BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

TOPIC 1: BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR

ERQ 1: BRAIN IMAGING

Two techniques used to study the brain are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). MRIs use magnetic fields and radio
waves to map the activity of hydrogen protons. Water molecules contain hydrogen
protons and are present in brain tissue. MRIs create composite pictures of brain
structures. The images can be viewed from any angle as a slice of the brain, or they can
be used to create a three-dimensional image of the brain. Two possible ways to analyze
MRIs are voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and pixel counting. VBM can be used to
measure the density of grey matter and pixel counting can be used to calculate the area of
certain brain structures. Unlike MRIs, which look purely at brain structure, fMRIs show
actual brain activity and indicate which areas of the brain are active when engaged in a
behavior or cognitive process. fMRIs measure changes in blood flow as a measurement
of brain activity. If a specific part of the brain is active, it requires more oxygen, and thus
blood flow to that part of the brain increases. fMRIs produce a film that demonstrates the
changes in blood flow in the brain (and therefore also neural activity) during the period of
the scan.
MRIs were used in a study by Maguire to look at whether the brain structure of London
taxi drivers was somehow different as a result of their training and experience. The MRI
scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers were compared to the scans of 50
right-handed males who did not drive taxis, which were taken from an MRI database. All
the taxi drivers had to have had their license for at least 1.5 years. The study was a single-
blind study as the researcher did not know whether she was looking at the scan of a taxi
driver or at a control. The density of the grey matter in the brain was measured using
VBM and the area of the hippocampi was calculated using pixel counting. Maguire found
that the posterior hippocampus of taxi drivers was significantly larger than the
hippocampi of the controls taken from the MRI database. From the VBM, a correlation
was found between the volume of the right posterior hippocampus and the amount of
time spent as a taxi driver. Maguire argued that this demonstrates that the structure of the
hippocampus may change due to environmental demands.
The use of MRIs in Maguire’s study allowed her to find a correlation between
hippocampus structure and environmental demands; however, there was no clear
causation established. MRIs only indicate structure, they do not actually map what is
happening in the brain. The non-invasive nature of MRIs means that there was minimal
risk of the taxi drivers experiencing undue stress or harm. However, MRIs can still cause
anxiety and stress in some people due to the loud sounds the machines make. The
resulting images of MRIs have high resolution, which gives the researcher a good sense
of the brain.
In a study by Harris & Fiske, fMRI scans were used to investigate the role of the limbic
system in reacting to out-groups such as homeless people and addicts. 22 university
students were divided into two groups. One group acted as a control and was shown
pictures of objects while they were in an fMRI, whereas the other group was shown
pictures of people. The participants were then put inside the scanner and were shown six
sets of ten photographs. The photographs were of a range of people, from rich business
people and Olympic athletes to people with disabilities and homeless people. The
researchers found that there was a clear difference in brain activity when the participants
rated pictures of people in their extreme out-groups; in addition to the activation of the
amygdala, the insula gyrus which is associated with disgust, was activated. This may
show that prejudice is more hardwired than we would like to believe.
The use of fMRIs is very expensive. For Harris & Fiske’s study, this meant that they
were only able to have a small sample size. This means that the results may not be
generalizable to a larger population and that more research should be done to see if the
results are reliable. One of the strengths of the use of fMRIs in Harris & Fiske’s study is
that fMRIs do not allow for demand characteristics, as people are not able to control their
involuntary brain activity that occurs as a response to an image. However, brain areas do
activate for various reasons and we cannot be certain that a person is experiencing disgust
when certain parts of the brain light up. Like MRIs, fMRIs are also very loud and many
people may feel claustrophobic when they are in the machine. The participant’s reactions
to the noise or the claustrophobia may influence the brain activity seen on an fMRI scan.
Despite this, fMRIs create high-resolution images that show brain activity over a period
of time, which allowed Harris and Fiske to investigate the reactions of people. This
would not have been possible with an MRI because no change in brain structure
occurred.
Both MRIs and fMRIs are useful techniques for studying the brain. They both are non-
invasive and produce high-resolution images or film, however, it is important not to over-
interpret the information they provide. Costs limit sample sizes making the reliability of
much of the research questionable.

SAQ 2: LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION

Localization is the theory that specific parts of the brain have specific functions that are
related to specific behaviors. Often, however, behaviors are quite complex and involve
several different parts of the brain. Although specific parts of the brain may have specific
functions, they work together with other parts of the brain to create behaviors. One
example of localization is the role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation as seen
in the case study of HM.
HM had an accident when he was young which resulted in epileptic seizures. Surgery to
stop the seizures, a lobotomy of the temporal lobe, resulted in severe memory loss – HM
was not able to recall his recent past – a condition called partial retrograde amnesia. He
also could not create new memories – or anterograde amnesia. HM could no longer
create episodic or semantic memories.
Milner carried out a case study of HM. In order to carry out her research, she used many
different strategies including IQ testing, direct observations, interviews, and cognitive
testing. The cognitive tests included memory tests and learning tasks. One such task was
asking him to draw an image while looking in a mirror. Over time, HM learned how to
do the task, showing that he could create procedural memories, but he could not
remember actually doing the task, an episodic memory.
Corkin later did an MRI to determine the damage that was done to HM’s brain. She
found that the hippocampus had been severely damaged in the surgery. Damage to the
hippocampus explains the problem of transferring short-term memory to long-term
memory as this is the area where the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is believed to play an
important role in learning and the formation of explicit memories. Through this study,
the researcher determined that the hippocampus is responsible for the consolidation of
episodic and semantic memories from short-term to long-term memory.

ERQ 2: LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION

Localization of function is the theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for
specific behaviors. Psychologists are particularly interested in whether memory is
localized in the brain - or distributed throughout the brain. Some of the studies on the
localization of function are Sharot et al (2007) and Maguire (2000).
The aim of Sharot's study was to determine the role of biological factors in flashbulb
memories. This was a quasi-experiment. The sample consisted of 24 participants who
were in New York on the day of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The participants were put into
an fMRI machine and were shown a series of 60 word cues on the screen. They were also
simultaneously being shown either the word “Summer” or the word “September”. This
was done to create a link between the main word cue and either summer holidays or the
events of 9/11, depending on the word choice. Their brain activity was observed by the
researchers while they recalled the event. The participants were then asked to rate their
memories in terms of vividness, detail, and confidence, as well as write a description of
their personal memories. Half of the participants reported having flashbulb memories of
the attacks; these were the people located close to the World Trade Centre on September
11th. The results showed that the activation of the amygdala for these participants was
higher when they recalled the events of the attack than when they recalled the events of
the previous summer vacation. However, the levels of amygdala response in people who
were further away from the site of the attack were equal when recalling both events.
The study reveals that the strength of amygdala activation correlates with flashbulb
memories, which also may indicate flashbulb memories being localized to the amygdala.
One limitation of the study is its low ecological validity, as responding to words flashed
on a screen in an fMRI machine’s environment is highly artificial. The fMRI could also
cause anxiety which could also activate the amygdala - leading to an artifact, or
confounding variable. Another limitation is that the study is correlational and does not
determine cause and effect. A strength of the study is that there is little to no possibility
of there being demand characteristics in the experiment as there was no way for them to
alter their brain activity to meet the goals of the study. It appears from the study that this
aspect of memory - emotionally based episodic memories - may be localized.
A different study on the localization of function is the study done by Maguire. The aim of
the study was to see whether the brains of London taxi drivers would be somehow
different as a result of the exceptional training that they have to do to be certified. This
was a quasi-experiment, as the independent variable was not manipulated by the
researcher. The sample consisted of 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers, each of
whom had to have completed the driving “Knowledge test” and have their license for at
least 1.5 years to take part in the study. The taxi drivers’ MRI scans were compared with
the MRI scans of 50 right-handed males who did not drive taxis (taken from an MRI
database) to see whether there was a certain relationship between the number of years of
driving a taxi and one’s brain anatomy. The results revealed that the posterior hippocampi
of taxi drivers were significantly larger in comparison to those of the control subjects and
the anterior hippocampi were much smaller. The findings also showed that the posterior
hippocampus was involved when previously learned spatial information was being used
(one function), whereas the anterior hippocampus was more involved during the encoding
of new environmental layouts (another function).
One of the possible limitations of the study is its sampling bias: only men were used in
this experiment, and, even though most of London’s taxi drivers are male, the sole use of
male participants makes it difficult for the study's findings to be generalized and applied
to women. Thus, the study lacks external validity. One strength of the study was that
researcher bias was avoided by employing a single-blind control; the researcher did not
know whether they were looking at the scan of a taxi driver or a control participant and,
therefore, could not influence the results to portray a certain favorable outcome. Another
strength of the study is its high ecological validity: The participants of the study were not
asked to do anything while being inside the scanner, only having their brain anatomy
measured. The researchers were able to see through the indirect measure of
neuroplasticity, how memory functions may be localized. The study also appears to
show how different aspects of memory - that is, storage and retrieval - may be distributed
to different parts of the brain.
The two studies on the localization of function, done by Sharot et al (2007) and Maguire
(2000) and described above, both have their limitations and strengths. Both studies have
limitations that make it difficult to determine the exact role of the brain in memory, but
other research and replications of their research will help to make the roles clear.

SAQ 3: NEUROPLASTICITY
Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural
connections. Neuroplasticity allows neurons in the brain to compensate for injury or to
respond to changes in the environment. When neurons fire continually as a result of
stimulation in the environment, the neurons sprout new dendrites – known as dendritic
branching. This increases the number of synapses available for the behavior. Dendritic
branching as a result of stimulation in the environment is seen in a study by Maguire.
Maguire carried out a study to see if neuroplasticity would be seen in the brain of London
taxi drivers due to the amount of time that they had been driving the streets of London.
The hypothesis was that since they were required to pass a test called “the knowledge”
which required them to memorize the location of key places and routes in the city and
they spent a lot of time driving around the streets of London, repeated use of the brain for
spatial memory would result in neuroplasticity and a denser hippocampus.
Maguire used 16 healthy right-handed males who were licensed taxi drivers. She
compared the taxi drivers to 50 healthy right-handed males who were not taxi drivers. An
MRI was used to detect changes in the structure of the brain as a result of their
experience. The results showed that the taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi
compared to the controls and that the controls had larger anterior hippocampi compared
to the taxi drivers. Also, there was a positive correlation between the number of years the
participants had been taxi drivers and the size of the posterior hippocampus, but a
negative correlation with the size of the anterior hippocampus.
Maguire argued that this demonstrates the plasticity of the hippocampus in response to
environmental demands. She argued that the posterior hippocampus stores a spatial
representation of the environment and that in the London taxi drivers, the volume of the
posterior hippocampus expanded because of their high reliance on navigation skills and
spatial memories.

