14/04/2021

Part 3
SIGHT DISTANCE

Prepared by:
Engr. Rommel G. Arapo
CE - Faculty

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the
visibility of the road ahead of the driver. Thus, the geometric design of the road
should be done such that any obstruction on the road length could be visible to the
driver from some distance ahead .

Sight distance is the length of the highway a driver needs to be able to see clearly. It
is important for drivers on a highway to see far enough down the highway to
recognize an object in the path and react appropriately to avoid a crash.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road
surface, over which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has
visibility of stationary or moving objects.
Sight distance situations are considered for design:
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance.
2. Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD.
3. Passing sight distance (PSD) for safe overtaking operation.
4. Headlamp sight distance.
5. Safe sight distance at Intersections.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

The most important consideration in all these is always that the driver traveling at the
design speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway distance within his line of
vision to allow him to stop his vehicle before colliding with a slowly moving or
stationary object appearing suddenly in his own traffic lane. The computation of sight
distance depends on:
 Reaction Time
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be
split up into four components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are
usually combined into a total perception-reaction time suitable for design purposes
as well as for easy measurement. Many of the studies shows that drivers require
about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal conditions. However, taking into consideration the
variability of driver characteristics, a higher value is normally used in design

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

 Speed of the Vehicle

The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed,
more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed
increases, sight distance also increases.
 Efficiency of Brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment
the brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake
efficiency. Therefore the sight distance required will be more when the efficiency of
brakes are less. Also for safe geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have
only 50% brake efficiency

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

 Frictional Resistance between the tire and the road

The frictional resistance between the tire and road plays an important role to bring
the vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop
immediately. Thus, sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake
efficiency is provided while computing the sight distance. This is considered along
with the factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified the value of longitudinal
friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.
 Gradient of the road
Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the
vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While
descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will be required
to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required will be more in this case.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

A. STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely
without collision with any other obstruction.
There is a term called safe stopping distance and is one of the important measures in trac
engineering. It is the distance a vehicle travels from the point at which a situation is first
perceived to the time the deceleration is complete. Drivers must have adequate time if they are
to suddenly respond to a situation. Thus, in highway design, sight distance at least equal to the
safe stopping distance should be provided. The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag
distance and the braking distance. Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the
reaction time t and is given by vt, where v is the velocity in m=sec2. Braking distance is the
distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Safe Stopping Sight Distance

2. Distance required for stopping after

breaks are applied (braking distance):
 moving on horizontal plane:

D=
 moving on horizontal grade:
1. Distance travel during perception D=
( )
plus brake reaction time:
d = vt
where:
S =d+D
v = running speed
t = perception-reaction time 𝐕𝟐
𝐒 = 𝐯𝐭 +
t = 2.5 sec 𝟐𝐠 (𝐟 ± 𝐆)

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

1. Sight Distance on Vertical Summit Curve

where:
A = change in grade in percentage
 When S < L A = g1 – g2

AS
L= (in metric, m) Standard Values in Road Design
100 2h + 2h  For stopping sight distance (SSD)
AS h1 = 3.75 ft (1.14 m)
L= (in english, ft) h2 = 6 in. (0.15 m)
1400
 When S > L  For passing sight distance (PSD)
h1 = 3.75 ft (1.14 m)
200 ( h + h )
L = 2S − h2 = 4.50 ft (1.37 m)20
A
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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

2. Sight Distance on Sag Parabolic Curve

 When S < L • maximum velocity of car moving in a
vertical sag curve:
AS
L= (in english, ft)
400 + 3.5S
AV
AS L=
L= (in metric, m) 395
122 + 3.5S
where:
 When S > L
L = in meters
122 + 3.5S
L = 2S − V = in kph
A
A = g2 – g1

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

3. Sight Distance on Vertical Sag Curve

with Obstructing Overpass

 When S > L
2S g − g − 8H
L=
g −g
 When S < L
S (g − g )
L=
8H
where:
H=C–Z
Z = 0.50 (h1 + h2)

C = vertical clearance between sag

curve and the obstruction.

