{*|column|column_expression [AS new_name][,…]}
FROM table_name [alias] [, … ]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column_list]
[HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY column_list [ASC|DESC]];
▪ column represents a column name.
▪ column_expression represents an expression on a column.
▪ table_name is the name of an existing database table or view.
▪ FROM specifies the table(s) to be used.
▪ WHERE filters the rows subject to some condition.
▪ GROUP BY forms groups of rows with the same column name.
▪ SELECT specifies which column are to appear in the output.
▪ ORDER BY specifies the order of the output.
▪ Order of the clauses in the SELECT statement can not be changed.
▪ The result of a query is another table.
▪ Asterisk (*) means all columns.

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 Simple Queries
Retrieve all columns & rows
Syntax
SELECT {* | column| column_expression [,…]}
FROM table_name;

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

Retrieve all staff information.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno

FROM staff;

OR

SELECT *
FROM staff;

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 Simple Queries
Retrieve specific columns & all rows

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

List salaries of all staff, showing only the staff number, the first and last
name, and salary.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, salary

FROM staff;

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 Simple Queries
Use of DISTINCT
DISTINCT eliminates duplicated tuples.

Syntax
SELECT [DISTINCT|ALL] {* | column |column_expression [,…]}
FROM table_name;

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

List the available positions for staff .

SELECT DISTINCT position

FROM staff;

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 position position

Manager Manager
Assistant Assistant

Supervisor Supervisor
Assistant
SELECT DISTINCT position
Manager
FROM staff;
SELECT position
FROM staff;

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 Simple Queries
Calculated fields
▪ The SQL expression in the SELECT list specifies a derived field.
▪ Columns referenced in the arithmetic expression must have a numeric type.
▪ SQL expression can involve + , - , * , / , ( , ).
▪ AS clause is used to name the derived column.

Syntax
SELECT {* | column| column_expression [AS new_name] [,…]}
FROM table_name;

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

List the monthly salaries for all staff, showing the staff number, the first and last
names.
SELECT sno, fname, lname, salary/12 AS MonthlySalary
FROM staff;

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 Simple Queries
Row selection (WHERE clause)
WHERE clause consists of five basic search conditions:

▪ Comparison: Compare the value of one expression to the value of another

expression (= , <, >, <=, >=, <>).

▪ Range: Test whether the value of an expression falls within a specified range of
values (BETWEEN/ NOT BETWEEN).

▪ Set membership: Test whether the value of an expression equals one of a set of
values (IN/ NOT IN).

▪ Pattern match: Test whether a string matches a specified pattern (LIKE/ NOT
LIKE).

▪ NULL: Test whether a column has null value (IS NULL/ IS NOT NULL).

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 Simple Queries
Comparison search condition
Comparison operators: = , < , > , <= , >= , <>

Syntax
SELECT [DISTINCT|ALL] {* | column| [column_expression [AS
new_name]] [,…]}
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition];

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

List all staff with a salary greater than 10,000. showing number, name and
salary.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, salary

FROM staff
WHERE salary > 10000;

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 Simple Queries
Compound comparison search condition
Compound comparison operators: AND , OR , NOT , ( )

Order of evaluation:
• Expression is evaluated left to right
• Between brackets
• NOT
• AND
• OR

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

List all staff who works as managers or assistants.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position
FROM staff
WHERE position = ‘Manager’ OR position = ‘Assistant’;

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 Simple Queries
BETWEEN/ NOT BETWEEN
BETWEEN checks if a value is within a range.
NOT BETWEEN checks if a value is outside a range.

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

List all staff with a salary between 20000 and 30000.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, salary
FROM staff
WHERE salary BETWEEN 20000 AND 30000;

This would be expressed as:

SELECT sno, fname, lname, salary
FROM staff
WHERE salary >= 20000 AND salary <= 30000;

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 Simple Queries
IN/ NOT IN
IN tests whether a data value matches one of a list values.
NOT IN checks for data values that do not lie in a specific list of values.