ERQ 3: NEUROPLASTICITY
This essay will explain neuroplasticity with reference to two studiesi. Neuroplasticity is
the brain's ability to change and adapt the connections between neurous, this takes place
due to learning or experiences. Neural networks are defined as when neurons connect
with other neurons and produce a series of webbed interconnections, neural networks are
ultimately what produce (or stop) behavior. One form of neuroplasticity is the
strengthening of synapses, this is due to a process called long term potentiation, where
the repition of a task results in neuroplasticity. LTP also leads to dendritic branching,
where the dentrites of the neurons aegrow in numbers and connect with other neurons.
However, a lack of potentiation as a result of discontinued behavior leads to neural
pruning, the process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated.

Maguire et al conducted a study investigating whether the brains of taxi drivers would be
somehow different as a result of the exceptional training that they have to do to be
certified. In order for the taxi drivers to take part in the study, they needed to have
completed a knowledge test and have their license for more than 1.5 years. An MRI was
conducted on both male taxi drivers and males who did not drive taxis. There were two
key findings, the first was that the posterior hippocampus of taxi drivers was significantly
larger than the non-taxi drivers and the anterior hippocampus was significantly smaller. It
was also revealed that the volume of the right posterior hippocampus correlated with the
amount of time spent as a taxi driver.

This study reveals how brain structure can change in response to environmental demand.
Strengths of the study include that it has high ecological validity as participants were not
asked to do anything while in the scanner. Additionally, because an MRI is non-invasive,
the study does not suffer from ethical concerns. Although sampling bias can be argued
for, the majority of cab drivers in London are male, however results are still difficult to
generalize. Lastly, the brain scans were coded so that analysis could be done blindly,
meaning that researcher bias could be avoided as researchers did not know whose brain
scan was whose. Limitations include that because it was a quasi-experiment, no cause
and effect relationship was established. Lastly, research was correlational, meaning it was
prone to a third lurking variable, for example, those with a larger hippocampus were
more likely to pass the driving test.

In order to discuss neuroplasticity is a more holistic approach, the strengths and

weaknesses can be explored. Strengths of the theory include the fact that, as exemplified
by both Draginski and Maguire, localization of function has been well supported by
empirical evidence. Additionally, it has far reaching implications in understanding how
our brains change and adapt to experiences and knowledge. The theory has enabled
medical professionals to establish more effective calculations in response to brain
injuries, and utilizing the concept of brain plasticity to overcome damage. Lastly, this
theory has been seen to hold true in many real life situations as after people had parts of
their brain removed, they were able to regain skills due to brain plasticity that would have
otherwise been lost.
Additionally, there are many limitations, such as methodological concerns. Firstly, many
of the studies, such as Draginski and Maguire, focus on a very small sample size and are
often hard to replicate, meaning that it is hard for resutls to be genealized to those outside
of these samples. Additionally, most studies only focus on a specific region of the brain,
for instance the hippocampus, making it hard to generalize evidence to the rest of the
brain. Additionally, many of the technology used in studies such as Dranginski and
Maguire are very young and much of the knowledge has yet to be uncovered as it is still
being explored. There are also areas of uncertainties in the theory, primarily, it is very
reductionist, meaning that it attempts to analyze complex behavior in a very simplistic
manner. Some researchers may argue that more thorough understanding of the brain is
required to truly understand complex cognitive processes.

SAQ 4: NEURAL NETWORK

The process by which neural networks are formed is called neuroplasticity. When a
neuron is stimulated, an action potential (an electrical charge) travels down the axon.
Neural networks are created when a neuron or set of neurons are repeatedly stimulated.
This repeated firing of the neurons, called long-term potentiation, results in gene
expression which causes the neurons to sprout new dendrites – known as dendritic
branching. This increases the number of synapses available for the behavior. The
branching of neurons in the brain is called grey matter. Dendritic branching as a result of
stimulation in the environment is seen in a study by Maguire.
Maguire carried out a study to see if neuroplasticity would be seen in the brain of London
taxi drivers due to the amount of time that they had been driving the streets of London.
The hypothesis was that since they were required to pass a test called “the knowledge”
which required them to memorize the location of key places and routes in the city and
they spent a lot of time driving around the streets of London, repeated use of the brain for
spatial memory would result in neuroplasticity and a denser hippocampus.
Maguire used 16 healthy right-handed males who were licensed taxi drivers. She
compared the taxi drivers to 50 healthy right-handed males who were not taxi drivers. An
MRI was used to detect changes in the structure of the brain as a result of their
experience. The results showed that the taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi
compared to the controls and that the controls had larger anterior hippocampi compared
to the taxi drivers. Also, there was a positive correlation between the number of years the
participants had been taxi drivers and the size of the posterior hippocampus, but a
negative correlation with the size of the anterior hippocampus.
Maguire argued that this demonstrates the plasticity of the hippocampus in response to
environmental demands. She argued that the posterior hippocampus stores a spatial
representation of the environment and that in the London taxi drivers, the volume of the
posterior hippocampus expanded because of their high reliance on navigation skills and
spatial memories. By repeatedly firing the neurons required to remember the spatial
layout of the city of London, the number of synapses was increased, creating a greater
neural network.

SAQ 5: NEURAL PRUNING

Neuroplasticity is the process by which our brains adapt to changes in the environment.
One of the ways that our brains change is through the creation of neural networks. This
happens because of long-term potentiation - that is, the repeated firing of neurons. This
leads to an increase in dendritic branching which leads to an increase in the number of
synapses. Another way that our brain can change is through neural pruning - which is a
decrease in the number of synapses as a result of the removal of dendritic branches.
Pruning can be the result of neuron cell death, hormones such as cortisol, or the lack of
use of a neural pathway. The exact mechanism of neural pruning is not yet fully
understood.
A study by Draganski showed that when neural pathways are not used, they may be
pruned. The sample was made up of 24 non-jugglers. Each participant had an MRI scan
at the beginning of the study in order to see the structure of the brain prior to the
experiment. The participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions. In one
condition, they were asked to learn a juggling routine and to practice it daily until they
had mastered it. When they did, they had a second MRI. Then they were told not to
juggle anymore. Three months later they had a third MRI. The other group of
participants simply served as a control group.
Using voxel-based morphometry the researchers measured the density of the grey matter
in the brains of jugglers vs. non-jugglers. The jugglers showed a significantly larger
amount of grey matter in the mid-temporal area in both hemispheres - an area associated
with visual memory. Three months after the participants stopped juggling, the amount of
grey matter in these parts of the brain decreased.
This shows that when learning a new skill, new neural networks were created. However,
when the behavior stopped and those neurons were no longer activated, the neurons were
pruned. Researchers hypothesize that neural pruning is a way to increase the efficiency
of the brain.

SAQ 6: NEUROTTRANSMISSION
Neurotransmission is the process where neurons communicate with other neurons. This
is done when the presynaptic neuron releases chemicals called neurotransmitters to cross
the gap between two neurons called the synapse. These neurotransmitters then bind to
specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron creating an electrical signal called the
action potential. If these receptor sites are blocked by another chemical the postsynaptic
neuron will not be able to create an action potential, inhibiting the process of
neurotransmission. This is a common way of studying the effects of neurotransmission,
blocking the receptor sites of a specific neurotransmitter and then noting behavioral
changes.
In some patients with memory problems, we see a lower rate of activity in the
hippocampus. This could be because of a lack of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine.
As it is not possible to directly observe the activity of neurotransmission in the brain, and
it would be unethical to manipulate levels of acetylcholine in a patient, animal research is
used with the hope of better understanding human behavior.
Rogers and Kesner carried out a study on the effects of acetylcholine on spatial memory.
To do this they tested rats ability to learn a maze. Firstly, the rats were acclimated to the
maze, so that distress caused by a new environment would not be a confounding variable
and influence the ability to create memories. Then, the rats were allocated to one of two
conditions. In one group, they were injected with scopolamine, a chemical known to
block acetylcholine receptor sites. In the second group, they were injected with a placebo,
a saline solution with no active ingredient to control for an adrenaline increase from the
stress of an injection. The researchers then had the rats run the maze again. The
researchers found that the group injected with scopolamine performed significantly worse
on the maze, taking longer to learn it and making more mistakes. This allowed the
researchers to conclude that acetylcholine plays a role in the consolidation of spatial
memory in the hippocampus. These findings were later supported in tests on humans such
as Antonova's virtual reality study where she also tested the impact of inhibiting
acetylcholine receptor sites on spatial memory in people and found results that appeared
to support Rogers and Kesner’s conclusions.

ERQ 6: NEURONTRANSMISSION
Neurotransmission is the process by which neurons transmit information and signals for
certain bodily functions, either psychical or psychological to occur. Communication
between these neurons begins when an action potential travels to the axon terminal of a
presynaptic neuron. This electrical impulse causes vesicles to fuse with the membrane of
the presynaptic neuron and release certain molecules; neurotransmitters, which bind to
the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron to carry on this action potential to the next
neuron. These neurotransmitters are then released from the receptors, and either return to
the presynaptic neuron, or are dissolved by enzymes. Often the role of neurotransmitters
is studied indirectly. This is sometimes done by using an antagonist - that is, a drug that
blocks the receptor site on a neuron and does not allow a neurotransmitter to do its job.
A study by Troster showed that acetylcholine plays a role in the encoding of memories,
but not the retrieval of LTM. To carry out the study there were three conditions. Each
subject was injected with either a saline solution, a .5 or a .8 mg solution of scopolamine,
an acetylcholine antagonist. They then carried out three tests. In the first test, they were
asked to recall a list of 14 words. Recall was tested immediately after reading the list and
then after 45 minutes. The high scopolamine group recalled the least in both conditions.
In the second test, participants were given a map of a fake state and asked to memorize
the location of the cities. After one minute they were given a blank map and a list of
cities and asked to place them on the map. Once again, the high scopolamine group did
poorly. Finally, participants were given a test of memories of famous people and events.
They found no significant difference in the scores of the three conditions. It appears that
acetylcholine may play a role in the encoding of memory, but not its retrieval.
This study is highly standardized which allows other researchers to replicate the findings.
The study is problematic in that scopolamine has strong side effects, so the researcher
and the participant would know whether it was the placebo or not. The task is also very
artificial and may not reflect how memories are usually created.
Antonova wanted to see if scopolamine affected activity in the hippocampus, particularly
in the creation of spatial memories. The sample was made up of 20 healthy adult males.
The study used a double-blind procedure, with participants randomly allocated to one of
two conditions, one in which participants would receive a scopolamine injection, and the
other group would receive a placebo. At the beginning of the experiment, participants
were put into an fMRI while playing a virtual reality game that was designed to test the
participants’ abilities to create spatial memories. The objective of the game was to
navigate through an arena to reach a pole. Once they reached the pole, the screen would
go blank for 30 seconds and the participants were told to rehearse how they got to the
pole, then they would appear in a different location in the arena to find the pole again.
The fMRI measured the participant's brain activity. The researchers found that those who
were injected with scopolamine demonstrated a significant reduction in the activation of
the hippocampus when compared with the placebo group. This suggests that
acetylcholine plays an important role in the encoding of spatial memories in humans.
Although there was a higher rate of error in the scopolamine group, it wasn’t a significant
difference between the two. However, there was a significant difference in the activity of
the hippocampus between the two groups. This implies that the design of the task itself
was not ideal to show performance differences, and without the use of technology, there
would be no way of knowing the biological effects between the two groups.
The study was a repeated measures design, which allowed the researchers to eliminate
participant variability. The study was also counterbalanced, with some doing the
scopolamine condition first and some doing the placebo condition first to control for the
practice effect. In addition to that, the study was also a Double-Blind Experiment,
preventing researcher bias in the results. For the results to be considered reliable, the
study would need to be replicated, due to the small sample size.
Although these studies provide good insight into aspects of how neurotransmission
affects behavior, they cannot provide a full scope of the impacts it has.
Neurotransmission cannot be directly observed in the brain, so researchers use indirect
measures such as animal research, fMRIs showing brain activity, or the use of
antagonists. This means that the research is based on assumptions that may prove in the
future not to be accurate.

