Minerals

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid homogeneous substances composed of

atoms having an orderly and regular arrangement with definite chemical composition and a characteristic
geometric form, such as quartz (SiO,), Orthoclase (KAISi,Os). Calcite (CaCOs), Olivine [Mg, Fe)2SiO4]
and gypsum (CaSO4.2H0).

Minerals are naturally formed crystals that are composed of one or more chem ical elements. They are
distinguished from other natural solid materials by their crystalline structure. Some natural solid materials
formed in rocks are not minerals because they lack a crystalline structure, i.e., they are amorphous, eg.,
obsidian or volcanic glass. Most minerals are formed by inorganic processes; however, a few are formed by
organic processes (living organisms), eg., calcite in coral.

Single-element minerals include diamond (from carbon) and the native (i.e., elemental) metals gold, copper
and silver. Other minerals, such as chalcopyrite, sphalerite and mica, are chemical compounds consisting of
several elements.

Formation of minerals
About 90% chemical elements are known to exist in the earth crust and 2000 minerals are recognized. About
98% of the weight of the earth crust is composed by eight elements oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium and 2% by other elements. Most elements in the earth crust
naturally combine with one or more other elements forming compounds with fairly definite structure,
composition and properties called minerals.
Minerals can be formed as a result of solidification of molten magma in such a fashion that the different
elements present there in arrange themselves in accordance with attractive forces and geometric form. The
silicate tetrahedron is the principal building block of all the silicate minerals of the earth's crust.
Geometrically one Silicon cation (radius 0.42 A, Angstrom is surrounded by four oxygen anions (radius
1.32 A) touching with each other.

Types of minerals:
1) Mode of origin
Primary minerals: Primary minerals are originate in the parent rocks. They remain
unchanged during the course of soil formation and mostly present in snad fraction of the
soil separates. Primary minerals are those minerals which are crystallization of molten
magma i.e cooling and solidification of molten magma . It is the original component of
rocks Eg Quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende. Eg Quartz, feldspar mica ,hornblende,
Olivine, Pyroxenes, Amphiboles, etc.

Secondary minerals: the minerals formed by the alteration and decomposition of primary
minerals and subsequent recombination of the products of their decomposition are
secondary minerals. Secondary minerals are formed as byproducts of weathering at the
earth's surface. They are the results of subsequent changes in rocks due to weathering or
metamorphosis of primary minerals. Usually the formation of secondary minerals begins
near the site where primary minerals are being attacked, eg. Kaolinite, Montmorillonite,
illite, limonite, etc.
Accessory minerals, Those minerals which present in the parent rock in such a small
amount that its presence or absence in that rock does not bring any significant difference in
nomenclature of that concern rock. For e.g. Calcite, Dolomite, gypsum, Magnesite,
Magnetite, Carbonate apatite, Apatite, etc.
 2) Based on Quantity
 Essential minerals (Important for rock formation) : Quarts, feldspar, Mica, etc.
 Accessory minerals (not important as essential): Tormanline, Pyrite, magnetite etc.
3) Based on specific gravity
 Light minerals (less than 2.85 gm/cc) :quartz, Feldspar, etc.
 Heavy minerals (More than 2.85gm/cc): Hematite, Pyrite, Limonite, etc.

Some soil forming minerals:

 Quartz (SiO2): It is densely packed , chief constituent of sand fraction, resistant to

physical to chemical weathering, electrically neutral, double hexagonal structured ,
second largest minerals in earth crust i.e 36%.
 Feldspar (K2ON2O3.6SiO2): It is the most abundant minerals in the earth crust i.e.
48%. It is little less dense than quartz that means it will weather easily than Quartz.

List of important minerals:

 dolomite [CaMg(CO3)]2
 gypsum
 kaolinite (Al2O32SiO22H2O)
 apatite (Ca3(PO4)3)
 hematite (Fe2O3)
 limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O)
 magnetite (FeO4)
 fluorite (CaF2)

Rocks
The rocks which form the earth are made up of minerals. Rocks may be defined as the
mixtures of two or more minerals. So their physical and chemical composition vary with the characteristics
of the minerals. Petrology is the science of rocks which form the units of the earth's crust. It consists of
petrography-deals with the description of rocks and petrogenesis- study of the origin of rocks.

