Physics Notes

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Physics Notes

Calculating volume
 When calculating the volume of a regular block of
material, we measure the lengths of the sides by
ruler or metre rule.
 When talking about a block of material, regular
means that the faces of the object meet at right
angles to each other.

4mm

6mm
10mm
The volume of the block= 10mm x 6mm x 4mm
=240mm^3
 If the shape of the material is irregular, then we work
out the volume using the displacement method which
means that you put object in the cylinder water and
then the volume of water will increase. So, you can
measure it easily.
 Density means mass per unit volume
Formulas and equations of density, mass and volume
Density= mass/volume
Mass= density multiply by volume
Volume= mass/density
If mass is in g and volume is in cm^3 then the density will
be in g/cm^3.
If mass is in kg and volume is in m^3 then the density will
Be in kg/m^3.
Using the example of the Using the example of the
block of iron polystyrene
Volume= 1cm multiply 1 Volume= 1 cm multiply 1
cm multiply 1 cm cm multiply 1 cm
Mass= 7.9g Mass= 0.05g
Density=7.9/1 Density=0.05/1
=7.9g/cm^3 =0.005g/cm^3
Density of iron= 7.9g/cm^3 Density of iron=
0.005g/cm^3
 Gases have lower densities than liquids or solids
because the particles in a gas are far apart.
 A material get packed closer together, the density of
the material increases. So, the materials with the
highest densities are all solid.
 If something is more dense than water it will sink in
water.
 If something is less dense than water, it will float in
water.
Density of water=1.0g/cm^3
How do the ship float in water?
 Ships are not solid blocks of steel. There are large
spaces inside ships that contain only air.
 That means the ship has a very large volume, so
the average density of the whole ship is less than
density of water.
 It depends on the ship masses or density such as;
cargo, passengers and fuel.
Questions
1. Look at the densities of these materials:
 Pine wood 0.41g/cm^3
 Polycarbonate 1.2g/cm^3
 Polyethene 0.95g/cm^3
 Water 1.0g/cm^3
(a) Which of these materials has the lowest
density?
Pinewood
(b) (i)Which of these materials will sink in
water?
Polycarbonate
(ii)Explain why the material will sink in
water.
The density of polycarbonate is greater
than that of water
2. (a)Copy and completer the equation for density
Density=mass/volume
(b)A block of aluminium has a volume of 5.0cm^3
and mass of 13.5g. Calculate the density of the
aluminium. Give your answer in g/cm^3?
Density=mass/volume
=13.5g/5cm^3
=2.7g/cm^3
(c)Explain whether the block of aluminium will
float or sink in water.
The block of aluminium will sink in water because
the density of aluminium is greater than that of
water.
3, The diagram shows a block of wood
(a) Calculate the volume of the block of wood.
Give your answer in cm^3.
Volume of block= L multiply b multiply h
=6cm multiply 3cm multiply
4cm
=72cm^3
(b) The block of wood in the diagram has a mass
of 54g.
Calculate the density of the wood. Give your
answer in g/cm^3
Density=mass/volume
=54g/72cm^3
=0.75g/cm^3
(c) Explain whether the block of wood will float
or sink in water.
The block of wood will float in water because
the density of wood is less than the density
of water.
4. Water from the sea is placed in a tank. The
volume of the water from the sea is 10m^3.
The mass of the water is 10300kg
(a) Calculate the density of the water from
the sea. Give your answer in kg/m^3
Density=mass/volume
=10300kg/10m^3
=1030kg/m^3
(b)Pure water that has a density of
1000kg/m^3. Explain what will happen to
a block of material with a density of 1030
kg/m^3 when placed into
(i) water from the sea
The material will float because its density
is less than that of sea water.
(ii) pure water
The material will sink because its density is
greater than that of pure water.
5. Copper has a density of 8.96 g/cm^3.
(a) Calculate the mass of copper that has a
volume of 20cm^3
Density=mass/volume
Mass=density multiply volume
= 8.96 multiply 20
=179.2g
(b)Calculate the volume of copper that has
a mass of 4.5g
Density= mass/volume
Volume=mass/density
=4.5/8.96
=0.50cm^3
6.(a) The volume of the toy car=78-50
=28cm^3
(b)density=mass/volume
=84/28
=3g/cm^3
(c)Any two from:
 Plastic is less dense than steel
 The result from part b is the average
density of all the materials
 The toy is hollow or contains air
3.1
Focus
1. Gas
2. B
3. R
4. The density of a solid block should be less than the
density of water.
3.1B
1. The mass of a certain volume of substance
2.density=mass/volume
3.a.A 10g mass of water that has a volume of 10cm^3
Density=mass/volume
=10/10
=1g/cm^3
b. A 170g mass of brass that has a volume of 20cm^3
density=mass/volume
=170/20
=8.5g/cm^3
c. density=mass/volume
=56/100
=0.56g/cm^3
0.56g/cm^3
4.a. Calculate the volume of the cube
Volume of block=L multiply b multiply h
=2cm multiply 2cm multiply 2cm
=8cm^3
b. density=mass/volume
=71.2/8
=8.9g/cm^3
Liquids of different density
When liquids are added together carefully, the less
dense liquids will float on the more dense liquids. The
liquids will form separate layers. Crude oil is less dense
than water. So, when crude oil spills out of ships, the
oil floats on the water. Oil spilling from ships is a major
source of water pollution.