SAQ 7: NEUROTRANSMISSION – AGONIST

An agonist is any chemical that binds to a receptor site on a post-synaptic neuron, causing
the neuron to fire. Neurotransmitters are endogenous agonists - the brain's natural
chemicals that bind to receptor sites, leading to an action potential. Drugs can play the
same role and are called exogenous agonists. One example of an exogenous agonist is
alcohol. Alcohol binds with dopamine receptor sites, causing dopamine neurons to fire.
The firing of these neurons results in the activation of the brain's reward system - the
nucleus accumbens.
The study of the role of alcohol on the brain's reward system has led to theories about the
origins of alcoholism. Setiawan et al (2013) carried out a study with 26 healthy social
drinkers. The researcher then categorized the drinkers based on their risk for alcoholism
based on personality traits and having a lower intoxication response to alcohol - that is,
they did not feel as drunk despite having drunk the same amount as other drinkers. Each
participant underwent a PET scan after drinking either juice and then later, alcohol. In
each condition, they were asked to drink three drinks in 15 minutes.
It was found that when drinking alcohol, those who were considered "high risk" for
alcoholism showed significantly greater activity in the nucleus accumbens. The
researchers argued that alcohol is an agonist for dopamine, connecting to dopamine
receptor sites and causing the neurons to fire. It is hypothesized that people with a
potential for alcoholism have a greater response to the agonist than those at low risk.
Research shows that those with a low level of dopamine neuron activity as a result of
alcohol consumption often get tired after drinking a small amount of alcohol. This is
because the higher level of dopamine activity counteracts the sedative effects of alcohol.
By studying how alcohol acts as an agonist on dopamine neurons, it is also possible that
researchers could find ways to treat the disorder.

SAQ 8: NEUROTRANSMISSION – EXCITATORY SYNAPSES

Neurotransmitters play an important role in human behavior. Neurotransmitters are
released from the terminal buttons of a neuron and then travel across a synapse where
they attach to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane. Some neurotransmitters are
seen as more excitatory - that is, they make the target neuron more likely to "fire" an
action potential. A neurotransmitter can sometimes have either an excitatory or an
inhibitory effect, depending on the receptor sites that it binds to.
One example of how a neurotransmitter binds to excitatory receptor sites is the role of
acetylcholine in the formation of spatial memories. Antonova demonstrated that blocking
ACh receptors affects our ability to create spatial memories. She carried out a double-
blind experiment with twenty men. The participants were randomly allocated to one of
two conditions. They were injected with either scopolamine (an ACh antagonist) or a
placebo.
The participants were then put into an fMRI where they were scanned while playing a
virtual reality game. The goal was for the participants to navigate around a field to find a
pole. After they learned where the pole was located, the screen would go blank for 30
seconds. When the field reappeared, the participant was at a new starting point. The men
would have to use their spatial memory to determine how to get to the pole.
The researchers found that when participants were injected with scopolamine, they
demonstrated a significant reduction in the activation of the hippocampus compared to
when they received a placebo. This indicates that in the placebo condition, AcH was
binding to excitatory synapses that led to the creation of spatial memories, whereas in the
Scopalomine condition, these receptor sites were blocked so ACh could not bind to the
site and cause the action potential to fire.

SAQ 9: HORMONES
One hormone that affects human behavior is adrenaline. It is produced by the adrenal
glands and plays an important role in what is called the “flight or fight response.” When
we are afraid, the brain signals the release of adrenaline, which then stimulates the
sympathetic nervous system, resulting in increased blood flow to muscles, increased heart
rate, and increased breathing rate. This prepares an organism to either fight against a
threat or to run away from it.
Since we often create strong memories of things that have frightened us, McGaugh &
Cahill wanted to study the effect of adrenaline on the creation of emotional memories.
They had participants watch a series of slides while listening to a story. In one group, the
story was uninteresting. The second group heard a story that was very traumatic about a
young boy who was in an accident and his feet were severed. After two weeks, the
participants came back and were asked to answer a series of questions about the slides.
Those that were in the more emotionally arousing condition remembered more than those
in the boring condition.
To test the role of adrenaline, they repeated this procedure but gave the participants beta-
blockers that interfere with the release of adrenaline. It was hypothesized that if
adrenaline is blocked, then the amygdala would not be able to produce emotional
memories. It appears that this was the case. The group that took beta-blockers
remembered no more detail about the slides than the group that heard the boring story.
It appears that by interacting with the amygdala, adrenaline plays a key role in the
creation of emotional memories.

SAQ 10: PHEROMONES

A pheromone is a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an
animal affecting the behavior of others of its own species. Most commonly, pheromones
affect sexual and mating behaviors. Although psychologists have not found actual
pheromones in humans, there is research showing that some chemicals under controlled
conditions may lead humans to show behaviors similar to what we see in animals.
One potential human pheromone is androstadienone – found in male semen and sweat.
Zhou et al (2014) wanted to see if androstadienone influenced human sexual behavior.
To do this he carried out an experiment with a sample of heterosexual men and women
and gays and lesbians.
Participants watched stick figures walking on a screen and then were asked to guess the
gender of the stick figure. While watching the screen, the participants were exposed to
the smell of cloves. In the experimental condition, the cloves were mixed with
androstadienone, and in the control condition, only cloves were used. The findings
showed that when heterosexual females and gay men were exposed to androstadienone,
they had a higher rate of identifying the stick figures as “masculine” than the control
group. In addition, Androstadienone had no significant effect on men or lesbian women.
The researchers concluded that Androstadienone could be a pheromone that influences
mating behavior in humans.

ERQ 10: PHEROMONES

Pheromones are chemical substances produced and released into the environment that
cause a behavioral or physiological response in other members of the species. In nature,
pheromones are most commonly released by animals to signal to others; they are ready to
mate, or that there is danger nearby. The impact of pheromones on human behavior is a
highly controversial topic in psychology since nobody has yet to identify a human
pheromone. However, there has been much research done on the topic. Two studies
intended to study the effect of pheromones on human behavior are Zhou's study of
Androstadienone (AND) and Wedekind's study of the role of MHC (Major
Histocompatibility Complex) on human mating behavior.
Zhou wanted to see the impact of Androstadienone (AND), a potential human pheromone
found in male sweat, on human sexual behavior. In the study, four groups of participants
- heterosexual males, heterosexual females, homosexual males, and homosexual females
- were shown images of stick figures walking on a screen. Each group did one trial where
they were exposed to the smell of cloves while they watched the stick figures moving on
a screen and another trial where the cloves were mixed with a high dose of AND. The
researchers found that in the trial with the AND, heterosexual females and homosexual
males rated the stick figures as more masculine. The researchers also carried out the same
study with the female version of AND (estratetraenol) and found similar results with
heterosexual males and homosexual females. The researchers concluded that AND could
be a human pheromone that plays a role in sexual attraction.
The fact that the effect of Androstadienone was only seen with heterosexual females and
homosexual males does suggest that it impacts us based on sexual orientation. However,
even though the study is highly standardized, there are several issues present in the study.
Firstly, the study is very artificial and therefore has a problem with ecological validity.
The level of AND present in the study was at a far higher concentration than what is seen
in human males. It could be argued that the levels of AND in the real world are too low to
be detected. Finally, this study does nothing to show that AND or estratetraenol are used
to signal mating behavior or associated with attraction. Signaling pheromones are used to
cause rapid behavioral changes leading to mating behavior and there is no evidence for
this. Additionally, Hare et al (2017) did a study attempting to replicate the findings of
Zhou et al (2014) and failed to do so. For these reasons, this study cannot be said to prove
the existence of a human pheromone.

Wedekind (1995) also carried out a study relating to the impact of pheromones on human
behavior. For his "smelly T-shirt study", Wedekind wanted to determine whether one’s
MHC (a group of genes related to one’s immune system) would impact sexual attraction.
First, he tested both men and women for their MHC. He then asked men to sleep in a
given T-shirt for four nights and to use specific perfume-free deodorants so the difference
in each T-shirt smell would be due to the male’s natural smell. The women were then
asked to rank the smell of 7 of the T-shirts. The researchers found that the women scored
male body odors as better when they had a different MHC than their own. The
researchers concluded that MHC influences sexual attraction.
This study does a good job of controlling for many possible confounding variables. One
example is that the researchers ensured that the men wearing the T-shirts were all
washing with odor-free shampoos and soaps. The study also has an evolutionary
explanation - the inheritance of a more diverse immune system means the child has a
greater chance of survival. However, there are some issues with this study, especially
with how it relates to pheromones. Firstly, the study shows that smell, specifically MHC,
influences human sexual attraction. Smell is not the same thing as a pheromone and
MHC is not a pheromone by definition, so although this shows evidence smell plays an
important role in human attraction, it does not provide evidence for pheromones. The
researchers also measured the level of "pleasantness" of the smell. This is not the same
as initiating sexual activity, as would be expected with pheromones.
The research surrounding pheromones has been very controversial and the fact remains
that no researcher has yet to definitively identify a human pheromone. Both studies above
illustrate how smell can play an important role in human decision-making. Psychologists
will likely continue to debate the existence of human pheromones but if there are human
pheromones, it is highly likely that their effects are far subtler than what we see in the
animal kingdom.