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

List all Managers or Assistants.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position
FROM staff
WHERE position IN (‘Manager’, ‘Assistant’);

This would be expressed as:

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position
FROM staff
WHERE position = ‘Manager’ OR position = ’Assistant’;

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 Simple Queries
LIKE/ NOT LIKE
SQL has special pattern matching symbol:
% represents any sequence of zero or more character (wildcard)
_ represents any single character

Example:
▪ Address LIKE ‘H%’ means that the first character must be H, but the rest can be
anything.
▪ Address LIKE ‘H_ _ _’ means that there must be exactly four characters in the
string, the first of which must be H.
▪ Address LIKE ‘%e’ means any sequence of characters, of length at least 1, with
the last character an e.
▪ Address LIKE ‘%Glasgow%’ means a sequence of characters of any length
containing Glasgow.
▪ Address
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NOT LIKE ‘H%’ meansAAU-School
the firstofcharacter
Commerce
can not be H. 53
 Simple Queries
LIKE/ NOT LIKE
If the search string can include the pattern-matching character itself, we can
use an escape character to represent the pattern matching character.

‘15%’ is represented by LIKE ‘15#%’ ESCAPE ‘#’

Example: STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, address, bno)

List all staff with the string ‘Glasgow’ in their address.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, address
FROM staff
WHERE address LIKE ‘%Glasgow%’;

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 Simple Queries
IS NULL/ IS NOT NULL
NULL represents missing or unknown value.
NULL can does not represent a zero or a string of blank spaces.
A NULL value can not be tested with = or<> to another string.
We have to test for NULL explicitly.

Example:

VIEWING (ClientNo, PropertyNo, ViewDate, Comment)

List the details of all viewing on property PG4 where a comment has not been
supplied.
SELECT clientno, ViewDate
FROM viewing
WHERE PropertyNo= ‘PG4’ AND comment IS NULL;

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 Question
Assume the following relational schema:

EMPLOYEE(Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, salary, DeptNo)

DEPARTMENT(Dname, DNo )
PROJECT(PName, PNo, PLocation, Dno)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNo, Hours)

List all employees in department 5 whose salary is between Birr 30,000 &
Birr40,000.

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 Simple Queries
ORDER BY clause
Allows the retrieved records to be ordered in ascending (ASC) or descending
order (DESC) on any column or combination of columns.

Syntax
SELECT {* | [column_expression] [,…]}
FROM table_name
[ORDER BY column_list [ASC|DESC] ]

Single Column ordering

STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

Produce a list of salaries for all staff, arranged in descending order of salary.
SELECT sno, fname, lname, salary
FROM staff
ORDER BY salary DESC;

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 Simple Queries
ORDER BY clause
Multiple columns ordering

Property (PropertyNo, Street, City, postcode, Type, OwnerNo, Rooms, Rent)

Produce a list of properties arranged in order of property type and within

each property type ordered by rent in descending order.

SELECT propertyNo, type, rooms, rent

FROM property
ORDER BY type, rent DESC;

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 PropertNo Type Rooms Rent

PG16 Flat 4 450

PL94 Flat 4 400
PG36 Flat 3 370
PG4 House 3 650
PA14 House 6 600

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 Question
Assume the following relational schema:

EMPLOYEE(Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, salary, DeptNo)

DEPARTMENT(Dname, DNo )
PROJECT(PName, PNo, PLocation, Dno)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNo, Hours)

List all employees, ordered by department and, within each department, ordered
alphabetically by last name, first name.

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 Simple Queries
Aggregation
Functions that operate on a single column of a table and return a single value.

Five aggregation functions defined in SQL:

COUNT returns the number of rows in a specified column.
SUM returns the sum of the values in a specified column.
AVG returns the average of the values in a specified column.
MIN returns the smallest value in a specified column.
MAX returns the largest value in a specified column.

