PHYSICS.

OLYMPIAD.CH
PHYSIK-OLYMPIADE
OLYMPIADES DE PHYSIQUE
OLIMPIADI DELLA FISICA
 b
ax2 + bx + c = a(x2 + x) + c
a
b b2 b2
= a(x2 + x + 2 ) + c
a 4a 4a
b 2 b2
= a(x + ) + c .
2a 4a2
 lR

dR
D

lO

L = 2
D = 50
dR = 9
lR = 1.8 45
dO = 1 lO

fP = 2.1 fO = 3
 1 : 10

lO
fP +fO = lR + 12 D+lO lO = fP +fO lR 1
2D =8

fP
M= fO = 70

4.25 16

⇡ 1.8
 s
l s⌧l s=0
s/l = ( ) ⇡
 d=2
b=6 l=8

x
x
b d h l ↵ x

↵
l
h
x
d

b
 (↵)nw = ( )

nw

d
b = (↵)h + x.
2

x
( )= .
l h

x ↵

✓ ◆
d ( )
b = ( ) h + (l h) ( )
2 nw

x
 (x) x x = !t t !
x=t

10 · 1 1000 · 1

0.01 · 1

c = 3 · 108 c = 300000000
10x
 v=3 · 1

~g s
 m
l(t)

2⇡R s

p
L= (2⇡R)2 + s2 .

↵
 ⇣ s ⌘
↵= .
2⇡R

FG FZ
FN

FN
FN FG

FZ
FG
FG R

a(t)
 gs
a=g (↵) = .
L

v0
l(t)

1
l(t) = v0 t + at2
2

⌧ ⌧
R = s = 20 v0 = 1 · 1

l(⌧ ) = 0
t
l(⌧ ) = 0 t=0

1
0 = v0 + a⌧
2
2v0
⌧=
a q
2v0
= (2⇡R)2 + s2
gs
s✓ ◆
2v0 R 2
= 2⇡ + 1.
g s

⌧ ⇡ 1.3
 r

(t)
l(t)
=0

(t) R r s l(t) L
v0 = 0 0 =0

'

'
 N ( ) mg? = 0
v2
N ( ) = mac = m .
R+r ( )
g?
N
ac

g? v

~
N

~
N mg?

v2
= g? ( ).
(R + r ( ))

✓ ◆
1 2 l
mv = mg? s r (1 ( )) .
2 L
 N ( ) mg? = 0
v2
N ( ) = mac = m .
R+r ( )

v2
= g? ( ) ) mv 2 = mg? ( ) (R + r ( ))
(R + r ( ))

✓ ◆
1 2 l
mv = mg? s r (1 ( ))
2 L
✓ ◆
2 l
mv = 2mg? s r (1 ( ))
L

✓ ◆
l
( ) (R + r ( )) = 2 s r (1 ( )) .
L

90
 R r
R 1 r/R
r/R

⇣ r ⌘ 2sl r
( ) 1+ ( ) = 2 (1 ( ))
R LR R
2sl
( )⇡
LR
( ) ( )

(t)
R = 10 r=2 s=2
l/L = 5
R r

⇡ 1.1 = 63
2⇥3=4
 ~a ~b ~a ~b
0 1 0 1
ax bx
~a · ~b = @ay A · @by A = ax bx + ay by + az bz .
az bz

'
~a ~b

~a · ~b = ax bx + ay by + az bz = |~a| · |~b| · (').

 ~c = ~a ~b

ax bx + ay by + az bz = |~a| · |~b| · (')

~c = ~a ~b

|~c|2 = |~a ~b|2 = (ax bx )2 + (ay by )2 + (az bz ) 2

= a2x + a2y + a2z + b2x + b2y + b2z 2ax bx 2ay by 2az bz
= |~a|2 + |~b|2 2 (ax bx + ay by + az bz ) .

|~c|2 = |~a|2 + |~b|2 2 · |~a| · |~b| · (').

|~c|2

ax bx + ay by + az bz = |~a| · |~b| · (').

⇤
 ' ~a
~b

~a · ~b a x bx + a y by + a z bz
(') = = .
~
|~a| · |b| |~a| · |~b|

~a
~b a~0

|a~0 | = |~a| · (')

~a ~b

|~a| · (') · |~b| = |a~0 | · |~b|

a~0 ~b ~a
~b
~a ~b

~a ~b ~c s

~a · ~a = |~a|2 = a2x + a2y + a2z

~a · ~b = ~b · ~a
⇣ ⌘
(s~a) · ~b = s · ~a · ~b
⇣ ⌘
~a · ~b + ~c = ~a · ~b + ~a · ~c.