Rocks are made up of m inerals, the exception being glassy rocks (eg., som e rhyolites). Most rocks are
polymineralic (i.e., contain more than one mineral); however, a few are monomineralic, eg., limestone and
marble.

On the basis of their genesis and structure, rocks are generally grouped into three classes,

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks are formed as magma (molten rock) cools and solidifies. Magma is produced far below
the Earth's surface by heat generated mainly from radioactive disintegration of uranium, thorium
and potassium. Igneous rocks formed by cooling molten magma. Minerals found in igneous rocks
are quartz, feldspar, biotite, augite, hornblende, muscovite, etc. Based on mode of origin, they are
divided into two groups.
  Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks, these rocks form by slow cooling of molten magma
before reaching earth surface, e.g. Granite, Gabro, etc.
 Extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks, these rocks form by rapid cooling of molten magma on
the surface of the earth They are smooth in appearance, e.g. basaltand obsidian, etc.

Based on the chemical composition,

 Acidic, for e.g. granite, rhyolite, etc.

 Basic, for e.g. gabro, etc.
 Neutral for e. g. andesite, diorite, etc.

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
These rocks are formed by the accumulation and cementing of loose sediment (e.g., sandstone), the
deposition of chemical compounds held in solution in water (e.g., limestone), or by the
accumulation of animal or plant debris (e.g., coal).
Wind, river and ocean currents are the main methods of transport. This transported material settles
to form distinct layers, which are compressed by overlying layers and cemented to form solid rock.
Rock layers can be distinguished from each other by differences in grain size, color and com
position.
Sedimentary rocks may have a coarse-grained, gravel-like appearance or be extremely fine grained,
and may be hard or soft. The principal varieties are sandstone, limestone and shale. Many
sedimentary rocks contain fossils and some, such as coral reefs, are composed entirely of such
organic remains.
Based on mode of origin sedimentary rocks classified into,
 Fragmental, detrital or mechanically formed sedimentary rocks, these are form by the
deposition and cementation of erosion products or fragments of pre-existing rocks by
cementing agents like iron oxides, silica, carbonates or clays. For e.g. sand stone and shale.
 Chemically formed, they are of two types,
a. Inorganically formed, these are formed by evaporating and precipitation or dissolved
materials in water. For e.g. halite and gypsum.
b. Organically or biochemically formed, these rocks form by accumulation and partial
decomposition of organic residues under anaerobic conditions. For e.g. lignite and
anthracite.

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are formed by metamorphism or transformations of igneous and sedientary
rocks under the influence of chemically active liquid, gases, internal heat and pressure. The
structure and mineral composition of metamorphic rocks depend on the constituents of original
rocks and kinds of metamorphism. These rocks are formed when rocks of any class are subjected to
heat and pressure at depth. This causes new minerals to form and other minerals to
recrystallize. During the process, material from the rock may be added or lost. Marked
changes in temperature (T) and pressure (P) occur, which may produce completely new types
of rocks. In addition to the formation of new minerals, existing minerals may be realigned
into parallel bands and new textures may be formed. At sufficiently high temperatures, the
rock may undergo partial melting to form magma, which may then become the source of an
igneous rock. Metamorphic rocks include gneiss, schist, slate, quartzite and marble, etc.
 Some common metamorphic rocks are as follows
1. Gneiss (Pronounced ""nice"). Light-coloured igneous rocks with minerals segregated and
oriented to form light and dark bands (Formed mostly from granites, rhyolities, andesites and other
similar minerals).
2. Schist. Fissile or foliated (flaky or layered) composed of many rocks or minerals, particularly
mica called mica schists. Mica schists weather rapidly through the luminous cleavages, giving rise
to soil high in vermiculite and quartz.
3. Slate. Hardened shale or siltstone or mudstones containing fine grained rocks high in mica and
quartz.
4. Quartzite. Recrystallized quartzitic sandstone, formed by the action of heat and
pressure. Very slow to weather and produces shallow light textured sandy soils. It is extremely
resistant to weathering.
5. Marble. Limestone or dolomite hardened enough to polish, frequently coloured by inclusions of
various other minerals and resistant to weathering.

