MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

Definitions and Classifications:

Vibrations:

• Fluctuations (small oscillatory motion) of a mechanical system about an

equilibrium position.
• In order for vibrations to occur there should be a force (restoring force)
or a moment that brings the system back to the equilibrium position.

x(t)

M g

Fs
x
m
Fs

Restoring force is the spring Restoring force is gravity

g
• Not every weight has a restoring effect. For
instance, the weight of the system below does not
K have restoring force. The restoring effect comes from
the spring.
M

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 • Vibrations occur when a mechanical system is disturbed from its
equilibrium position.
• Uncontrolled vibrations can lead to catastrophic results:
o Failure: Large stresses, failures.
o Loss of Control: A vibrating helicopter blade cannot be controlled
which may result in a crash.
o Noise: A vibrating part sets air to vibrate (noise) and the noise
level may be successive.
o Malfunctioning: Vibration of machine tools results in improper
machining.
• Vibrations can also be utilized to good effect: Vibratory conveyors, road
cylinders, automobile suspensions etc.
• Whatever the case : VIBRATIONS NEED TO BE CONTROLLED.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF VIBRATIONS

A. Based on the model:

• Discrete Systems:
The restoring effect on mass in motion is represented by different elements.
Such systems have a finite number of d.o.f and the resulting motion is
governed by ordinary differential equations.

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 (Lumped parameter systems)

g M
x
K
K

M
θ

1-dof discrete systems 1-dof discrete systems

x1 x2

k1 k2
M1 M2

2-d.o.f discrete systems

x,θ, x1 and x2: Generalized coordinates.

• Distributed (Continuous) Systems:

The vibrating system has infinite d.o.f. and the resulting motion is governed
by partial differential equations.

In this course, we will deal with single d.o.f discrete systems.

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 B. Based on Forcing

• Free Vibrations:
Vibrations that occur due to an external excitation which is applied initially
but then removed. (Vibrations are excited by initial conditions)
x0

Pull to x0 and release

k1
∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

𝑚𝑥̈ = −𝑘𝑥
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
..x
F=kx IC: 𝑥 (0) = 𝑥0
M 𝑥̇ (0) = 0

• Forced Vibrations:
k Fosin(ωt)
M 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)

With initial conditions either equal to or not equal to zero:

C. Based on the Behavior of Vibratory Response:

• Steady State Vibration:

Vibratory motion repeats itself exactly in each successive cycle with a certain
period.

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Period: Time interval for one cycle

Frequency: Number of cycles per unit time (1/s or rad/sec)

• Transient Vibration:
Vibratory motion that is changing in character (no periodic motion).

Typically, when a periodic force is applied to a mechanical system the resulting

motion (vibratory) will be transient initially, and then steady state vibration
will occur when transient vibrations die out.

D. Based on Linearity:

• Linear Systems:
Linear differential equations

• Non-linear Systems:
Non-linear differential equations are, most of the time, very difficult to deal
with.

In this class, we will deal with linear systems.

E. Based on the analysis method:

• Deterministic Vibrations:
Parameters and forcing is known at any instant time.

• Random Vibrations:
Averages and deviations of some parameters and forcing are known. Statistical
methods are employed.

In this class, we will deal with Deterministic Vibrations.

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 ELEMENTS OF A VIBRATING SYSTEM
• Mechanical vibrations occur if we have
o Elastic or gravity field that provides restoring effect (P.E. storing
element)
o Mass in motion (K.E. storing elements)

and during vibration continuous exchange of energy between PE & KE forms

occur:

x Spring (k): PE storing element

k
M Mass (m): KE storage element

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ∆𝑇 + ∆𝑉𝑒 = 0
(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑉𝑒2 − 𝑉𝑒1 ) = 0 𝑇1 + 𝑉𝑒1 = 𝑇2 + 𝑉𝑒2

• Sometimes energy dissipation effects (due to friction) may be present.