Examples:

Property (PropertyNo, Street, City, postcode, Type, OwnerNo, Rooms, Rent)

count
How many properties cost more than 350 per month to rent?
SELECT COUNT(*) AS count 2
FROM property
WHERE
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 Simple Queries
Aggregation

VIEWING (ClientNo, PropertyNo, ViewDate, Comment)

How many different properties were viewed in May 1998?

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT PropertyNo) AS count

FROM viewing
WHERE Viewdate BETWEEN ‘1-May-98’ AND ‘31-May-98’;

count

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 Simple Queries
Aggregation

STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

Find the total number of Managers and the sum of their salaries.

SELECT COUNT(sno) AS count, SUM(salary) AS sum

FROM staff
WHERE position = ‘Manager’;

count sum

2 54000

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 Simple Queries
Aggregation

STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

Find the minimum, maximum, and average staff salary.

SELECT MIN(salary) AS min, MAX(salary) AS max,

AVG(salary) AS avg
FROM staff;

min max avg

9000 30000 17000

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 Simple Queries
GROUP BY clause
Groups the data from the SELECT table(s) and produces a single summary
row for each group.

Example:
STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

Find the number of staff working in each branch and the sum of their
salaries.
SELECT bno, COUNT(sno) AS count, SUM(salary) AS sum
FROM staff
bno count sum
GROUP BY bno;
B003 3 54000
B005 2 39000
B007 1 9000
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 Simple Queries
GROUP BY clause

bno sno salary

B003 SG37 12000

count sum
B003 SG14 18000
B003 SG5 24000 3 54000
B005 SL21 30000 2 39000
B005 SL41 9000 1 9000

B007 SA9 9000

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 Simple Queries
HAVING clause
Designed for use with the GROUP BY clause to restrict the groups that appear in
the final result table.
WHERE clause filters individual rows going into the final result table.
HAVING clause filters groups going into the final result table.

Example:

STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, dob, salary, bno)

For each branch office with more than one member of staff, find the number of
staff working in each branch and the sum of their salaries.
SELECT bno, COUNT(sno) AS count, SUM(salary) AS sum
FROM staff
bno count sum
GROUP BY bno
HAVING COUNT(sno) > 1; B003 3 54000
B005 2 39000

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 Question
Assume the following relational schema:

EMPLOYEE(Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, salary, DeptNo)

DEPARTMENT(Dname, DNo )
PROJECT(PName, PNo, PLocation, Dno)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNo, Hours)

For each project on which more than two employees work, retrieve the project
number and the number of employees who work on the project.

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 Subqueries
A complete SELECT statement can be embedded (subselect) within another
SELECT statement.

A subselect can be used in the WHERE and HAVING clauses of the outer
SELECT statement (nested query).

A subquery can be used immediately following a relational operator.

Subquery always enclosed in parentheses.

Type of subquery:
▪ A scalar subquery returns a single column and a single row (singlevalue).
▪ A row subquery returns multiple columns, but a single row.
▪ A table subquery returns one or more columns and multiple rows.

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 Subqueries
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)
BRANCH (bno, street, city, postcode)

Example:
List the staff who work in the branch at ‘163 Main St’.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position

FROM staff
WHERE bno = (SELECT bno
FROM branch
WHERE street = ‘163 Main St’);

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 Subqueries

STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
List the staff whose salary is greater than the average salary, and list by how
much their salary is greater than the average.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position, salary – (SELECT

avg(salary) FROM staff ) AS sal_diff
FROM staff
WHERE salary > ( SELECT avg(salary)
FROM staff );

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 Subqueries

The following rules apply to subqueries:

▪ The ORDER BY clause may not be used in a subquery .

▪ The subquery SELECT list must consist of a single column name or

expression, except for subqueries that use the keyword EXISTS.

▪ By default, column names in a subquery refer to the table name in the

FROM clause of the subquery. It is possible to refer to a table in a FROM
clause in an outer query by qualifying the column name; in this case the
subquery is called a correlated subquery.