Weathering of rocks and minerals

Weathering is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals, brought about by
physical and chemical means, respectively, leading to the formation of regolith (Unconsolidated residues of
the weathering rock on the earth’s surface or above the solid rocks).

Types of Weathering

1 Physical / Mechanical Weathering (Disintegration)

2 Chemical Weathering (Decomposition)
3 Biological Weathering (Disintegration and decomposition)

1. Physical Weathering
Physical weathering is a mechanical process, causing disintegration of consolidated massive rocks in to
smaller pieces. In this weathering rock size will be reduced without any change in chemical composition of
rock. The agents responsible for physical weathering are: the physical condition of rock, changes in
temperature, action of water, action of wind and atmospheric electric phenomena.

 Physical condition of rock, The permeability of rock is probably the most important single factor
which determines the rate at which the rocks weather, for e.g. Coarse textured sand stone (porous)
weathers more rapidly than a fine textured (almost solid) basalt.

 Temperature: As a result of diurnal temperature changes the rocks heated during day and cooled
during night. Different minerals in poly-mineral rocks have different co-efficient of expansion and
thus heating and cooling of rocks results in differential expansion and contraction of rocks, which
eventually produce cracks in rocks, thus facilitating mechanical breakdown. E.g. The cubical
expansion of quartz is twice as that of feldspars.

 Water: Water play the role of agents of physical weathering, the effect of water is more pronounced
and widespread. Water acts as disintegrating, transporting and depositing agent. A current moving at
a speed of 15cm, 30cm, 1.2m and 9.0m per second can carry fine sand, gravel, stones, and boulders
 of several tones respectively. In cold regions, the water in the cracks and crevices freezes in to ice,
which increases the volume of water by nine percent. If the space is not available to accommodate
the increased volume, it exerts pressure on rock equivalent to 150 tons per square foot.

 Wind: Wind has both erosive and transporting effect. Wind when laden with fine particles (fine
sand, silt and clay) has a serious abrasive effect on the rocks. Similarly, wind causes waves in the
sea and oceans which hits the coastal area of the sea and ocean which disintegrates rocks of sea
coast.

 Atmospheric Electric Phenomena: This is also an important phenomenon, during rainy

Season, when lightening occurs thousands of volts of current hit the surface of rocks which breaks
up rocks and / or widens cracks.

 Glacier: Glacier is a moving ice in the steep slope. When ice moves in the surface of rocks, friction
creates between the rock surface and ice, due to which grinding occurs and rock disintegrates.

2. Chemical Weathering:
Chemical weathering is more complex in nature and involves the transformation of the original
material in to some new compounds by bringing about alteration in minerals. As for example, the
chemical weathering of feldspar produces a clay mineral of different composition and physical
properties.

 Solution:
Water is a universal solvent. Its solubility action is enhanced when it contains dissolved CO2,
organic and inorganic acids or salts in it. Most of the minerals are affected by solubilizing action of
water, though by varying degrees. When the soluble substances are removed by the continuous
action of flowing or percolating waters, the rock no longer remains solid and develops holes, rills or
rough surface and ultimately decomposes.

NaCl + H2 O ® Na+ , Cl- , H2O

CO2+H2 O ® H2CO3
CaCO3 +H2CO3 ® Ca(HCO3)2

 Hydration:
It is the chemical combination of water molecules with a mineral to form a new mineral. Owing to
hydration, the mineral swells, looses luster, becomes softer and tend to fall apart. This is a major
chemical weathering process in secondary minerals.