TOPIC 2: GENETICS AND BEHAVIOR

SAQ 1: GENETICS
One study of the role of genetics in depression is the study by Kendler of monozygotic
(MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins. Researchers study MZ twins because they have
identical DNA, having come from a single fertilized egg (zygote). DZ twins are from
two different fertilized eggs. They are born at the same time but their DNA is as
different as any other set of siblings. Psychologists argue that if the concordance rate of
MZ twins for a behavior is significantly higher than the concordance rate for DZ twins,
then there is a genetic component to the behavior. Psychologists also know that although
one may have a certain genetic makeup (genotype), not all of the genes that are inherited
may be expressed. The idea of gene expression is that sometimes an individual may
have a predisposition to a behavior as a result of inheriting the gene from a parent, but
until a stressor from the environment causes the gene to be expressed, the person will
not show that behavior. Hence, genes alone cannot cause a behavior - but it is the
interaction of genes and the environment that leads to behavior.
Kendler carried out a study of 42000 MZ and DZ twins to find out whether depression
might be inherited. He predicted that the MZ twins would have a greater concordance
rate for depression than the DZ twins. The researchers found that the MZ had a
concordance rate of 0.44, whereas the concordance rate for the DZ twins was only about
0.17. However, what was interesting to the researchers was that even though MZ twins
shared the same genotype, their concordance rate was not 100%.
The difference in concordance rates indicates that depression may be inherited. The
study also supports the theory of gene expression. Even though the MZ twins had the
same genes, they had different life experiences and so would have a different epigenome
- that is, different genes would be expressed. This could potentially explain why the
concordance rate is not 100%.

ERQ 1: GENETICS
One biological theory of depression is genetic inheritance. Genetic inheritance is the
theory that abnormal behavior, in this case, depression, can be passed down through
genes. Psychologists believe that if an individual has a specific combination of genes,
they are more vulnerable to depression; life stressors – particularly aversive childhood
experiences – can cause the genes to be expressed, leading to the disorder. Originally,
most research on the genetics of depression was done using family and twin studies;
today, since the Human Genome Project, research has focused on specific genes.
A twin study was done by Kendler to investigate the rate at which both identical (MZ)
twins and fraternal (DZ) twins inherit depression. Using the Swedish Twin Registry,
Kendler looked at over 40.000 twins and found that the concordance rate for female MZ
twins was 44% and for DZ only 16%. In males, the rates were 30% and 10%.
When looking at the results of identical twins we can first see that the percentage is not
100%. This indicates that if depression is genetic, having the genes for depression is not
enough to make someone depressed. Instead, only through interacting with the
environment, resulting in gene expression, may depression occur. The fact that the MZ
twins may not both have depression may have less to do with genes and more to do with
the stressors that they have personally experienced. Inheriting the genes does not mean
that the person will automatically develop depression. The results for the DZ twins being
lower than the MZ twins support the theory of genetic inheritance because fraternal twins
are much less likely to have the same gene make-ups.
A limitation of this study is that twins are a very small part of our global population.
Although this study seems to support the theory of genetic inheritance we cannot know
for sure if these results can be generalized to everybody. There is also an issue with a
self-fulfilling prophecy, as identical twins may think that they are more likely to develop
depression they might start to exhibit more symptoms. This also causes questions into
issues of undo stress or harm both because the study may contribute to the onset of
depression, but the study could also leave participants in fear that they will too develop
the illness.
Modern research does not only look at twin research but also at specific genes. Caspi
carried out a prospective longitudinal study of the effect of the mutation of the 5-HTT
serotonin transport gene. Caspi argued that people with two short alleles (the mutation) of
the 5-HTT gene would be more likely to develop depression.

Participants were allocated to groups based on the length of the allele of their 5-HTT
genes. The first group consisted of those with one short allele and one long, the second
had two short, and the third had two long. Participants were evaluated for depression and
asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing major life events. Those with the mutation and
with major life stressors were more likely to exhibit symptoms of depression and suicidal
ideation. Caspi found that participants with the mutation who had three or more stressful
life events were the most likely to show depressive symptoms.
The study shows that genes are not destiny, but that a combination of a genetic
predisposition and environmental stressors may be. Modern genetics is a holistic
approach – recognizing that a gene-environment interaction often leads to behavior, and
not the genes alone. There have been replications of the study, so the research is reliable.
However, when dealing with depression, there are complications with the construct. It is
difficult to know if depression is the same across all cultures and if serotonin plays a role
in the origins of the disorder.
Genetic research has helped us to understand research in the sociocultural approach. For
example, in Brown & Harris’s study on women and depression, they found that women
who had fewer protective factors were more likely to get depression. This study is quite
old and today we can hypothesize that it was most likely because of gene-environment
interaction that the women developed depression.
With modern technology, we can isolate specific genes and carry out research to test the
strength of the correlation with depression. This avoids the problem of early research on
MZ and DZ twins that made assumptions about their genes with no way to verify them.
However, genetic studies are still correlational, meaning that it’s difficult to establish a
cause-and-effect relationship.

SAQ 2: TWIN OR KINSHIP STUDY

SAQ 3: GENETIC SIMILARITIES
ERQ 4: EVOLUTION
An evolutionary argument that can explain human mating behavior, is sexual selection.
Evolution is the change over time in living organisms of heritable characteristics of a
species. The theory of evolution states that by natural selection, organisms that adapt
better to environmental changes are more likely to survive, reproduce, and thus pass on
their genes. Sexual selection, a particular aspect of natural selection, states that to
produce and protect the most healthy offspring, the perfect mating partner is found.
Because the evolutionary argument states this, the way humans find mating partners must
be beneficial to human survival and reproduction, and thus an adaptive behavior. Three
studies that looked at human mating behavior were Ronay and von Hipper, Wedekind,
and Buss.
The aim of the study by Ronay and von Hippel (2010) was to determine if males would
take greater risks in the presence of an attractive female. To do this, the levels of
testosterone were also tested. The researchers had a sample of young Australian male
skateboarders that were recruited at skateboard parks. The study took place in the
afternoon. They were assigned to one of two conditions, the male-researcher condition
and the female-researcher condition. They were asked to do two different tricks, ten times
each. One trick was easy, and the other difficult. Each attempt at the trick was marked as
a success, an aborted attempt, or a crash landing. To measure testosterone, saliva samples
were collected. The researchers found that when the participants did their tricks in front
of the female researcher, they took greater risks on the difficult tricks. They aborted tricks
less and their testosterone levels were higher. From this study, it can be seen that
testosterone may cause men to take greater physical risks when in the presence of a
woman. This study may support evolutionary theory as risk-taking is used as a sign for
potential mates to show that the male is healthy and strong. In other words, he can
produce and protect his offspring. A limitation of the study would be the ethical issue of
deception, as the participants did not know they were being tested for their human mating
behavior. It is possible that if they had known this was the case, they would be
embarrassed.
Another study that looks at the evolutionary argument for human mating behavior is by
Wedekind (1995). The aim of this study was to see if women are attracted to men based
on their MHC (major histocompatibility complex). The MHC is a group of proteins that
let the immune system recognize different pathogens. It is argued that when the MHC
genes of parents are diverse, the offspring will have a stronger immune system and that
the way we smell is a sign of our MHC. The researchers took a sample of female and
male students, and each of their MHC was found. The men were asked to wear a T-shirt
for two nights, have their everyday clothes and bed sheets washed in perfume-free
detergents and shower with perfume-free soap. After the two days, the women in the
study were asked to rank the smell of 7 t-shirts, three of which contained t-shirts from
men with similar MHC as the woman, three that were different, and one that was unworn.
They ranked the smell for intensity, and ‘sexiness’ (on a scale of 0-10). The researchers
found that the women scored the t-shirt of a male with a different MHC than their own
higher than when the MHC was similar. The study shows that MHC may influence
human mate choice, which can support the argument of sexual selection as we are
looking to produce the most healthy offspring. A strength of this study is that the variable
of MHC was isolated completely. There were extensive measures taken to ensure that the
only variable tested was the smell of the MHC on the t-shirt. This means that the study
has high internal validity. A limitation would be that while the variable was isolated, it is
not a good representation of how a mate is found - women do not go around smelling
shirts in boxes.
The aim of Buss (1989) was to support the idea that men look for fertile women, and
women look for men that can support their offspring. To do this, the researchers had a
sample of 10,000 participants from 37 different cultures and gave them a questionnaire.
They found that men thought youth was highly important in a mate, and for women,
maturity and higher social status were important. This can show that men want to
maximize the potential for fertilization, which can come from younger women. And
women want to ensure the likelihood of reproduction and having healthy offspring
through financial help and resources that can come from a higher social status. The
results of this study explain human mating behavior as looking for the most optimal
mating partner to reproduce healthy offspring, which can be argued to be sexual
selection. A strength of this study is the huge sample size of 10,000, this can ensure more
reliability in the findings. In addition, the study was cross-cultural. A limitation would be
that it was in the form of a questionnaire, meaning that the participants could have
displayed demand characteristics to look better in front of the researchers.
The argument of sexual selection for human mating behavior can be supported through
the studies by Ronay and von Hipper, Wedekind, and Buss. This evolutionary argument,
however, does have its limitations. The evolutionary theory of sexual selection is based
on the assumption that behaviors are genetically inherited. In actuality, it is not yet
known to what extent human behaviors are inherited. In addition, it is hard to test human
mating behavior as there may be cultural influences or different ways humans have
learned to find mates. The sexual selection theory assumes that a sexual partner is found
for the sole reason of reproducing. Research in this theory also lacks ecological validity.
As mentioned before in the study by Wedekind, it is highly unlikely a woman will find a
mate through the act of smelling shirts and rating their smell. Also, the study by Buss can
be seen as lacking ecological validity as the participants were given questionnaires which
may be more what the person "thinks" they would do, rather than their actual behavior.
Experiments in this theory also may cause researchers to be susceptible to confirmation
bias, as they see what they expect to see. An example of this would be in the study by
Buss as its original aim was to support an already-developed claim. A strength of this
theory, however, would be its generalizability. Through these studies, it is clear that the
sexual selection evolution argument can explain human mating behavior, as humans look
for mates that will allow for reproduction and healthy offspring.
ERQ 4: ETHICS IN GENETICS
Within the biological approach, it is assumed that research into genetic influence on
behavior can eventually reveal the causes of psychological disorders such as depression
or negative behaviors such as criminal activity. The diathesis-stress theory suggests that
genes may lead to a predisposition to a behavior or disorder, but there must be an
environmental or physiological trigger for the genes to be expressed. Today our
knowledge about the exact role of specific genes is still incomplete. As with all research,
genetic research must meet ethical standards. There are several ethical considerations
such as informed consent and the risk of undue stress or harm.
One consideration is informed consent. To obtain informed consent, the aim and the
procedure of the research – as well as any possible negative outcomes – must be
explained to the participant in language that the participant can understand. It could be
argued that many people do not understand genetic research and its implications, and
therefore informed consent cannot be easily obtained. A participant could find out that
they have an unexpected genetic disposition for a particular mental illness. Although this
could be considered a good thing because it could lead to changes in behavior that would
prevent the onset of the disorder, it could also cause undue stress.
Another ethical consideration in genetic research is undue stress or harm. Undue stress is
when a participant experiences more stress than should be expected through normal day-
to-day activities. In research on the role of genetics on depression, Caspi found that
having two short alleles for the 5-HTT gene made one more vulnerable to depression than
someone with the longer alleles. The question is whether testing someone for the genetic
mutation and informing them that this may make them more vulnerable to depression is
undue stress. One could argue that it is not, but instead is a way to help people cope with
the potential onset of depression. Knowing that you may develop it may help people to
take more precautions like watching their diet or exercising on a regular basis. Wilhelm
et al (2009) found that in a study of the 5-HTT gene, participants felt more positive than
negative about getting the information. They felt that it was important to know.
However, this was self-reported and may be the result of the social desirability effect.
Wilhelm et al also found that the participants with two short alleles showed much higher
levels of stress after learning the results than the participants with two long alleles. There
is a danger that having this knowledge could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where
individuals start to show signs of the disorder simply because they expect to get it.
Finally, if the participants were to share this information with a doctor, it may lead to
confirmation bias and a false diagnosis of depression, leading to drug treatments that
could be bad for the individual. It is important that psychologists consider the potential
harm that could come to their participants from such research. By explaining clearly the
meaning of the results in the debriefing, the negative outcomes may be avoided.
One of the ethical concerns in the study of genetics is how important pre-symptom
screening could be in the prevention of mental illness or in negative behaviors. For
example, in a large twin study carried out by Christiansen, he found a higher concordance
rate for criminal activity in MZ twins than in DZ twins. Although no specific genes were
isolated, what if there is a genetic predisposition to criminal behavior? Could we
potentially prevent crime by helping people with this genetic predisposition?
The argument is problematic and ethically unsound. Genetic research is generally
correlational, which means that it is not possible to state a clear cause-effect relationship
between genes and criminal behavior. In the case of Christiansen’s study, we also have to
be careful of how we define “criminal activity” and the question of what environmental
factors may have played a role in the development of the behavior. We have to be careful
not to believe in genetic determinism. The interaction between genes and the
environment is very complex and oversimplifying the origins of complex behaviors like
criminal activity can lead to labeling, prejudice, and the denial of an individual to choose
his or her own path in life.
Although genetic research is helping us to better understand the origins of behavior,
researchers must always address ethical considerations. Failure to do so will make
people less likely to participate in research. In addition, the failure to meet standards may
lead to behaviors that look like they support the findings but may be due to confounding
variables, like self-fulfilling prophecies, misdiagnosis due to confirmation bias, or
anxiety and depression due to stress about the findings.