Representing this effect by a viscous damper (Energy Dissipator)
k
x A typical model of a single degree of
F(t) freedom system.
M

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Elements of a single degree of freedom vibrating system

o Mass: m (KE storage element)

o Spring: k (PE storage element)
o Damper: c (Energy storage element)
o Forcing: F(t) (External forcing)

This chapter deals with representing any vibrational system by such a single
degree of freedom model. Note that the actual system may not contain a
spring in the sense of a machine element but has other means of storing PE &
providing a restoring effect (e.g. gravity). It will thus have the equivalent spring
constant: ‘k’

ELEMENTS STORING POTENTIAL ENERGY

• The term ‘spring’ may or may not indicate the machine element spring.
• It may represent other forms of energy storage like:
o Gravity
o Deformation under the action of forces (even friction)
• Whatever the underlying mechanism is, potential energy storage is
represented by an equivalent spring of stiffness (spring constant) ‘k’.
• An ideal spring is a pure PE storage element with no mass and energy
dissipation.

F F
(Tensile) x:spring deformation

Tensile: x= L-Lf
Lf x
Compressive: x=Lf-L
F F L: current length
(Compressive)
x Lf: free length

Lf

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Linear Spring in Translation Motion:

F
k x k
F
x

F=kx (N) PE=(1/2)kx2 (J)

Work done on the spring as x changes from x1 to x2.

𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1
𝑈1−2 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥2 2 − 𝑘𝑥1 2 = (𝑃𝐸 )2 − (𝑃𝐸 )1
𝑥1 𝑥1 2 2

Potential energy change is the work done on the spring →Conservative

• Gravitational force field is also conservative:

m g
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 𝑈1−2 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = (𝑃𝐸)2 − (𝑃𝐸)1
x

Torsional Springs

kt T kt T
A B
T T

𝜃 = 𝜃𝐴 − 𝜃𝐵 : Amount of twist (relative angular displacement of two ends)

T=ktθ (Nm) PE=(1/2)kt𝜃 2 (J)

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Functional Springs:
GD4
𝑘= D: Wire thickness (m)
64𝑟 3 𝑁

r: Coil radius (m)

G: Shear Modulus (N/m2)

N: Number of active coils

D
r

Springs in Parallel:

x x
k1

k2
F
M F M
k3 keş

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Springs in Series:

x x
x1 x2

M M
k1 k2 k3 keş

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Structural Elements as Springs:

• These are elements storing PE due to elastic deformations.

• Elastic properties are generally distributed along the geometry involved,
it is, therefore, necessary to lump distributed elastic properties into an
ideal spring of stiffness ‘k’.

Axial Vibrations of a Bar

• Consider axial deformations of a bar:

x
F k=?
M F
M
Massless: E,A,L

E: Young’s Modulus (N/m2), A: Cross Sectional Area (m2), L: Length (m)

• It is assumed that during axial vibrations, displacements of various points

along the beam are related to each other like the way axial deflections
of these points are related to each other under static loading.
• This assumption is valid for zero beam mass, otherwise it is an
approximation.
• Based on the assumption above (static deflection varies linearly from
zero at fixed end to x at the free end)

L/2
F

w(L)=x
w(0)=0 w(L/2)=w(L)/2=x/2

• The expression for the axial stiffness of the beam can be calculated as:
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 𝐹 𝑥 𝐹 𝑥 𝐹 𝐸𝐴
𝜎= 𝜖= 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 =𝐸 =𝑘=
𝐴 𝐿 𝐴 𝐿 𝑥 𝐿

x(t): Vibratory motion of the end of the beam in axial direction

Transverse Vibrations of a Beam

k=?
M x
M
Masless, E,I,L F F

Assuming that beam transverse vibration shape is similar to static deflection

curve shape as below:

x(t)
x(t)

Therefore, static using the static deflection formula

E,I,L 𝐹𝐿3 𝐹 𝐹 3𝐸𝐼

𝛿= 𝑘= = =
3𝐸𝐼 𝑥 𝛿 𝐿3
d

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 • Find the expression for ‘k’?

a
F
m k=?

E,I,L
x
M
F

Based on the assumption of vibration behavior being similar to static

deflection curve:

Deflection under static loading

• Note that if the beam had considerable mass and the beam excited at
the correct frequency range shape of vibration behavior will be looking
as the vibration of strings.