▪ When a subquery is one of the two operands involved in a comparison, the

subquery must appear on the right-hand side of the comparison.

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 Subqueries
IN
PROPERTYFORRENT (pno, street, area, city, pcode, type, rooms, rent, sno)
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)
BRANCH (bno, street, city, postcode)

Example:
List the properties that are handled by staff who work in the branch at ‘163 Main
St’.

SELECT pno, street, area, city, pcode, type, rooms, rent

FROM property_for_rent
WHERE sno IN
(SELECT sno
FROM staff
WHERE bno =
(SELECT bno
FROM branch
WHERE street = ‘163 MainSt’));
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 Question
Assume the following relational schema:

EMPLOYEE(Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, salary, DeptNo)

DEPARTMENT(Dname, DNo )
PROJECT(PName, PNo, PLocation, Dno)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNo, Hours)

Show the resulting salaries if every employee working on ‘X’ project is given all %10
raise.

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 Subqueries
ANY/ ALL

▪ Used with subqueries that produce a single column of numbers.

▪ If the subquery is preceded by the keyword ALL, the condition will only be
true if it is satisfied by all values produced by the subquery.

▪ If the subquery is preceded by the keyword ANY or SOME, the condition

will be true if it is satisfied by any (one or more) values produced by the
subquery.

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 Subqueries
ANY/ ALL
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Find staff whose salary is larger than the salary of at least one member of
staff at branch B3.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position, salary

FROM staff
WHERE salary > SOME
(SELECT salary
FROM staff
WHERE bno = ‘B3’);

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 Subqueries
ANY/ ALL
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Find staff whose salary is larger than the salary of every member of staff at
branch B3.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position, salary

FROM staff
WHERE salary > ALL
(SELECT salary
FROM staff
WHERE bno = ‘B3’);

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 Homework Question
Assume the following relational schema:

EMPLOYEE (Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, salary, DeptNo)

DEPARTMENT (Dname, DNo )
PROJECT (PName, PNo, PLocation, Dno)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNo, Hours)

For each department that has more than 5 employees, retrieve the department
number and the number of its employees who are making more than $40,000.

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 Multi-Table Queries
▪ So far, the columns that are to appear in the result table must all come from
a single table.
▪ To combine columns from several tables into a result table, we need to use a
join operation.
▪ To perform a join, we include more than one table name in the FROM
clause. WHERE clause to specify the join columns.

SELECT [DISTINCT|ALL] {* |column |[column_expression

[AS new_name]] [,…]}
FROM table_name [alias] [, … ]
[WHERE condition];

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 Simple Join
CLIENT (ClientNo, Fname, Lname, telNo, Type, Rent)
VIEWING (ClientNo, PropertyNo, Date, Comment)

Example:
List the names of all clients who have viewed a property along with any
comment supplied.
SELECT c.clientNo, fname, lname, propertyNo, comment
FROM client c, viewing v
WHERE c.clientNo = v.clientNo;

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 Sorting a Join

PROPERTYFORRENT (pno, street, area, city, pcode, type, rooms, rent, sno)
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)
BRANCH (bno, street, city, postcode)

Example:
For each branch office, list the names of staff who manage properties, and
the properties they manage, ordered by branch number, staff number and
property number.
SELECT s.bno, s.sno, fname, lname, pno
FROM staff s, propertyforrent p
WHERE s.sno = p.sno
ORDER BY s.bno, s.sno, p.pno;

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 Question
Assume the following relational schema:

EMPLOYEE (Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, salary, DeptNo)

DEPARTMENT (Dname, DNo )
PROJECT (PName, PNo, PLocation, Dno)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNo, Hours)

List all employees and identify the projects they are working on, ordered by
department and, within each department, ordered alphabetically by last name, first
name.