TOPIC 3: ANIMAL RESEARCH

ERQ 1: ANIMAL MODEL
It is often the case in biological research that it is not possible to carry out experimental
research on humans because of ethical considerations. As a result, animal models are
often used. Using animal models allows researchers to carry out experimental research to
determine a causal relationship between a hormone and a behavior; however, there are
limitations to using animals to explain human behavior.

One example of the use of an animal model is the use of prairie voles to study human
bonding behavior. Prairie voles “mate for life,” and this is similar to the monogamous
behavior we see in humans. Researchers have found that vasopressin, a hormone
produced in the hypothalamus, may play a role in why prairie voles stay together. The
hormone is linked to territoriality. Receptor sites for the hormone are located in both the
amygdala and the nucleus accumbens – areas of the brain linked to aggression and
addiction. Is it possible that one’s level of vasopressin may influence the likelihood that
he would stay in a monogamous relationship?

In a study done by Winslow, prairie voles were injected with either a placebo or a
vasopressin antagonist and then put into a cage with a female that was in heat. After
mating, they were moved to a cage with three separate rooms. In one “room” was the
sexual partner; in another room was another female vole. The voles that had been injected
with the placebo spent their time with their mate. Those that were injected with the
antagonist spent equal time with the mate and the other female. The lower level of
vasopressin seems to have influenced the bond between the vole and his mate.

This study is a highly controlled true experiment and therefore has strong internal
validity; this allows the researchers to conclude that vasopressin may cause the social
bond between the two voles. So, can we use this model to then explain human behavior?
A study by Walum et al (2008) tested the role of vasopressin in human males.

Walum tested whether a male’s level of vasopressin would predict his level of marital
satisfaction. He tested a sample of over 500 men to see if they had a genetic variation
that led to lower levels of vasopressin. The men were then asked to fill out a Likert-Scale
test to measure their attachment to their partner and their marital satisfaction. This
correlational study found that men with the gene variation for lower vasopressin were
less satisfied in their marriage and that over 30% of them had thought about divorce
during the last year, compared to 15% in the control group.

Although these findings seem to support the animal model, there are some limitations.
First, the level of vasopressin is never measured in Walum’s study. It is assumed that the
men with the genetic variation have lower levels of vasopressin than the men without the
variation. In addition, Likert Scales are problematic measures in that we cannot know
that all men interpreted the scores of 1 – 5 in the same way. In addition, it is questionable
how well we can measure one’s “level of marital satisfaction”, especially from a single
data collection.

Although the animal model used by Winslow seems to confirm the findings of Walum,
there are also limitations to the use of this animal model to explain human mating
behavior. First, there is an assumption that vasopressin is the same in both the voles and
humans – however, this may not be the case. In addition, vasopressin is found in a lot of
animals that are not monogamous, so it may not have the same effect in all species. Since
the way that vasopressin functions in the brains of rodents is different from humans, we
must be careful when generalizing from voles to humans.

Another limitation of animal models it may not be valid to argue that behavior in animals
is the same as in humans. It may not be appropriate to compare “monogamy” in voles
with a committed human relationship. The "relationship" in Winslow's study had only
been formed on that day - so to argue that they were in a long-term committed
relationship would be an example of researcher bias - where the researcher sees what they
are looking for in the animal model. In addition, the approach may be too simplistic -
human relationships include cognitive and cultural factors that are absent in
rodents. Taking such a reductionist approach with the animal model may not explain the
complexity of human relationships.

Animal models allow us to test for causality, avoid ethical concerns in human research,
and allow us to see change over the lifespan faster than in human samples. However, we
have to be careful not to anthropomorphize – that is, attribute human characteristics to
animals. In addition, we have to recognize that although they have similar physiology,
that does not mean that a rodent’s hormones function in the same way as in humans.

ERQ 2: ETHICS IN ANIMAL RESEARCH

Often it is not possible to study biological factors in behavior in humans due to ethical
considerations. Instead, animals are often used. They are used because they are
physiologically and anatomically similar to humans, they are readily available, and they
have a short lifespan which makes it possible to study a behavior over several
generations. However, there is a debate in psychology about whether it is ethical to use
animals in the study of biological factors such as hormones. The question is whether the
costs outweigh the benefits.

One of the great discoveries in biology was the discovery of the hormone, leptin. Leptin
appears to play a role in stopping our eating. When we eat, our leptin levels rise in line
with glucose levels. When leptin reaches a certain level, the hypothalamus signals that
we are “full.” The discovery was made by Friedman. He used two mice. One mouse
was “normal”, but the other mouse was hyperphagic – that is, it couldn’t stop eating and
was very obese. Friedman believed that one of the two mice must have something
biological that the other mouse did not. To test this, he sewed the two mice together,
joining their circulation systems. He found that the hyperphagic mouse lost weight. This
was the beginning of the process that led to the isolation of the hormone, leptin.

This research has some serious ethical concerns. One of the basic ethical standards is to
avoid undue stress or harm. This study caused serious physical harm to the mice. They
would have to be “humanely” euthanized at the end of the experiment. One of the other
guidelines for animal research is the three R’s: Reduce, refine, replace. In this case, the
number of animals was two. So, the number was the minimum necessary. However, the
question is whether the procedure could have been refined so that it would not be
traumatic for the mice. The researcher should have had a vet available to oversee the
process and to make sure that the mice suffered as little pain as possible. The final “r”,
replace, asks whether the researcher could have used another way to investigate this
question without using the animals. Although it may have taken longer to find certain
results, this might have been done through blood analysis.

Not all animal research is as unethical as Friedman’s study. Meany carried out a study to
see if stress in childhood would lead to memory impairment in old age. Research has
shown that Adverse Childhood Experiences have a negative effect on health, but these
are all correlational studies. In addition, it is difficult to monitor the health developments
of an individual across the lifespan. This is why Meany used rats. Rats from the same
litter were allocated to one of two conditions. In one condition, they were taken away
from the mother soon after birth and were groomed by researchers using brushes. The
other condition was taken away from the mother but not groomed. This led to higher
levels of stress – and an increased level of glucocorticoids. When the rats were two years
old, they were put into a pool of milky water where they were to find a platform to get
out of the water. Meany found that the rats that had been handled by the researchers
learned the location quickly, but the unhandled rats, those with high levels of
glucocorticoids, took longer to find the platform. Meany argued that high levels of
glucocorticoids in childhood led to the inability to manage stress throughout their life and
hippocampal cell death as a result of high cortisol levels, leading to memory impairment.

Meany’s research also has the problem of harm to the animal. He euthanized the rats to
measure the volume of the hippocampus. At the time of the research, there was no other
way to do this. Today, modern scanning techniques would allow for the rat’s brain to be
measured without having to kill it. In addition, it was important that Meany used as few
rats as possible and that they are kept in conditions that would be considered as
“naturalistic” as possible.

In both cases, the researcher has to carry out a cost-benefit analysis to justify the research.
However, since the results cannot be known with certainty before doing the experiment,
it may be that the expected benefits do not actually happen. In the case of Friedman’s
research, although leptin was discovered, it is not effective as a treatment for obesity.
However, leptin has been used to explain some cases of obesity. In Meany’s research, the
findings support what we see in humans and help researchers to understand the role of
cortisol through experimental methods.

As already mentioned, the three Rs must be used in research. For example, with
refinement – that is, keeping the rats in naturalistic conditions – researchers can eliminate
the stress of confinement. Especially in older research, there is the question of whether
the animals’ stress of being in poor living conditions may have played a role in the
findings. In Meaney’s research, the level of care for the animal was important so that the
stress could be isolated to the lack of maternal grooming. However, the ethical standard
of reduction is problematic. If we reduce the numbers too low, then we cannot be sure
that the findings are reliable.