Gases and liquid


The particles in a gas are much further apart than in a
liquid. The water in the drops is more dense than air.
The gas in some drinks is carbon dioxide.

Gases of different density


Gases have lower densities than solids or liquids, but
not all gases have the same density. Helium gas is one
of the least dense gas. Helium is sometimes used to fill
balloons
 A balloon filled with helium will float in air
because the balloon and gas is less dense than the
air.
 Hydrogen gas is even less dense than helium, but
not used to fill balloons because hydrogen forms,
an explosive mixture with air.
 Solids and liquids are very difficult to compress
because their particles are already in contact.
 Gases are easy to compress because their particles
are far apart.
 When a gas is compressed, the same number of
particles is in a smaller volume, so the density of
the gas increases.
 Heat causes a gas to expand.
 That explains why a hot air balloon can float
because the hot air inside the balloon is less dense
than the colder air inside
Heat
 Heat is a measure of the energy in the particles.
 Heat is the total thermal energy of the vibrating
particles.
 Heat is the flow of thermal energy.
 Heat is the total thermal energy of the vibrating
particles.
Thermal Energy
 Thermal means relating to or caused by heat or by
temperature. It also relates to the total sum of the
kinetic energy of its atoms and molecules.
 Thermal energy can be transferred between
objects and can store in an object but it will
eventually dissipate.
 Thermal energy and heat is measured in joules (J).
 Thermal energy happens when the atoms
and molecules are vibrating faster in the
substance due to a rise in temperature.
Temperature
Temperature gives us information about two things:
 The direction that thermal energy will be
transferred.
 The average energy of the particles in an object.
Example
Ice cream temperature=-20C
room temperature=24C
temperature difference= 24-(-20)=24+20=44C
Thermal energy is transferred from the air to the ice cream
because of the temperature difference.
▪ Thermal energy transfer from higher temperature to lower
temperature.
▪ The larger a temperature difference, the faster the
thermal energy transfer
Higher Temperature(Thermal Energy) Lower Temperature
Heat and temperature in a sparkler
The temperature of sparkler is about 1000C. Why doesn’t
one spark can cause serious burns?
 As the mass of the spark is very small, the total thermal
energy or heat of the spark is very small.
 As the temperature difference between the air and the
spark is very large, thermal energy transfer from spark
to the air quickly.
How low can you go?
 As the temperature of an object decreases, the
particles move more slowly.
 Kelvin, a scientist, predicted that particles would
eventually stop moving if the temperature is low
enough.
 This temperature is called absolute zero
temperature.
Absolute zero= -273C
Absolute zero= -273+273= 0 K
Unit 3.3
Energy is conserved
When energy is conserved, the total quantity of
energy stays the same. This happens when energy is
stored, changed, transferred or even dissipated.
The total energy output can never be greater than
the total energy input in any type of a system. This is
because energy cannot be created. Wasted energy,
such as thermal energy, is dissipated.
Dissipated means this energy spreads out into the
surroundings and become less useful. Although this
energy is dissipated, it is not destroyed.
The law of conservation of energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
changed from one form to another.