2Fe2O3 (Haematite) + 3 H 2O ® 2Fe2O3. 3 H2O (Limonite)

Al2O3 (Bauxite) + 3 H2O ® Al2O3. 3 H 2O (Gibbsite)
Ca SO4 (Anhydrite) + 2 H2O ® Ca SO4. 2 H2O (Gypsum)

 Hydrolysis:
Hydrolysis involves the partial dissociation of water in to H+ and OH- ions, which combine with
minerals and bring about changes such as exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure and
formation of new minerals.
 KAlSi3O8 + HOH ® HAlSi3O8 + KOH
Orthoclase Acid silicate clay

 Oxidation:
The process of combination of oxygen is known as oxidation. Moisture aids in oxidation process
and this process mostly occur after hydrolysis. Oxidized minerals have a volume increase with
addition of oxygen and are usually softer than the unoxidized material.

2FeSiO3 + 3H2O + O FeOH3 + 2SiO2

 Reduction:
The process of removal or loss of oxygen is called reduction. In soil, reduction usually occurs when
oxygen is scarce, as in stagnant water conditions. Reduction helps faster decomposition of
preexisting minerals.

Fe2O3 + H2 2FeO + H2O

 Carbonation:
Combination of carbon dioxide with any base is carbonation. This effectively decomposes the
minerals of rocks and organic matter accelerates this due to more CO2 production.

CO2 + KOH K2CO3

K2CO3 + H2O +CO2 2KHCO3

 Other acidic process:

The presence of H+ ions in percolating waters and other inorganic acids like HNO3, H2SO4 and
some organic acids accelerates the decomposition of the minerals through chemical weathering.

CO2 + H2O H+ +HCO3

CaCO3 + H+ + HCO3 Ca(HCO3)2

3. Biological Weathering
Unlike physical and chemical weathering, the biological or living agents are responsible for both
decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals. The biological life is controlled largely by
the prevailing environments. Man, animals, higher plants, earth worms, termites and micro-
organisms are responsible for biological weathering.

FAUNA:
 The disintegration of rocks by cutting action of hills and rocks to build dams, roads etc by man
 The animals, insects live in rocks make burrows and holes in rocks leading to weakening of rocks.
Their excreta and other materials lead to chemical decomposition of rocks.
 Ants and termites built galleries and passages and carries material from lower to upper horizons.
Water percolates through the channels and galleries and help in weathering of materials in
subsurface horizons. They secrete some acids like formic acid, which aid in decomposition of rocks.
 FLORA:
o The roots of the plants penetrate into small cracks of rocks. As they grow they exert
disruptive force due to which even hard rocks break into pieces.
o Some roots grow deep in to soil and make open channels for percolation of water in to
deeper layers.
o Roots produce acids, which have solubilizing action of constituents of rocks making them
weak.

Physiographic unit of soil of Nepal

1. Terai

 This occupies 14.4% of the country this region consist of gentle slopping .
 The alluvium is predominantly loamy textured and stone free .
 The alluvial material of terai is mostly silt and clay.
 land of this zone ,flat to almost flat with the exceptions of minor local relief cause by river action
 Elevation of this zone range from 70-330 m
 Major crops grown includes rice maize, wheat, mustard and pulses
 The region has high production capacity thus ,so called as bread basket of the country .

2. Siwalik

 This occupies 12.5% of the land area of Nepal

 The elevation range below 300-1000 with moderate to steepy and very steepy land
 The down valley are extremely cultivated because of their fertile soil
 The major crops grown are rice maize mustard millet and pulse

3. Middle mountain

 This region occupies 29.5% of total land area of Nepal .

 This includes great variety of different types of rock like quartzite mica.
 The common height of this region is 1000m than 2000 m .
 Climate support all year around agriculture production and temperature is never extreme.
 Major crops are maize wheat millet, trice, soybean and other crops are fruits.

4. High mountain

 This region occupies 19.7% total land of Nepal.

 Soil weathering is quite limited in this region because of cold climate.
 Peoples of Mongolian stock whose way of life reflects the cooler temperature e climate in which
they live dominate this region.
 The common height of this region is 2000—3000m
 Major crop are millet, potato, wheat and barley etc
 5. High Himalayan region

 This region occupies 23.7/land area of Nepal.