The third R is “replace.” It is a question of whether we can easily replace animals with
computer models or in vitro testing. In the case of Friedman’s research, it would not be
possible to create a computer model to find a hormone that we are not sure
exists. Computer models have to be based on a certain amount of knowledge to be built.
Theoretically, in Meaney’s study, he could have used in vitro testing, looking at the effect
of glucocorticoids on hippocampal cells. The problem is that animals, including humans,
are systems. Meany’s research showed the interaction of environment, genetics,
hormones, and memory over the lifetime of an animal, something that is not currently
possible with cell cultures. Although in vitro can show us what happens on a micro-
level, it does not allow us to observe behavior that is the result of these changes at the
micro-level.

The question of whether to use animals in research is complex. We recognize the need to
treat animals ethically, but such practice may put limitations on necessary research. Both
studies above have contributed to our understanding of the role of hormones in human
behavior, but it can be argued that this happened at a great cost to the animals. In
considering the three R’s before carrying out their research, psychologists are attempting
to be ethical in their practice. We must continue to question this practice, with the hope of
decreasing the number of animals used.

TOPIC 4: RESEARCH METHOD & ETHICS

SAQ 1: BIO RESEARCH METHOD

Psychologists in the biological approach often use experiments to establish cause-and-
effect relationships. An experiment allows researchers to manipulate an independent
variable and measure its effect on a dependent variable while keeping other variables
constant. In addition, participants are randomly allocated to conditions. Finally, in
biological research, a placebo is often given as a way of preventing demand
characteristics. A placebo is when participants believe that they are getting a treatment,
but they are not.
An example of this was a study by Newcomer who wanted to see the effect of stress on
verbal declarative memory. When we are stressed we secrete a hormone called cortisol.
Newcomer hypothesized that high levels of cortisol would prevent memory formation. To
test the hypothesis, participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: a low
dose of cortisol, a high dose of cortisol, or a placebo – a pill that they thought was
cortisol but was not. The experiment took place over 10 days with four different
measures of the participant’s ability to immediately recall a piece of prose that was read
to them. The experiment was a double-blind study- the participants did not know which
group they were in and the researcher also did not know which participants had been
assigned to each group.
The results showed that the group that received the high dose of cortisol had the lowest
recall of details from the prose passage. From the manipulation of the IV, the researchers
may conclude that it was the level of cortisol that actually affected their ability to form
verbal declarative memories.

ERQ 1: BIO RESEARCH METHOD

The biological approach argues that human behavior has physiological origins and that
‘biology’ should be taken into account when studying human beings. Psychologists use
multiple research methods to investigate how environmental factors interact with
biological systems in both animals and humans. Two research methods that are used in
this approach are laboratory experiments and case studies.
The purpose of using laboratory experiments in the biological approach is for the
researchers to establish a causal relationship between two variables - the independent and
the dependent variable. Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is, making a
measurable and testable hypothesis and then seeing if the results of the study are
statistically significant so that they can reject the null hypothesis. In addition, an
experiment must contain at least one group that receives a treatment (the manipulation of
an independent variable), and a control group does not receive the treatment
Rogers & Kesner conducted a laboratory experiment to determine the role of the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine in spatial memory formation; multiple acetylcholine
receptors in the hippocampus play a role in the consolidation of memory. Firstly, the
researchers had mice run a simple maze to find food that was placed in one of the two
corners. After having run the maze, but before memory could be consolidated, the mice
were injected with one of two chemicals into their hippocampal region. The first group
was injected with scopolamine, which blocks the acetylcholine receptors and thus inhibits
the response. The second group was a control one, given a placebo injection of saline
solution to make sure that getting an injection does not cause any change in memory.
Thereafter, the two groups were placed again into the maze to see how long it would take
them to find the food they had previously located. The results show that the scopolamine
group took longer and made more mistakes in finding the food, whereas the control group
learned faster and made fewer mistakes. All in all, the findings indicate that the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine may play an important role in the consolidation of spatial
memory and retrieval.
One of the most significant strengths of a laboratory experiment is that it has a highly
standardized procedure so the study can be replicated by other researchers, and the
reliability of the results can be further tested. Experiments also try to control extraneous
variables and randomly allocate participants to conditions, which increases the internal
validity, allowing for a cause-and-effect relationship to be established. On the other hand,
they suffer from low ecological validity due to the highly controlled environments,
meaning that the results may not reflect behavior under normal conditions. It is also not
always clear to what extent the results of animal research may apply to human beings
such as from rats to humans in the Rogers & Kesner study.
Another research method in the biological approach is a case study. Case studies are
comprehensive investigations of one individual with a particular brain abnormality or
damage; case studies provide situations that cannot be ethically reproduced by
researchers in a laboratory under controlled conditions. They are also often carried out
longitudinally to observe short-term and long-term effects, where the same variables are
investigated in repeated and different types of observations over long periods of time. An
independent variable is not manipulated in this type of research and hence, no causal
relationship can be established. In addition, psychologists study brain-damaged patients
by using triangulation - for example, more than one method, researcher, and different
sources of data.
Milner carried out a classic case study on HM on the role of the hippocampus in memory
formation; HM sustained a serious head injury when he fell off his bicycle at the age of 7,
and beginning three years after his accident, suffered from repeating epileptic seizures.
With the approval of HM and his family, tissue from the medial temporal lobe, including
the hippocampus, was removed in an experimental surgery on both sides of his brain.
Although HM remembered his childhood very well and his personality seemed relatively
unchanged after the surgery, he had suffered from anterograde amnesia—not being able
to transfer new information from short-term memory to long-term memory. Milner
longitudinally studied HM through different methods such as psychometric testing, direct
observations, interviews, MRI scans, and cognitive testing. The researchers have found
that HM could not acquire new episodic memories [memories of autobiographical events]
and semantic knowledge [general world knowledge], however, procedural memories
were not impacted; they have concluded that the hippocampal region plays a significant
role in memory formation.
One of the strengths of case studies is that they collect rich data. Case studies collect data
over a long period of time, accounting for both short-term and long-term effects on the
patient’s behavior; they also use a more holistic approach as opposed to experiments by
looking at a range of behaviors, rather than measuring a single dependent variable. In
addition, the use of method triangulation increases the validity of the results.
Nevertheless, generalizability is one of the most critical limitations of this type of
research method; case studies often study brain abnormality or damage that is unique to
an individual and for that reason, the observed results cannot be generalized to the
behavior of all human beings. In addition, a causal relationship cannot be established as
an independent variable is not manipulated in this type of research. Lastly, it might also
be difficult for the researcher to acquire and verify information about the patient before
his/her accident, which may otherwise be of some use when drawing conclusions.
While laboratory experiments may be helpful for researchers to determine cause-and-
effect relationships that can be tested for reliability through replication by other
researchers, case studies may provide more unique and in-depth research into individual
human behavior that could not be otherwise ethically reproduced. Sespite some of the
methods' weaknesses, psychologists generally attempt to use them together to investigate
human beings in terms of the roots of physical processes and physiological origins.

SAQ 2: ETHICS IN BIOLOGY

One ethical consideration in the biological approach is informed consent. Informed
consent means that before someone agrees to participate in a study, the researcher must
explain the purpose and procedure of the study. In addition, the researcher must explain
the person’s rights – including the right to withdraw and that all data will be kept
anonymous. Any potential negative effects of participation must be explained.
The biological approach has some special problems with regard to informed consent.
First, the biological approach uses animals that cannot actually give consent. In addition,
biological researchers often do studies of people who have a mental illness or brain
damage. It could be argued that these participants may not be able to understand what
they are agreeing to. Finally, often biological research is rather complex and may not be
understood by the average person, making “informed consent” difficult.
One study that raises questions about informed consent is the study of HM by Milner.
HM had severe amnesia as a result of an operation that was done to stop epileptic
seizures. HM had both retrograde amnesia (he couldn’t remember what happened before
the operation) and anterograde amnesia (he couldn’t create new memories). Milner
carried out a case study and found that the hippocampus plays a key role in the transfer of
episodic and semantic memories from short-term to long-term memory.
As HM could not remember giving consent, this study is ethically problematic. HM was
asked to give consent throughout the experiment, but it is not clear that he really
understood what was happening or who Milner actually was. Originally consent was
given by HM’s mother and then later by his caretakers. However, there is a concern that
HM may not have been able to take advantage of his right to withdraw either because he
did not understand or he forgot.
Informed consent is important so that researchers do not take advantage of participants.
Many of the types of participants used in biological research make obtaining informed
consent difficult.

COGNITIVE APPROACH
SAQ 1: RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY
Psychologists argue that episodic memory is not just a photographic snapshot in the
brain, but instead, it is reconstructed. Schema theory says that memory is based on
schema. When we encode and retrieve episodic memories, we are influenced by our
perceptions, past knowledge, and personal beliefs. However, some argue that there is a
different type of memory, called flashbulb memory. This memory is the result so of
powerful emotions, so some argue that it is not reconstructed, but vivid, accurate, and not
open to distortion in the way that normal memories are.
After the explosion of a US space shuttle was watched live on television, Neisser &
Harsch (1992) decided to do a study to investigate if the claim that flashbulb memories
are not reconstructive is true. On the day of the accident, he asked his students to write a
short description of how they heard the news about the accident. They were asked a series
of questions including: What time was it? How did you hear it? Where were you? And
who was with you? They were also asked how much television coverage of the event
they had watched.
2 ½ years later they were given the same questionnaire. This time, in addition to the
questions asked on the first questionnaire, they were also asked to rate how sure they
were of their answers. The findings showed that although the participants were very
confident in their memories, the mean score for correct answers to the questions was 3 /
7. The students had misremembered the events which they assumed were “flashbulb
memories.” The study shows that our memories are not as reliable as we would like to
believe. Instead, the students most likely reconstructed the events based on a combination
of probability (the usual behavior at that time of day) or based on other information that
they have heard over the years about the event.