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 Three-Table Join
PROPERTYFORRENT (pno, street, area, city, pcode, type, rooms, rent, sno)
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)
BRANCH (bno, street, city, postcode)

Example:
For each branch, list the staff who manage properties, including the city in which
the branch is located and the properties they manage.
SELECT b.bno, b.city, s.sno, fname, lname, pno
FROM branch b, staff s, propertyForRent p
WHERE b.bno = s.bno AND s.sno = p.sno;

Alternatives:
FROM (Branch b JOIN staff s USING bno) As bs
JOIN PropertyForRent p USING sno;

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 Multiple grouping columns

PROPERTYFORRENT (pno, street, area, city, pcode, type, rooms, rent, sno)
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)
BRANCH (bno, street, city, postcode)

Exmaple:
Find the number of properties handled by each staff member and branch.
SELECT s.bno, s.sno, COUNT(*) AS count
FROM staff s, propertyForRent p
WHERE s.sno = p.sno
GROUP BY s.bno, s.sno;

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 Computing a Join
A join is a subset of the Cartesian product.

The Cartesian product of two tables is another table consisting of all possible pairs of
rows from the two table.

The columns of the product table are all the columns of the first table followed by all
the columns of the second table.

Format of SELECT statement for the Cartesian product:

SELECT [DISTICNT | ALL] {* | column_list }

FROM table_name1 CROSS JOIN table_name2;

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 Computing a Join
The procedure for generating the results of a SELECT with a join are as
follows:

• Form the Cartesian product of the tables named in the FROM clause.

• If there is a WHERE clause, apply the search condition to each row of the
product table, retaining those rows that satisfy the condition. In terms of the
relational algebra, this operation yields a restriction of the Cartesian product.

• For each remaining row, determine the value of each item in the SELECT list to
produce a single row in the result table.

• If SELECT DISTINCT has been specified, eliminate any duplicate rows from the
result table.

• If there is an ORDER BY clause, sort the result table as required.

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 Outer Join
The join operation combines data from two tables by forming pairs of related
rows where the matching columns in each table have the same value. If one
row of a table is unmatched, the row is omitted from the result table.

Outer join include the unmatched rows in the result table.

Three types of outer join:

- Left
- Right
- Full

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 Join Example
BRANCH PROPERTY
BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

B003 Glasgow PA14 Aberdeen

B004 Bristol PL94 London
B002 London PG4 Glasgow

BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

B003 Glasgow PG4 Glasgow

B002 London PL94 London

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM branch b, property p
WHERE b.bcity = p.pcity;
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 Left Outer Join

Example:
List the branch offices and properties that are in the same city along with any
unmatched branches.

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM branch b
LEFT JOIN property p ON
b.bcity = p.pcity;

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 BRANCH PROPERTY
BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

B003 Glasgow PA14 Aberdeen

B004 Bristol PL94 London
B002 London PG4 Glasgow

BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

B003 Glasgow PG4 Glasgow

B004 Bristol NULL NULL
B002 London PL94 London

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM branch b
LEFT JOIN property p ON
b.bcity = p.pcity;

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 Right Outer Join

Example:
List the branch offices and properties in the same city and any unmatched
property.

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM branch b
RIGHT JOIN property p ON
b.bcity = p.pcity;

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 BRANCH PROPERTY
BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

B003 Glasgow PA14 Aberdeen

B004 Bristol PL94 London
B002 London PG4 Glasgow

BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

NULL NULL PA14 Aberdeen

B003 Glasgow PL94 London
B002 London PG4 Glasgow

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM branch b
RIGHT JOIN property p ON
b.bcity = p.pcity;

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 Full Outer Join

Example:
List the branch offices and properties that are in the same city and any
unmatched branches or properties.

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM branch b
FULL JOIN property p ON
b.bcity = p.pcity;

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 BRANCH PROPERTY
BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

B003 Glasgow PA14 Aberdeen

B004 Bristol PL94 London
B002 London PG4 Glasgow

BranchNo bCity PropertyNo pCity

NULL NULL PA14 Aberdeen

B003 Glasgow PG4 Glasgow
B004 Bristol NULL NULL
B002 London PL94 London

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM branch b
FULL JOIN property p ON
b.bcity = p.pcity;
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 EXIST/ NOT EXIST
Used only with correlated subqueries.
EXISTS is true if and only if there exists at least one row in the result table
returned by the subquery. It is false if the subquery returns an empty result
table.

