Transfer RNAs, or tRNAs, are

CENTRAL DOGMA OF molecular "bridges" that connect

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY mRNA codons to the amino acids
they encode.
CENTRAL DOGMA is the process
Anticodon - which can bind to
by which the instructions in DNA
specific mRNA codons
are converted into a functional
product

1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer

of the structure of DNA.

DNA – RNA – mRNA – ribosome –

translation – Functional product
(gene expression) – proteins

REPLICATION
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSLATION

Helicase – unzips double helix

Replication fork – two separated
strands that will act as template
Leading strand – 3’- 5’
Lagging strand – 5’ – 3’ away from
the replication fork
Primase – produces RNA primer
acts as the starting point of DNA
synthesis
Ozaki fragments – Chunks of DNA
Exonuclease – strips away DNA
primers
Ligase – seals up the sequence of
DNA

RNA Polymerase - link nucleotides

to form an RNA strand from a DNA
strand Template
Transcription has three stages:
initiation, elongation, and
termination.
Promoter - RNA polymerase binds
to a sequence of DNA, found in
the beginning of the gene
Terminators - signal that the RNA
transcript is complete.
Introns - are chopped out in
splicing
Exons - remaining parts from
splicing
Polypeptide - chain of amino
acids.
Codons - instructions for building a
polypeptide
61 codons for amino acids
20 commonly found in proteins
AUG start codon
UAA, UAG stop codons
Genetic code - collection of codon-
amino acid relationships
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE o the parentals consist of Population
AND POPULATION GENETICS individuals having gametes similar -a group of sexually interbreeding
to the parents. individuals that inhabit, survive
*Chromosomes are the carrier of o the recombinants vary from and reproduce in a particular area
genes. what are received from the - individuals that share a common
*Types of chromosomes: parents but were created as a gene pool
o Sex chromosomes – determine result of the crossing over of Gene pool
the sex of an individual chromosomes. -the totality of genes in the
o Autosomes – non-sex reproductive gametes of a
chromosomes Extra-Nuclear Inheritance population
The term suggests inheritance - comprise the variety of genes
Sex-Linkage outside the nucleus. that can be transferred from one
*Happens in the sex chromosomes *This is also called cytoplasmic or generation to the other
*Chromosomes occur in pairs extra chromosomal inheritance. Genetic Composition of Animal
*It is found in most eukaryotes Population
*Different species have different and is commonly known to occur Genetic composition of animal
number of chromosomes. in cytoplasmic organelles such as populations is commonly
Horse=64, Ass=62, mitochondria and chloroplasts or described in terms of the gene
Cattle=60, Bison=60, from cellular parasites. frequencies for certain traits
Sheep=54, Goat=60, *Mitochondria with their prevailing in a particular group or
Pig=38, Rabbit=44, mitochondrial DNA from the groups of animals.
Human=46, Chicken=78, mother’s egg cell are *While individuals are
Duck=80, Turkey=80 incorporated into the zygote and characterized by their distinctive
(only one pair is sex chromosomes, passed to daughter cells, whereas genotypes, populations are
and the remaining chromosomes those from the sperm are not. characterized by the frequencies in
pairs were are autosomes) which the genes and genotypes
Mammals Maternal Influence occur in them.
o XX (homogametic) – female *With or without the genetic
o XY (heterogametic) – male materials in the cytoplasm, the
Avians female still plays a larger role than
o ZZ (homogametic) – male males.
o ZW (heterogametic) – female *This is because the mother forms
(Majority of the sex-linked a larger part of the environmental
inheritance are found in the X and factors as compared to the males Equilibrium Population
Z genes, and in the Y and W were The genetic composition of most
rare) Sex-limited Traits populations is in a constant change
Reciprocal crosses are genetically *Certain traits, such as lactation from generation to generation.
the same, except that the male (mammals) and egg laying (avian) *Such a population is said to be in
and female parents are exchanged. are affected by many genes but Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in
Examples of sex-linked are expressed in only one sex. recognition of the British
characteristics in farm animals are *Example: single gene effects, mathematician Hardy and the
hemophilia and color-blindness in such as cock-feathering or hen- German physician Weinberg who
some mammals; barring plumage feathering in chicken, are also independently formulated the
pattern and dwarfism in some limited in their phenotypic principle in 1908. The Hardy-
poultry species. expression to only one sex. Weinberg equilibrium states that
in an indefinitely large population
Autosomal-Linkage GENES IN POPULATIONS undergoing random mating, the
*The theory behind it is that Population Genetics deals with gene and genotypic frequencies
during the process, some of the gene and genotypic frequencies in will remain constant from
parts of the chromosomes get population and the prediction of generation to generation provided
exchanged such that they become these frequencies in subsequent that there are no selection,
linked, affecting the inheritance of generation. migration and mutation.
one another, contrary to the law *If no allele is dominant, gene *Gene and genotypic frequencies
of independent assortment. frequencies may be determined by remain constant if the following
simply counting the alleles conditions are met:
*Those appearing more frequently 1. The population is large.
*Genotypic frequency is the
are called the parentals and the 2. Individuals in the population are
proportion of total animals with a
other, which appears less mating at random.
particular genotype.
frequently, the recombinants.
3. There is no force acting to resulting in an entirely different The important forms of non-
change the gene frequency. phenotypic effect random mating are assortative,
Factors Affecting the Genetic disassortative mating and
Composition of a Population *If mutation occurs in the somatic inbreeding.
When a change in the gene cells, it is not heritable. o With assortative mating,
frequency of a gene for a *If it occurs in the germinal cells, it individuals that are more
particular trait in a population could be transmitted to the next phenotypically similar tend to
occurs, a corresponding change in generation. mate more often while with
the genetic composition of that Small mutations creep into disassortative mating, individuals
population follows. populations over time. Some are which are less phenotypically
Selection helpful, some harmful, and many similar tend to mate more often
A major contributor to the change are neutral but may be beneficial together than would be expected
in gene frequency or harmful later. Mutations by chance.
*Phenotype based process but the increase genetic variation in a o With inbreeding, individuals that
results affect the corresponding population. are related by descent tend to
genotype and the frequency of the mate more often than under
individual chosen Mixture of Populations random mating.
o Types: When individuals from
Natural Selection - “survival of the populations with different gene
fittest” frequencies for a particular trait
Takes place depending on the mate, their offspring will show a
fitness or inherent ability of the gene frequency that is different
animals within a population to from that of their parents.
survive and reproduce in a given
environment. Random Genetic Drift
Artificial Selection - Happens o It is a random statistical
when man intervenes fluctuation independent of natural
A set of rules made by man that selection that is sometimes
dictates which individuals would referred to as sampling of
be allowed to mate and thus inheritance.
survive and reproduce at a given
place and time. Small Population Size
Would result in change in the gene
frequency simply because of
chance variation. The extent by
which the change in the frequency
of an allele, say a, could deviate
from the expected frequency q is
inversely proportional to the size
of the population.
Migration
Movement of individuals from one Non-Random Mating
breeding population to another. o Because of certain physical,
*Most convenient and fastest way physiological or psychological
of creating changes in the gene factors, some individuals tend to
and genotypic frequency. mate more often together than
*Migration can remove genes from with some other individuals
populations, add genes to a
population, or create a small Population size
population with different gene Random events have a larger
ratios than the population it effect on smaller populations.
derives from. “Founder effect” -In the large population, allele
and polydactyly in the Amish. frequencies remain relatively
Example: importation, - most constant.
popular form of migration -In the small population, one allele
may become extinct in a few
Mutation generations.
Spontaneous change in the
biochemical structure of the gene