SAQ 2: RATIONAL THINKING

The Dual Process Model argues that we make two types of decisions. System 1 thinking
is intuitive; it is good for quick decisions and requires only a small amount of effort.
System 2 is rational thinking that consciously uses existing information to logically make
a decision. System 1 thinking makes use of cognitive "shortcuts" called heuristics. One
example of the difference between intuitive and rational thinking can be seen in the study
by Englich and Mussweiler.
They wanted to see if a prosecutor would influence a judge's decision. In the pilot
condition, which served as a control, 24 senior law students were given a case file for a
rape case. They were asked to read through the case and recommend a prison sentence.
The average sentence was 17 months.
In the experimental condition, a sample of young judges with less than one year of
experience was given the same rape case and asked, based on the evidence, how long the
punishment should be. In one group they were told that the prosecution recommended a
34-month sentence; in the other group a 2-month sentence. They were given 15 minutes
to make a decision based on the penal code and the information of the case. They were
also asked to rank their confidence in their decision.
The study showed that when given the suggestion of 34 months, the students
recommended on average a longer sentence. In this study we see that the students in the
control condition who were not given an anchor were more rational in their thinking,
using the information that was given to them and not influenced by outside factors. They
used the penal code to come up with a logical sentence. However, in the experimental
condition, they were less sure when presented with both the penal code and the
recommendation from the prosecutor. This, combined with the time limitation and their
lack of experience, made them less confident and more likely to use System 1 thinking,
basing their response on the anchor value that they were given.

SAQ 3: MEMORY MODEL

One model of memory is the “Multi-Store Model.” This model was the first to separate
memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. The model argues that we are
bombarded with sensory stimuli. When we pay attention to the stimuli they pass through
sensory memory and into short-term memory. There the information is held until either
other information displaces it or, if we rehearse it, it is moved to long-term memory.
When we remember something, we are moving that information from long-term memory
back into short-term memory so that it can be used. This simple model was supported by
a study by Glanzer and Cunitz.
The researchers read fifteen lists of 15 words to participants and asked them to recall the
words from each list in any order. The study used a repeated measures design. The words
were read one at a time and then the participants were either asked to recall the words
immediately after the list was finished, with a 10-second delay or with a 30-second delay.
During the delays, the participants were asked to count backward from 100. When there
was no delay, they found that participants remembered the first few words and the last
few words on the list. This indicates that the words earlier on the list were most likely
rehearsed and moved into LTM – what is known as the primacy effect. The words at the
end of the list were still in STM – what is known as the recency effect. However, when
they were asked to count backward, they only remembered the first few words on the
list. This shows that through rehearsal some of the words had been placed in LTM, but
counting backward had displaced the information in STM. This study is evidence that
the Multi-store model is correct – and that long-term and short-term memory may be
stored in different places and that information in STM may be displaced.

SAQ 4: EMOTION AND MEMORY

Brown & Kulik believed that strong emotional experiences led to memories that are
detailed, accurate, vivid, and resistant to forgetting. They argued that there were two key
components to the creation of a flashbulb memory. First, there is the element of surprise.
The researchers proposed the "special mechanism" hypothesis that suggested that there
were biological factors that led to the creation of these memories, although they did not
know what those mechanisms were. Secondly, the researchers argued that the event had
to have "personal meaning" for the person. If there was a combination of a strong
emotional response based on surprise and personal meaning, then the result is a flashbulb
memory.
One study that investigates the role of emotion on memory was carried out by McGaugh
& Cahill (1995). The participants were divided into two groups. Each group saw 12 slides
and heard a different story. In the first condition, the participant heard a boring story
about a woman and her son who paid a visit to the son’s father in a hospital where they
watched the staff in a disaster preparation drill. In the second condition, the participant
heard a story where the boy was involved in a car accident where his feet were severed.
He was quickly brought to the hospital where the surgeons reattached the injured limbs.
Then he stayed in the hospital for a few weeks and then went home with his mother. A
third group heard the same story as the second group, but they were given beta-blockers.
Beta-blockers block the receptor sites for adrenaline in the amygdala. Two weeks later
the participants were asked to come back and have their memory tested. Two weeks later
the participants were asked to come back and have their memory tested.

The researchers found that the participants who had heard the more emotional story had a
better recall of specific details of the story. They could also recall more details from the
slides. However, if they heard the emotional story and had received beta-blockers, they
had no better recall than the first group that did not hear the emotional story. This may be
evidence to support Brown & Kulik’s original theory of the "special mechanism". The
researchers argued that when adrenaline reaches the brain it activates the amygdala in the
limbic system to send a message that something important or dangerous has happened.
The amygdala plays a key role in creating emotional memories. When the effects of
adrenaline were blocked by the Beta-blockers, the ability to form an emotional memory
was also blocked, showing the importance of emotion and adrenaline in the creation of
memory.

SAQ 5: COGNITIVE BIAS

When making decisions, we often rely on past experience or the information that is
immediately available to us. This is referred to as “system 1 thinking.” To reduce the
amount of thinking required, we often rely on “heuristics” or mental shortcuts to make
decisions. Heuristics are a cognitive bias – and although they often help us to make
decisions, they sometimes lead to illogical or incorrect decisions or conclusions.
One example of a cognitive bias is anchoring bias. Anchoring bias is when the first piece
of information we receive influences our decisions. For example, when we hear that the
original price of a good was 100 dollars but is now marked down to 80 dollars, we find
that more attractive than walking into a store and seeing the same thing for 80 dollars.
Seeing the 100 first makes us feel like we are getting a better deal. The value of a good is
ambiguous – that is, we don’t know how much it should be, so this information helps us
to form an opinion and make a decision.
One study that showed this cognitive bias was done by Englich and Mussweiler. They
wanted to see if anchoring bias would affect a judge's sentencing. A sample of trial
judges with less than one year of experience was given a rape case and asked, based on
the evidence, how long the punishment should be. In one group they were told that the
prosecution recommended a 34-month sentence; in the other group a 2-month sentence.
The study showed that when given the suggestion of 34 months, the students
recommended on average a longer sentence. Since they would not have an absolute sense
of how many months to punish the offender, they used the “anchor” that they were given
to make their decision. This is an example of how a cognitive bias may affect one’s
behavior.

SAQ 6: RESEARCH METHOD

One research method used in the cognitive approach is experiments. Experiments are
used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. In an
experiment, the research manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a
dependent variable while all other variables are held constant. Participants are randomly
allocated to conditions and the environment in which the study is done is controlled to
make sure that extraneous variables do not have an effect on the results of the study.
One example of an experiment is Loftus & Palmer’s study on how leading questions may
affect one’s memory of an automobile crash. Participants watched a movie in which two
cars hit one another. The participants were given a questionnaire with several questions
about the accident, but only one question was actually important. One question asked the
participants how fast the car was going when the accident occurred. For some
participants, the question ended with "When the two cars smashed into each other." For
other participants, the word smashed was replaced with bumped, hit, collided, or
contacted. The IV was the intensity of the verb in the leading question. The DV was the
speed that the participants estimated. The researchers used an independent samples
design, so the participants experienced only one condition. Otherwise, they would not
have been able to carry out the experiment because the participants would have figured
out the actual goal of the study. Therefore, deception is sometimes used in experiments to
avoid the participants demonstrating demand characteristics, where they do what they
think the researcher wants them to do. As part of the experiment, when the task is
completed, the researcher must debrief the participant and reveal any deception.
The results of the experiment showed that the stronger the intensity of the verb, the
higher the estimate of the speed of the car when the accident happened. As the data was
quantitative, statistics could be calculated to see if the results were significant or due to
chance. This showed that the wording of the question had a direct cause-and-effect
relationship with the estimation of speed made by participants.

SAQ 7: ETHICS IN COG

One ethical consideration is the use of deception. Deception is when a participant is not
made fully aware of the purpose of a study or is intentionally misinformed. Deception is
often used by researchers to hide the true aim of an experiment. Often if the participants
knew the aim of the experiment they would demonstrate demand characteristics – either
trying to give the researchers what they wanted or trying to behave in a way that made
them look their best, something known as the social desirability effect. Deception is
problematic because it undermines the concept of “informed consent.” It violates the trust
between a researcher and a participant. In addition, it increases the chance that a
participant will withdraw his/her data after the experiment. Therefore, debriefing is an
important part of any experiment with deception. It is important that the deception is
justified and that the participant is allowed to withdraw data. In addition, debriefing is a
chance for the researcher to make sure that there was no harm done as a result of the
deception.
A classic study that used deception was Loftus & Pickrel's Lost in the Mall study. The
aim of the study was to see if participants would “create memories” of a biographical
event that never happened to them. Participants were given four short stories describing
childhood events, all supposedly provided by family members, and asked to try to recall
them. Relatives had provided the stories. One of the stories, describing a time when the
participant was lost in a mall when he/she was a child, was false. In the study, 25% of the
participants said that they remembered this event even though it never actually occurred.
They often described the event in great detail. Loftus concluded that being asked to recall
something that didn’t happen, but that they thought their parents said happened, can lead
to the creation of false memories.
Upon revealing the deception, participants may have felt like they looked foolish.
However, Loftus could not do a study on false memory by first revealing the actual aim
of the study. Although the deception was justified, the experiment is still problematic
from an ethical standpoint.

SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH
SAQ 1: STEREOTYPING
A stereotype is when you have a schema about a group and you apply the characteristics
associated with that schema to a single member of that group. One effect of stereotyping
is called Stereotype Threat. Stereotypes can have a negative effect on members of the
group to which the stereotype is applied, even if the members of the group do not believe
the stereotype. Stereotype threat is a theory that says that when a person is made aware
of a stereotype about his group, it can have a negative effect on his performance.
According to Steele and Aronson, this is because the stereotype threat increases
"spotlight anxiety" or the feeling that you are being judged. This anxiety then harms
performance.
Steele and Aronson (1995) carried out an experiment to see if stereotype threat would
affect the performance of African Americans on a test of verbal abilities. All of the
students in the sample were from Stanford University, so it can be assumed that they
were of similar verbal ability. In one condition the group was told that the test was a test
of their verbal abilities. In the second test, they were not told this. When the group was
told it was a measure of their verbal abilities, the African Americans scored lower than
the white Americans. When they were not told it was a test of their verbal abilities,
African American students performed as well as white Americans. In the final version of
the experiment, they had a third group indicate their race on the test before beginning. In
this case, the African Americans did worse than the white Americans. Stereotypes about
the academic ability of African Americans led to spotlight anxiety which meant that they
performed worse on the test. This shows that stereotypes can have a negative effect on
performance even if the individual does not believe in the stereotype himself. This effect
is strongest when the person is made aware of his group membership or of the stereotype.