Unit 3.4
Feeling heat
Hotter means at a higher temperature.
Thermal energy moves from the drink, through the
container and into your hand.
Colder means at a lower temperature.
When thermal energy is removed from a hot object,
we say that the thermal energy has dissipated.
Feeling cold
Cold is not a type of energy.
Cold means there is less thermal energy.
When you hold the ice, thermal energy transfers
away from your hand and into the ice. You feel cold
because thermal energy has been transferred away
from your hands.
When it is colder outside and you open a window,
the inside cools down. This is because thermal
energy from the hotter inside moves to the colder
outside.

Dissipation
 Dissipation is used to describe energy that
spreads out and becomes less useful.
(Dissipated energy is the energy that spreads
out and become less useful.)
 When thermal energy moves from a hotter
place to a colder place, thermal energy has
dissipated from the hotter place. The rate, or
speed of thermal energy transfer increases
when the temperature difference between the
hot place and the cold place increases.
 Energy is always conserved, so the thermal
energy has not disappeared or been destroyed,
it has just spread out and moved to a colder
place.
Unit 3.5
Conduction
Conduction is the flow of thermal energy through
matter from places of higher temperature to
places of lower temperature without movement
of the matter as a whole.
Metals are the best conductors of heat.
Just as with electricity, the opposite of a
conductor is an insulator.
Clothes for cold weather are made from materials
that are good insulators. That slows down the
conduction of thermal energy away from the
body.
Conduction does not work well in liquids because
the particles move around more when heated,
rather than vibrating.
Conduction does not work well in gases because
the particles are far apart and the collisions are
not very frequent.
Convection
Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from
places of higher temperature to places of lower
temperature by movement of the fluid itself.

Since, density=mass/volume
From this equation, when volume increases and
mass stays the same, then density will decrease.
 Less dense substances float in more dense
substances.
 This upward movement of warmer liquid or gas
is called convection.
 The convection current causes all of the liquid
or gas to eventually become heated.
 Convection can happen in liquids and gases
because the particles are free to move.
 Convection cannot happen in a solid because
the particles are not free to move. The particles
in a solid can only vibrate about fixed positions.
 Convection cannot happen in a vacuum as there
are no particles to move.
Radiation
Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to
another by means of electromagnetic waves.
 Radiation is a type of wave that we cannot see.
It is also a different way for transferring the
thermal energy from the Sun to Earth.
 It can transfer quickly about nine minutes to
reach the Earth from the Sun.
 All objects give out thermal energy through
radiation
 The hotter the object, the more radiation it will
emit.
 The Sun and other hot objects emit thermal
energy by radiation.
 Cooler objects absorb thermal energy by
radiation from hotter ones.
 Radiation can pass through a vacuum because
radiation does not need particles. Radiation can
also pass through transparent solids, liquids and
gases.
 The colour and texture of an object affects its
ability to emit or absorb thermal energy by
radiation.
The best emitters and absorbers of radiation:
 are dull
 are black
 have a large surface area.
The worst emitters and absorbers of radiation:
 are shiny
 are white or silver
 have a small surface area
Shiny, white or silver surfaces reflect radiation away.
Unit 3.6
Boiling Evaporation
occurs at a fixed occurs at any
temperature temperature
occurs throughout the occurs on the surface of
liquid substance
bubbles are visible bubbles are not visible
fast process slow process
heat is supplied to a heat is absorbed by
substance by an energy substance from the
source surroundings

Evaporation
 The most energetic (highest energy) particles can
escape the surface of the liquid and become
particles of a gas.
 Medium energy particles can escape form the
liquid but get pulled back into the liquid.
 Lowest energy particles remain in the liquid.