Example:

STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

BRANCH (bno, street, city, postcode)

Find all staff who work in a London branch.

SELECT sno, fname, lname, position
FROM staff s
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM branch b
WHERE s.bno = b.bno AND city = ‘London’);
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 Question
Assume the following relational schema:

EMPLOYEE (Fname, Lname, SSN, DOB, Address, Sex, salary, DeptNo)

DEPARTMENT (Dname, DNo )
PROJECT (PName, PNo, PLocation, Dno)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNo, Hours)

Retrieve the names of employees who works on no project.

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 UNION

PROPERTYFORRENT (pno, street, area, city, pcode, type, rooms, rent, sno)
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)
BRANCH (bno, street, city, postcode)

Example:
Construct a list of all cities where there is either a branch office or a rental
property.

(SELECT city FROM branch)

UNION
(SELECT city FROM propertyforrent);

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 INTERSECT
Example:
Construct a list of all cities where there is both a branch office and a rental
property.

(SELECT city FROM branch)

INTERSECT
(SELECT city FROM propertyforrent);

SELECT DISTINCT b.city

FROM branch b, propertyforrent p
WHERE b.city=p.city;

SELECT DISTINCT city

FROM branch b
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM propertyforrent p
5/16/2017
WHERE AAU-School
p.city = b.city);
of Commerce 98
 EXCEPT
Example:
Construct a list of all cities where there is a branch office but no rental
property.

(SELECT city FROM branch)

EXCEPT
(SELECT city FROM propertyforrent);

SELECT DISTINCT city

FROM branch
WHERE city NOT IN
(SELECT city
FROM propertyforrent);

SELECT DISTINCT city

FROM branch b
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM propertyforrent p
5/16/2017 WHERE AAU-School
p.city = b.city);
of Commerce 99
 Adding Data to DB (INSERT)
Syntax
INSERT INTO table_name [(column (,…))]
{ VALUES (date_value (,…)) | subquery };

▪ table_name may be either a base table or an updatable view.

▪ column_list represents a list of one or more column names separated by commas.
▪ If omitted, SQL assumes a list of all columns in their original CREATE TABLE order.
▪ If specified, then any columns that are omitted from the list must have been
declared as NULL column.
▪ data_value must match the column_list as follows:
▪ The number of items in each list must be same.
▪ There must be a direct correspondence in the position of items in the two lists,
so that the first item in the data_value_list applies to the first item in the
column_list, and so on.
▪ The data type of each item in the data_value_list must be compatible with the
data type of the corresponding column.
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 Simple INSERT

STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Insert a new row into the staff table supplying data for all columns.

INSERT INTO staff

VALUES (‘SG16’, ‘Alan’, ‘Brown’, ‘Assistant’, ‘M’,
DATE ‘1957-05-25’, 8300, ‘B003’);

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 Simple INSERT
STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Insert a new row into the staff table supplying data for all mandatory columns, knowing
that the sex and birth date are optional fields.

INSERT INTO staff (Sno, fname, lname, position, salary, bno)

VALUES (‘SG16’, ‘Alan’, ‘Brown’, ‘Assistant’, 8300, ‘B003’);

Alternative:
INSERT INTO staff
VALUES (‘SG16’, ‘Alan’, ‘Brown’, ‘Assistant’, NULL, NULL, 8300,
‘B003’);

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 INSERT with subqueries
STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)
PROPERTYFORRENT(Pno, street, city, postcode, type, rooms, rent, ono, sno, bno)
StaffPropCount(sno, fname, lname, propcount)

Example:
Insert rows into the StaffPropCount table using the staff and property_for_rent
tables.
INSERT INTO staffPropCount
(SELECT s.sno, fname, lname, COUNT(*)
FROM staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE s.sno = p.sno
GROUP BY s.sno, fname, lname)
UNION
(SELECT sno, fname, lname, 0
FROM Staff
WHERE sno NOT IN (SELECT DISTINCT sno
FROM PropertyForRent));
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 Modifying Data in the DB
(UPDATE)
Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name1 = data_value1 [, column_namei =
data_valuei ...]
[WHERE search_condition]

▪ table_name may be either a base table or an updatable view.