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4. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

 When S < Lc where:
S Lc – length of curve
R=
8M R – radius of the curve
S- sight distance
 When S > Lc
M – clear distance from center of
L (2S − L)
R= roadway to the obstruction
8M

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
B. HEADLAMP SIGHT DISTANCE
 When S > L
 Sight distance related to height of the beam of a vehicle’s
2 (h + S∅)
head lamp. L=
g −g
 Headlamp sight distance is the distance visible to a driver  When S < L
during night driving under the illumination of head
S (g − g )
lamp/lights. L=
2 (h + S∅)
 This sight distance is critical at up-gradients and at the
where:
ascending stretch of the valley curves.
L – length of curve
S – headlamp sight distance
h – height of headlamp above
road surface
θ – angle of beam tilts upward
above the horizontal axis of the
car.
θ – in radian

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
C. PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
It is a shortest distance sufficient for a vehicle to turn out of a traffic lane, pass another vehicle and
then turn back to the same lane safety and comfortable without interfering with the overtaken
vehicle or an incoming vehicle travelling at the design speed should it come into view after the
passing maneuver is started.
The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the trac in the opposite direction. The
overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the center line of the road over
which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m
above the road surface.
The factors that affect the PSD are: (1) velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of
the vehicle coming in the opposite direction, (2) spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends
on the speed, (3) skill and reaction time of the driver, (4) rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
and (5) gradient of the road.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E

Calculating the passing sight distance required for a given roadway is best accomplished using
a simple model. The model that is normally used incorporates three vehicles, and is based on
six assumptions:
1. The vehicle being passed travels at a constant speed throughout the passing maneuver.
2. The passing vehicle follows the slow vehicle into the passing section.
3. Upon entering the passing section, the passing vehicle requires some time to perceive that
the opposing lane is clear and to begin accelerating.
4. While in the left lane, the passing vehicle travels at an average speed that is 10 mph faster
than the vehicle being passed.
5. An opposing vehicle is coming toward the passing vehicle.
6. There is an adequate clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing
vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to the right lane.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Under these assumptions, the passing sight distance can be divided into four quantifiable portions:
d1 -- The distance the passing vehicle travels while contemplating the passing maneuver, and while
accelerating to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
d2 -- The length of roadway that is traversed by the passing vehicle while it occupies the left lane.
d3 -- The clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle when the passing
vehicle returns to the right lane.
d4 -- The distance that the opposing vehicle travels during the final 2/3 of the period when the
passing vehicle is in the left lane.

𝐏𝐒𝐃 = 𝐝𝟏 + 𝐝𝟐 + 𝐝𝟑 + 𝐝𝟒

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
D. SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS
At intersections where two or more roads
meet, visibility should be provided for the
drivers approaching the intersection from
either sides. They should be able to perceive a
hazard and stop the vehicle if required.
Stopping sight distance for each road can be
computed from the design speed. The sight
distance should be provided such that the
drivers on either side should be able to see
each other. This is illustrated in the figure.

Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on three possible conditions:

 Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
 Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
 Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Problem no.1
A vertical summit curve has a back tangent of 2% and a
forward tangent of -3% intersecting at station 10+220
and elevation of 200m. The design speed of the curve is
80 kph. Assume the coefficient of friction is 0.30 and
the perception -reaction time of 2.5 sec. Determine:

a) the safe stopping sight distance.

b) the length of curve.
c) the elevation of the highest point of curve.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Solution
S
Given:
g1 = 2% PI
g2 = -3%
h2
K = 80 kph = 22.222 mps h1
PC PT
f = 0.30 L
t = 2.5 sec
Sta @ PI = 10 + 220 Standard Values in Road Design
(b) Length of curve, L = ?
Elev @ PI = 200 m  For SSD
Assume : S < L
h1 = 1.14 m
(a) Safe Stopping Sight Distance, S = ? AS
L= h2 = 0.15 m
V 100 2h + 2h
S = vt +
2g (f ± G)
(5)(134.208)
(22.222) L=
S = 22.222 (2.5) + 100 2(1.14) + 2(0.15)
2(9.81) (0.3 + 0.02)
L = 212.70 m > S . : ok!
𝐒 = 𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝐦
𝐋 = 𝟐𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝟎 𝐦

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Solution
(c) Elev of hp. = ? 10 + 220
S1 PI Elev. 200 m
 Locate h.p.
y

Curve is symmetrical hp
PC PT
(unless otherwise stated) L
g L
S = (from PC)
g −g L
H = (g − g ) 1.329 y
8 =
0.02(212.70) 212.70 (85.08)
S = 212.70 2
0.02 − (−0.03) H= (0.02 − (−0.03))
8
S = 85.08 m ( from PC) y = 0.851 m
L H = 1.329 m
Elev @ hp = elev @ PI − g1 −S −y
2
For the value of y:
H y 212.70
= Elev @ hp = 200 − 0.02 − 85.08 − 0.851
L S1 2
2
𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐯 @ 𝐡𝐩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟕𝟐𝟒 𝐦