Evaporation and cooling


 Temperature is a measure of the average energy
of the particles.
 For example, the particles in the water have
different energies. When the particles with the
highest energy escape from the water, this will
lower the average energy of the particles that
remain. Therefore, evaporation causes cooling.
 In very humid conditions, sweat may not be able
to evaporate. This can be dangerous, as body
temperature can increase without this cooling
effect.
 The water cooler is made from porous clay that
water can slowly soak through it.
Evaporation and cooling of other liquids
 Different liquids have different forces holding
the particles together.
 Some liquids have forces between particles that
are weaker than those in water and some are
stronger.
 Perfumes have weaker forces between the
particles. Perfumes are designed to evaporate
quickly and easily so that you can smell them.
 If you put equal volumes of perfume and water
at the same temperature on your skin, the
perfume will feel colder.
 Perfume evaporates faster than water, so
removes thermal energy faster.
 Liquid soap have stronger forces between the
particles.
 If you put equal volumes of liquid soap and
water at the same temperature on your skin,
the water will feel colder.
 Water evaporates faster than liquid soap, so
removes thermal energy faster.
Unit 6.1
What are waves?
Waves are a way of transferring energy from place
to place.
▪ Mechanical waves are produced by a
disturbance, such as a vibrating object, in a
material medium and are transmitted by the
particles of the medium vibrating about a fixed
position.
▪ Mechanical waves can be seen or felt.
▪ Mechanical waves require a material medium for
travel.
Electromagnetic waves: radio waves, microwaves,
infrared, light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays.
Types of wave
There are two types of waves.
(1) Transverse wave
(2) Longitudinal wave
A slinky spring can be used to demonstrate the
propagation of transverse and longitudinal waves.
Transverse wave
A wave in which the vibration of the particles in
the medium is at right angles (perpendicular) to
the direction of the propagation of the wave.
Eg., water waves, electromagnetic waves and a
vibrating guitar string when plucked.
Longitudinal wave
A wave in which the vibration of particles in the
medium is along (parallel to) the direction of the
propagation of the wave
Eg., sound waves and seismic P-waves.
6. Wavelength
The wavelength of a wave is the distance between
two successive crests (peaks) or troughs.
It is represented by the Greek letter (‘lamda’)
Amplitude(a)
The amplitude (a) is the height of a crest or the
depth of a trough measured from the undisturbed
position of what is carrying the wave.
Frequency (f)
The frequency (f) is the the number of complete
waves generated per second. The unit of
frequency is hertz (Hz) or per second (/s).
Wave speed (v)
The wave speed (v) of the wave is the distance
moved in the direction of travel of the wave by a
crest or any point on the wave in 1 second.
 The unit of wave speed is metre per second
(m/s).
Properties of sound wave
 Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
 Sound waves need a material medium to
travel through.
 Sound waves can travel through solids,
liquids and gases.
 Sound waves can be diffracted.
Amplitude
The maximum distance the particles move,
wither forward or backward in a sound wave, is
called the amplitude.
We can measure the amplitude in two ways:
(1) The amplitude is the distance from zero to
the top, or peak, of the graph.
(2) The amplitude is the distance from zero to
the bottom, or trough, of a graph.
 Sound wave can be displayed by using
oscilloscope.
Unit 6.2
Interference
Interference or superposition is the
combination of waves to give a larger or
smaller wave.
 Interference can only happen when the
waves are of the same type. Sound waves
can interfere with each other.
 Sound waves cannot interfere with water
waves.
 Interference is easiest to detect when the
waves have the same frequency and the
same amplitude.
Interference can produce two effects:
 The waves can reinforce or
 the waves can cancel each other.
Waves that reinforce
 The word reinforce means to make
stronger.
 Waves of large amplitude than either
of the individual waves.
 Waves will reinforce, when they meet
with the peaks together and with the
troughs together.
Waves that cancel
 Waves will cancel when they meet
with the peaks and troughs
together.
 The word cancel in the context of
waves means adding together to
make zero.

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