Static deflection formula:

𝑎2 (𝐿−𝑎)2 𝐹 3𝐸𝐼𝐿
𝑤(𝑎) = 𝑘= =
3𝐸𝐼𝐿 𝛿 𝑎2 (𝐿−𝑎)2

Torsional Vibrations of a Beam

Id=Moment of Inertia
T(t)
J=Polar moment of Inertia
θ
G:Shear Modulus
Id
L: Length
G,J,L
𝑇𝐿 𝐺𝐽
(massless) 𝜃= 𝑘𝑡 = (Nm/rad)
𝐺𝐽 𝐿

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Example:

Find the value of keq?

2m 1m
k
keq
M
M
x

E=210 GPa I=5×10-4 m4 k=1×108 N/m

Example:

AB: Steel shaft with Aluminum Core

BC: Hollow steel shaft

r1=20 mm, r2= 25 mm, r3=18 mm, r4=30 mm, Gst=80 GPa, GAl=40 GPa

Find kt eq=? (Equivalent torsional spring constant)

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 30 cm 20 cm
r4
r1 r2 r3

A
B C

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 Inertia Effects of Springs

• If spring (functional or structural) has mass, one can ‘lump’

distributed inertial properties into an ideal mass.
• This requires an assumption, same as lumping properties (that
vibration shape is similar to static deflection curve)
• Note that if spring has mass, error involved in the above
assumption increase.

Consider:
x x
k,ms k
M Meq

(𝐾𝐸)𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = (𝐾𝐸)𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

• To be able to calculate the KE of the original system we need to

assume a profile with which velocities of various points along the
length of the spring are related to each other.
• This relation is assumed to be similar to the relation of static
deflection of various points along the length of the spring.

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 dm dm
z dz x v(z)

A v(z) B z dz

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Similarly;

x x
A
O B
F
M Meş
keş
E,A,L,mb
𝐸𝐴
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = , 𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑏 /3
𝐿

Id I eq

G,J,L, Is kt eq

𝐺𝐽 𝐼𝑠
𝑘𝑡𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑 +
𝐿 3
Is=Mass moment of inertia of the shaft (kgm2)

Example:
Consider transverse vibrations of a cantilever beam:

keq=?
M x
Meq=?
Mb, E,I,L F
F

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 mb mb mb
x x x
L/2 L/2
L/2 L/2
𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 0.37𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 0.49𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 0.24𝑚𝑏

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 2L/3 L/3 mb Ib q
x

mb x
𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 0.586𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 𝑚𝑏 /3 𝐼𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑏 /3

Viscous Dampers:
• When a component of a mechanical system is in contact with a fluid
“Viscous Friction” occurs as a result of shear stresses developed.
• Shear stresses resist the relative motion between the lubricated
contacting surfaces, represented by “Viscous Friction Force”

𝐹⃗𝑣 = −𝑐 𝑉
⃗⃗3/2
3 VB
3/2
⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑐𝑡 𝜔
𝑀 ⃗⃗
2
Wet or Oiled Surface

c: Viscous friction coefficient (Ns/m)

ct: Torsional viscous friction coefficient (Nms/rad)

• Since viscous friction force (or moment) is always opposite to

displacement it causes energy dissipation.
• Viscous friction may occur naturally due to lubricated contact surfaces.
• Sometimes viscous friction coefficients are introduced in a vibration
model to represent energy dissipation due to other mechanisms (e.g. dry
friction, internal (material hysteresis) damping); since the presence of
viscous friction coefficient leads to linear equation of motion. Other
forms of energy dissipation are much more complex to handle.
• Such an equivalent energy dissipation Viscous Damping.
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• The existence of viscous damping extracts energy from the system, thus
reducing the adverse effects of vibration. Therefore it is generally a
desirable feature.
• For this reason, a mechanical device called “Viscous Damping” or
“Dashpot” is often added to a system to provide viscous damping (Shock
absorbers of cars, door closing devices etc.)

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