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Problem no.2
A vertical sag curve has a descending grade of 1.2%
starting from the Pc and an ascending grade of 3.8%
passing thru the PT. The curve has a sight distance of
180m. Determine the following:

a) the length of the vertical curve.

b) the maximum velocity of a car that could pass thru
the curve.
c) the distance of the lowest point of the curve from Pc.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Solution
(b) V = ?
S
AV
L=
h2 395
h1
PT 5(V )
PC 215.425 =
PI
395
L 𝐕 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓 𝐤𝐩𝐡

Given: 5(180) (c) S1 = ?

g1 = -1.2% L=
122 + 3.5(180) (0.012)(215.425)
g2 = 3.8% S =
L = 215.425 m > S . : ok! 0.05
S = 180 m
𝐋 = 𝟐𝟏𝟓. 𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝐦 𝐒𝟏 = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟐 𝐦
(a) L = ?
Assume : S < L

AS
L=
122 + 3.5S

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Problem no.3
A vertical sag curve has a length of 140m with tangent grades
of -1.5% and 2.5% intersecting at station 12+640 and
elevation of 240m above sea level. Determine the following:

a) the length of sight distance.

b) the maximum speed that a car could pass to avoid
collision.
c) the stationing of the lowest point of the curve.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Solution (c) Sta @ lp = ?
(b) V = ?
Given: (0.015)(140)
AV S = = 52.50 m
g1 = -1.5% L= 0.04
395 L
g2 = 2.5% sta @ lp = sta @ PI − +S
L = 140 m 5(V ) 2
140 = 140
Sta @ PI = 12 + 640 395 sta @ lp = (12 + 640) − + 52.50
2
Elev @ PI = 240 m 𝐕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝐤𝐩𝐡 𝐬𝐭𝐚 @ 𝐥𝐩 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟔𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟎

(a) S = ?
Assume : S > L
L
122 + 3.5S
L = 2S − S1
A
PC
122 + 3.5S
140 = 2S −
4 PC lp
S = 151.556 m > L . : ok!
PI
𝐒 = 𝟏𝟓𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟔 𝐦

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Problem no.4
The length of sag parabolic curve is 130m with a design
speed of 100 kph. The back tangent has a slope of -2.5%.
Determine the following:

a) the slope of forward tangent.

b) the distance of the lowest point of the curve form Pt.
c) the length of the sight distance.

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Solution (b) S2= ? (c) S = ?
Given: g L Assume : S < L
g1 = -2.5% S =
g −g
L = 130 m AS
(0.02635)(130) L=
V = 100 kph S = 122 + 3.5S
g −g
(5.135)S
(0.02635)(130) 130 =
122 + 3.5S
(a) g2= ? S =
(0.02635 + 0.025)
S = 115.377 m < L . : ok!
AV
L= 𝐒𝟐 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕𝟎𝟗 𝐦
395 𝐒 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟕𝟕 𝐦
(g − g )(100)
130 =
395
(g − (−2.5))(100)
130 =
395
𝐠 𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟑𝟓 %

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S I G H T D I S TA N C E
Problem no.5
The design speed of a vertical sag parabolic curve is 100
kph. The tangent grades of the curve are 2.2% and 2.8%
respectively.

a) compute the length of curve.

b) if the perception reaction time of the driver is 0.75
sec. and the coefficient of friction is 0.16, compute
the headlamp sight distance assuming that the
headlamp is 0.70m above the road surface.
c) Compute the angle that the beam tilts above the
longitudinal axis of the car.

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Solution
Given: (b) Headlamp sight distance, S = ? (c) Angle of the beam, Ø = ?
g1 = -2.2% t = 0.75 sec
g2 = 2.8% f = 0.16 When S > L
V = 100 kph = 27.778 mps h = 0.70 m
2 (h + S∅)
V L=
g −g
S = vt +
(a) L= ? 2g (f ± G)
2 0.70 + 266.634 ∅
(27.778) 126.582 =
AV S = 27.778 (0.75) + 0.028 + 0.022
L= 2(9.81) (0.16)
395
(2.8 − (−2.2))(100) Ø = 0.00924 rad
L= 𝐒 = 𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟑𝟒 𝐦
395 Ø = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟎°
𝐋 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟖𝟐 𝐦

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