 There is active glacier system.
 There are few packets of arable land such as Solukhumbu ,Manag , Mustarg and Dolpa.
 Major crops are potato, barley, buckwheat, etc.
 This region common height is 3000m—8848m.or above 300m.

Origin of the earth

The history of Earth concerns the development of planet Earth from its formation to the present day.
Nearly all branches of natural science have contributed to understanding of the main events of Earth's
past, characterized by constant geological change and biological evolution.
The geological time scale (GTS), as defined by international convention, depicts the large spans of time
from the beginning of the Earth to the present, and its divisions chronicle some definitive events of Earth
history. (In the graphic: Ga means "billion years ago"; Ma, "million years ago".) Earth formed around 4.54
billion years ago, approximately one-third the age of the universe, by accretion from the solar
nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere and then the ocean, but the early
atmosphere contained almost no oxygen. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions
with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism. While the Earth was in its earliest stage (Early Earth), a
giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named Theia is thought to have formed the Moon. Over
time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust, and allowing liquid water on the surface.
The Hadean eon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life; it began with the formation of
the planet and ended 4.0 billion years ago. The following Archean and Proterozoic eons produced
the beginnings of life on Earth and its earliest evolution. The succeeding eon is the Phanerozoic, divided
into three eras: the Palaeozoic, an era of arthropods, fishes, and the first life on land; the Mesozoic, which
spanned the rise, reign, and climactic extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs; and the Cenozoic, which saw
the rise of mammals. Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period
on the geological scale.
The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during
the Eoarchean Era, after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon.
There are microbial mat fossils such as stromatolites found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered
in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-
old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland as well as "remains of biotic life" found
in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose
relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe."
Photosynthetic organisms appeared between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and began enriching the
atmosphere with oxygen. Life remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago,
when complex multicellular life arose, developed over time, and culminated in the Cambrian
Explosion about 541 million years ago. This sudden diversification of life forms produced most of the major
phyla known today, and divided the Proterozoic Eon from the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era. It is
estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion, have
gone extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of
which about 1.2 million are documented, but over 86 percent have not been described. However, it was
recently claimed that 1 trillion species currently live on Earth, with only one-thousandth of one percent
described.
The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance. Species
continue to evolve, taking on new forms, splitting into daughter species, or going extinct in the face of
ever-changing physical environments. The process of plate tectonics continues to shape the Earth's
continents and oceans and the life they harbor. Human activity is now a dominant force affecting global
change, harming the biosphere, the Earth's surface, hydrosphere, and atmosphere with the loss of wild
lands, over-exploitation of the oceans, production of greenhouse gases, degradation of the ozone layer,
and general degradation of soil, air, and water quality.

There are several theories that about the origin of the earth, these theories are listed below,

1. Nebular hypothesis
2. Planetesimal hypothesis
3. Gaseous tidal hypothesis

1. Nebular hypothesis
This theory is about the origin of the earth was given by German philosopher ‘Kant’ and French
mathematician Laplace .According to this theory ‘all the other earth planets and sun originated
from nebula .Nebula was large hot cloud of gas and dust it rotated slowly after then it cooled
gradually and it is speed increase due to contraction in its size a gases ring was separated from
Nebula and later the ring cooled and took the form of a planet on repetition of the process come in
to existence and the central region ,Nebula become the sun .

2. Planetesimal hypotheis

This theory was proposed by Chamberlin and Moultan of Chicago university in 1904A.D and
according to this theory ‘ sun existed before the formation of planet this theory said that a star
came closer to the sun because of the gravitation pull of the star small gaseous body where
separated from the sun and these bodies on cooling become smaller planet and during rotation
this small planet collided with one another and formed large planet are known as planetesimal.

3. Gaseous tidal hypothesis

This theory was proposedby Jeans and Jeffery in 1925 AD according to this theory ‘a large star
came nearer to the sun due to gravitation force a gaseous tide increase in and as the star move
away the size of the tide decrease and due to the long continual process of increase and
decrease in the size of the tide one day as the star finally moved away from the sun the shape of
the tide was spindle it broken into pieces forming 9 planet of solar system.