SAQ 2: SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY

Social Identity Theory is based on the assumption that we have both an individual and a
social self. Social identity theory argues that one's self-esteem comes from their
membership in social groups. Tajfel argued that there were three steps to Social Identity
Theory: Categorization, in which an individual considers himself a member of a group.
Then there is social identification when the person conforms to the behaviors and values
of the group. Then, the individual achieves self-esteem by comparison with members of
the out-group. Seeing the traits of one's own group as positive and the out-group as
inferior raises a sense of self-esteem. Social Identity Theory also argues that one's group
membership is made salient, it has an effect on behavior.
One study that demonstrates the role of one's Social Identity on behavior was done by
Abrams et al. Abrams wanted to see if being made aware of one's social identity would
increase the level of conformity to a group. To do this, he had participants take part in
the Asch paradigm. In this test, there is a group of confederates and one naive
participant. The group is shown a line and then asked to match it with a line of the same
length in a set of three lines. In half of the trials, the confederates gave the correct answer;
in half, they did not.
To test the role of social identity, one group of naive participants was told that the other
participants were "fellow psychology students from the university." In the other
condition, they were told that they were "ancient history students from the competitor
university." When they thought it was their in-group, participants conformed almost 50%
of the time to the incorrect answer; when they thought it was their out-group, they
conformed only 5% of the time.
It appears that when the participants' social identity was made salient, conformity
increased in order to be accepted by one's in-group and to maintain self-esteem, but this
did not happen when the participant believed that he was with an out-group. One type of
conformity is normative social influence where the need to belong influences the
likelihood that one will conform. This appears to be the case in this study, where the
need to belong to one's in-group increased the level of conformity, whereas the lack of
desire to belong to an out-group meant that conformity levels were low.

SAQ 3: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

One study of Social Cognitive Theory was carried out by Bandura. This study had the
aim to determine whether children would learn aggressive behavior by imitating an adult
model. Social Learning Theory - also called “observational learning” - is the idea that
people learn by imitating the actions of others. The theory argues that we are more likely
to imitate someone who is like us and that we identify with them if we have a sense of
self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief that we are able to imitate the behavior. In
addition, we also imitate those who receive vicarious reinforcement. Bandura found that
when a model was rewarded or at least was not punished, the children were more likely
to imitate a behavior.

The study was made up of 3 - 5-year-old children. They were first evaluated to determine
their level of aggression. Bandura then used a matched-pairs design to make sure that the
different levels of aggression were evenly distributed in the groups. There were three
independent variables in this study: whether the children were exposed to violence or not,
the gender of the child, and the gender of the model. The children then watched either a
male or a female model either act aggressively (bashing the Bobo with a baseball bat and
yelling at the Bobo), act passively (assembling toys), or they had no model. This served
as the control group to see what children would do when simply but with the Bobo.

The children were then individually invited into a room full of toys. After they saw all the
toys, they were told that they were not allowed to play with them since they were for
other children. This caused all of the children to feel frustrated. This was important
because Bandura wanted to make sure that they all had the same level of arousal.

The results were that all of the children showed some level of aggression against the
Bobo. However, the group that saw the aggressive model was the most aggressive. Those
that saw the control were second, and those who saw the passive model showed the least
aggression. In addition, the boys were the most violent. They tended to imitate both the
male and the female models, though they commented that the woman’s behavior was not
acceptable, saying “Ladies should not behave that way.” Girls tended to imitate the
verbal aggression of the male - and imitated the female model more directly. This shows
that each gender identified more with the same-sex model.

This study demonstrates SCT. First, the children appear to have learned the behavior by
watching the models. Secondly, since there was no punishment for the models’ actions
(and it looked like they enjoyed it), the children imitated it. They had been vicariously
reinforced. Lastly, the fact that they imitated the same gender makes sense. Since the
children would identify with the same gender and they would feel that if they can do it, so
can I (self-efficacy), then they are more likely to imitate them.

SAQ 4: RESEARCH METHOD IN SOCIO

One research method used in the sociocultural approach is an observation. Unlike an
experiment, observations do not have an independent variable. The goal of an
observation is to see how people act in a given situation. This means that observations are
often done under uncontrolled conditions. In an observation, there is a mix of
quantitative and qualitative data. An observation may be overt or covert. In an overt
observation, the participants know that they are being observed. In a covert observation,
the participants do not know that they are being observed; in some cases, they are being
deceived, and in other cases, it is in a public space where consent would not be required.
An observation can also be naturalistic – done in a person’s natural environment – or in a
lab. Finally, it may be participant or non-participant. In a participant observation, the
researcher is part of the group that is being studied. In a non-participant observation, the
researcher does not join the group but observes from outside the group.
Festinger carried out a covert, naturalistic participant observation in order to find out how
members of a cult would behave when they found out that the world would not end on
the day that they believed it would. Festinger and his team joined the cult in order to
gather their data. Obviously, they did not tell the cult they were doing this – so it was
covert. They documented the conversations they had with the cult members, but in order
to do this, they often had to take “bathroom breaks” to write everything down without
being noticed. When “doomsday” arrived, they found that the cult members rationalized
their situation – believing that their prayers had saved the world. In this way, it allowed
them to save their self-esteem.
The researchers used a covert observation because they would not have been able to
observe the cult in any other way. This group was a “closed” group, so by pretending to
be interested in joining the cult, they were able to observe what they were doing. In
addition, a covert observation avoids demand characteristics – that is, the participants do
not change their behavior simply because they know that they are being observed. The
study is naturalistic because it was done in a normal cult environment, and the
participants were not tested in a lab. Finally, the study was participant. It would not have
been possible to observe such a closed group from “outside” and by being part of the
group, the researcher had more control. He could ask direct questions and experience
things more personally that were happening.

SAQ 5: ETHICS IN SOCIO

In the socio-cultural approach, a research method that may be used is observation. An
observation could be overt, where the participants know that they are being observed; or
it could be covert, where they are unaware that they are being observed. A covert
observation was used in a study by Festinger. In his Doomsday Cult study, Festinger used
a covert observation that involves deceiving participants. This is a serious ethical
consideration. In his study, Festinger and his colleagues infiltrated a doomsday cult
because they wanted to see how the people would react when their prophecy that the
world would end, did not come true. They joined the cult pretending to be “believers,”
but they were actually observing the cult members. They took notes on a daily basis
regarding the conversations that they had with cult members, as well as describing their
behavior. When the final day came and nothing happened, the cult members suddenly
found themselves justifying their behavior to lower their sense of shame and cognitive
dissonance. The cult members rationalized that their prayers had postponed the
doomsday.
The sociocultural approach studies group behavior. In order to make this as natural as
possible, often people are observed “in the field.” In order to do this without having them
change their behavior, deception may be used. Deception carries ethical concerns due to
the fact that the people in the study are not aware of what is really going on; they are
being tricked. They will feel that their trust was violated and they may experience
extreme stress as a result. In spite of the deception, covert observations are highly
effective in achieving obtaining data with high ecological validity and low demand
characteristics. Furthermore, such as in this case with the cult, sometimes it is very
difficult to obtain consent to observe a certain group or situation openly, so deception
may be used to study the behavior. The question is - to what extent is this research
necessary? Is the harm caused by the deception worth the value of the findings? In the
case of Festinger’s classic study, this is rather debatable.

SAQ 6: ACCULTURATION
Acculturation is the cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of
contact between two or more cultural groups. When moving to another culture,
individuals make choices, both consciously and unconsciously, to what extent they will
maintain their own culture versus adopting the culture of their new home country. Berry
argued that there are different acculturation strategies. One is assimilation – when a
person adopts the cultural behaviors and values of the new culture. If they do this while
maintaining their original culture as well, this is called integration. If a person fails to
integrate into their new culture and maintains their own culture, this is a form of isolation
in society. If the person fails to integrate into the new culture and also loses contact with
their home culture, they can experience what Berry called marginalization.
Psychologists recognize that the process of acculturation can be stressful for people. This
is referred to as acculturative stress - the psychological, physiological, and social
difficulties of acculturation, often resulting in anxiety or depression. The result is a
decrease in one’s mental health. This is often experienced by immigrants when they
move to a new country and try to balance the culture in which they were enculturated and
the new culture into which they are trying to acculturate.
Miranda and Matheny (2000) carried out a study to see which factors most affect
acculturative stress in Latino immigrants in the USA. They used a sample of 200
immigrants and had them complete a questionnaire to test their level of acculturative
stress and several factors that might influence it. The study found that immigrants with
effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure
were less likely to experience acculturative stress. The study shows that there are many
protective factors that influence the extent to which a person acculturates effectively.
This would then have a positive effect on their mental health.

SAQ 7: CULTURE AND MEMORY

Culture affects our cognitive processes. Unlike many would expect, how people use their
cognitive processes is not universal. A part of culture is a group's lifestyle and how they
interact with the environment. Psychologists have found that cultures that have to
interact more with their natural environment may have better spatial memory. A study by
Kearins (1981) showed that culture affects how young Aboriginal children and
Australians differ in spatial memories.
The researchers used a sample of Aboriginal and white Australians. The memory test that
the children were given was given outdoors. Kearins placed 20 objects on a board divided
into 20 squares. Aboriginal and white Australian children were told to study the board for
30 seconds. Then all the objects were removed from the board and put into a pile. The
children were asked to replace the items in their original locations.
The Aboriginal children correctly relocated more objects than did white Australian
children. 18% of the white Australian children had one perfect score, but none had two or
more perfect scores. 75% of the Aboriginal children had at least one perfect score and
40% had at least two perfect scores.
Kearins argued that the Aboriginal culture developed in the deserts required better visual
and spatial memory than the white Australian culture. The need for this skill for survival
and the consistent interaction with the environment could have had biological
consequences such as the development of the posterior hippocampus.

SAQ 8: ASSIMILATION
Assimilation is the process of adopting the cultural and social norms of the dominant
culture, often losing aspects of one’s own culture in the process. Often failure to
assimilate may lead to marginalization. Psychologists argue that integration, rather than
assimilation, is important for the mental health of immigrants, where they would become
bicultural, being able to function in both the new culture and their original culture.
Assimilation often leads to acculturative stress which can have a negative effect on
mental health.
Lueck and Wilson carried out a set of semi-structured interviews to study the factors that
increased acculturative stress in a large sample of Asian immigrants and Asian
Americans. The interviews were conducted either online or face-to-face. The interviews
measured the level of acculturative stress, language proficiency, strength of family ties,
and socioeconomic status.
70% of the sample said that they experienced acculturative stress. The researchers found
that being bilingual resulted in lower acculturative stress. Higher levels of stress were
found in Asians who did not know their native language well enough to discuss important
issues with family members or members of the community. Although bilingualism is a
predictor of low acculturative stress, the preference for speaking English only is a
predictor of high acculturative stress.
This study shows that Asian immigrants who had assimilated experienced higher levels
of stress. They had adopted the language of the majority culture and “lost” their ability to
communicate in their mother tongue. Those that had integrated experienced less
stress. Asians who are able to use both languages equally with their friends are able to
build up networks of support within and outside their community. This is an important
protective factor against stress. This study indicates that assimilation may be a less
healthy approach to acculturation than integration.