▪ The SET clause specifies the names of one or more columns
that are updated for all rows in the table.
▪ Only rows that satisfy the search_condition are updated.
▪ data_values must be compatible with the data types for the
corresponding columns.

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 Simple UPDATE
STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Give all staff a 3% pay increase.
UPDATE staff
SET salary = salary * 1.03;

Example:
Give all managers a 3% pay increase.
UPDATE staff
SET salary = salary * 1.03
WHERE position = ‘Manager’;

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 Simple UPDATE

STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Promote David Ford (sno = ‘SG14’) to Manager and change his salary to
$18,000.

UPDATE staff
SET position=‘Manager’, salary = 18000
WHERE sno=‘SG14’;

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 Deleting Data from the DB
(DELETE)
Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
[WHERE search_condition];

▪ table_name may be either a base table or an updatable view.

▪ Only rows that satisfy the search_condition are deleted.
▪ If no search_condition is omitted, all rows are deleted
from the table.
▪ DELETE does not delete the table itself, only rows in the
table.

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 Simple DELETE
STAFF(sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Delete all staff in branch B003.
DELETE FROM staff
WHERE bno = ‘B003’;

Example:
Delete all staff.
DELETE FROM staff;

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 Creating a View
Syntax
CREATE VIEW ViewName [(newColumnName [,…])]
AS subselect
[WITH [CASCADE | LOCAL] CHECK OPTION]

NewColumnName assign a name to each column in view.

If WITH CHECK OPTION is specified, if a row fails to satisfy the WHERE clause, it
is not added to the base table of the view.

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 VIEWS

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 Creating a View
(Horizontal)
Example:
Create a view for managers at branch B003 can see only the details for staff who
work in their branch office.

CREATE VIEW Maneger3Staff

AS SELECT *
FROM staff
WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’;

SELECT *
FROM Manager3Staff;

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 Creating a View
(Vertical)
Example:
Create a view for staff details at branch B003 that excludes salary information.

CREATE VIEW Staff3

AS SELECT StaffNo, Fname, Lname, position, sex
FROM staff
WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’;

CREATE VIEW Staff3

AS SELECT StaffNo, Fname, Lname, position, sex
FROM Manager3Staff;

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 Creating a View
(Groups & Join)
PROPERTYFORRENT (pno, street, area, city,pcode, type, rooms,rent,sno)
STAFF (sno, fname, lname, position, sex, DOB, salary, bno)

Example:
Create a view for staff who manage properties for rent, which include the branch
number they work at, their staff number, and the number of properties they manage.

CREATE VIEW StaffPropCount (BranchNo, StaffNo, cnt)

AS SELECT s.Bno, s.Sno, COUNT(*)
FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE s.sno = p.sno
GROUP BY s.bno, s.sno;

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 BranchNo StaffNo Cnt

B003 SG14 1
B003 SG37 2
B005 SL41 1
B007 SA9 1

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 Removing a View

Syntax
DROP VIEW ViewName [RESTRICT | CASCADE];

• RESTRICT, drop operation is rejected if there are any other objects that depend for
their existence upon the existence of the view to be dropped.

• CASCADE, drop operation drops all views defined on the dropped view.

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 Restrictions on Accessing Views
1. If a column in the view is based on aggregation function, then the column may
appear only in SELECT and ORDER BY clauses of queries that access the view.

Example: Illegal operation

SELECT COUNT(cnt)
FROM StaffPropCount;

SELECT *
FROM StaffPropCount
WHERE cnt > 2;

2. Grouped view may never be joined with a base table or a view.

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 View Updatability
For a view to be updatable, the DBMS must be able to trace any row or
column back to its row or column in the source table.

All updates to a base relation are immediately reflected in all views that
reference that base relation.

All updates to a view will be reflected in the underlying base relation,

under the following rules:
- Updates are allowed through a view defined using a simple query involving a
single base relation & containing either the PK or a CK of the base relation.
- Update are NOT allowed through views involving multiple base relations.
- Updates are NOT allowed through views involving aggregation or grouping
operations.

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 View Updatability

Example: Illegal operation

INSERT INTO StaffPropCount

VALUES (‘B003’, ‘SG5’, 2);

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 View Updatability
Example: Illegal operation

CREATE TABLE PropertyForRent(

Pno VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL,
city VACHAR(15) NOT NULL,
… );

CREATE VIEW StaffPropList (bno, sno, pno)

AS SELECT s.bno, s.sno, p.pno
FROM staff s, propertyforrent p
WHERE s.sno = p.sno;

INSERT INTO StaffPropList

VALUES (‘B003’, ‘SG5’, ‘PG19’);

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 View Updatability
A view is updatable if:

• DISTINCT not specified.

• Every column in the SELECT statement is a column name (rather than constant,
expression, or aggregation function).

• FROM clause specifies only one table.

• The WHERE clause does not include any subquesries.

• There is no GROUP BY or HAVING clause.

• Any row inserted through the view must not violate the integrity constraints of the
base table.

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 WITH CHECK OPTION
If a row in a view is altered in a way that is no longer satisfies the condition, then it
will disappear from the view (migration rows).

WITH CHECK OPTION prohibits a row migration out of the view.

• When INSERT or UPDATE statement on the view violates the WHERE
condition, the operation is rejected.

[LOCAL | CASCADE] applicable to view hierarchies.

• LOCAL, any row inserted or updated on this view, must not cause the row to
disappear from the view, unless the row also disappears from the underlying
derived view/table.
• CASCADE, any row inserted or updated on this view and view defined on this
view must not cause the row to disappear from the view.

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 WITH CHECK OPTION
Example:

CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff

AS SELECT *
FROM Staff
WHERE bno = ‘B003’
WITH CHECK OPTION;

UPDATE Manager3Staff
SET bno = ‘B005’
WHERE sno = ‘SG37’;

INSERT INTO Manager3Staff

VALUES (‘SL15’, ‘Mary’, ‘Black’, ‘Assistant’, ‘F’,
DATE ‘1987-06-12’, 8000, ‘B002’);

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 WITH CHECK OPTION
Example:

CREATE VIEW LowSalary CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff

AS SELECT * AS SELECT *
FROM Staff FROM HighSalary
WHERE salary > 9000; WHERE bno = ‘B003’;

CREATE VIEW HighSalary

AS SELECT *
FROM LowSalary
WHERE salary > 10000
WITH LOCAL CHECK OPTION;

UPDATE Manager3Staff
SET Salary = 9500
WHERE Sno = ‘SG37’;
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 SQL-DCL

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 Data Control Language
• Data Control Language (DCL) statements

control the level of access that users have

on database objects. They are:
– GRANT - gives user's access privileges to
database

– REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given

with the GRANT command
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Privileges
• Allowable Privileges

– SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

– CREATE Table, View, Procedure, Trigger,

Rule, Default

• The owner/creator of a table automatically has

all the privileges

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 GRANT/ REVOKE
• GRANT privilege ON tablename TO list
[ WITH GRANT OPTION]
• For example
– GRANT ALL ON BRANCH TO Solomon
– GRANT SELECT ON BRANCH TO sally WITH
GRANT OPTION
– GRANT SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT ON
BRANCH TO Solomon, Girma, Senait
• REVOKE privilege ON tablename FROM list
[CASCADE]
• Example
– REVOKE SELECT ON BRANCH FROM Girma
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