~a, ~b 6= ~0 ~a · ~b = 0 ~a ~b

(~a · ~b) · ~c = ~a · (~b · ~c)

a b c
2 2 2
c =a +b 2ab ('),
' a b
 ~a ~b

~a ~b ~a ~b
0 1 0 1 0 1
ax bx a y bz a z by
~ @ A @ A @
~a ⇥ b = ay ⇥ by = az bx a x bz A
az bz a x by a y bx

~a ⇥ ~b ~a ~b ~a
~b ~a ~b ~a ⇥ ~b = ~0
~a ~b ~a ⇥ ~b
' ~a ~b |~a ⇥ ~b| = |~a| · |~b| · (')

~a ~b
~a ~b ~a ⇥ ~b

~a

~b

~a ⇥ ~b
 ⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘
~a · ~a ⇥ ~b = 0 ~b · ~a ⇥ ~b = 0 ~a ~b
~a ⇥ ~b
~a ~b
xy
2 2
(') = 1 (')
⇣ ⌘2
|~a| · |~b| · (') = |~a|2 · |~b|2 · 1 2
(')
⇣ ⌘2
= |~a|2 · |~b|2 |~a| · |~b| · (')
⇣ ⌘2
= |~a|2 · |~b|2 ~a · ~b .
⇣ ⌘2
|~a|2 · |~b|2 ~a · ~b = |~a ⇥ ~b|2
|~a ⇥ ~b| = |~a| · |~b| · (')

~a ~b ~c s

~a ⇥ ~a = 0
⇣ ⌘
~a ⇥ ~b = ~b ⇥ ~a
⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘
(s~a) ⇥ ~b = ~a ⇥ s~b = s · ~a ⇥ ~b
⇣ ⌘
~a ⇥ ~b + ~c = ~a ⇥ ~b + ~a ⇥ ~c
⇣ ⌘
~a + ~b ⇥ ~c = ~a ⇥ ~c + ~b ⇥ ~c

(~a ⇥ ~b) ⇥ ~c = ~a ⇥ (~b ⇥ ~c)

 f
f x0 f
f f (x0 )

f (x0 ) f (x0 + h) h>0

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) f (x0 + h) f (x0 )

= .
(x0 + h) x0 h

h 0 h!0
f x0 f 0 (x0 ) f x0

f x0
f x0
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = .
h!0 h

f
x (x0 ) f 0 (x0 ) f x
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) (x0 + h) x0
f t
f
f˙(t0 ) = (t0 )
t
f t0
 f 0 (x0 ) f
x0 f x0
f x0 x

f (x0 + x) ⇡ f (x0 ) + x · f 0 (x0 ),

f (x0 ) + x · f 0 (x0 ) x0 + h
 f (x) = x2 x0 = 1

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) (1 + h)2 12

f 0 (1) = f 0 (x0 ) = =
h!0 h h!0 h
1 + 2h + h2 1 2h + h2
= =
h!0 h h!0 h
= (2 + h) = 2.
h!0

f x0
f
f
f f0 = x
x f 0 (x) f x f0
f
 f (x) = x2
x x0 = 1

f (x + h) f (x) (x + h)2 x2
f 0 (x) = =
h!0 h h!0 h
2
x + 2hx + h 2 x 2 2hx + h2
= =
h!0 h h!0 h
= (2x + h) = 2x.
h!0

f (x) = x2 f 0 (x) = 2x

n f (x) = xn
f 0 (x) = n · xn 1 f (x) = x25 f 0 (x)= 25 · x24
g(x) = x g 0 (x) = 1
g(x) = x 1

s g f (x) = s · g(x)
f 0 (x) = s · g 0 (x)

g k f (x) = g(x) + k(x) f 0 (x) =

g 0 (x) + k 0 (x)
 f (x) = s · g(x)

f (x + h) f (x) s · g(x + h) s · g(x)

f 0 (x) = =
h!0 h h!0 h
✓ ◆
g(x + h) g(x) g(x + h) g(x)
= s· =s·
h!0 h h!0 h
= s · g 0 (x).

f (x) = g(x) + k(x)

f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) =
h!0 h
g(x + h) + k(x + h) (g(x) + k(x))
=
h!0 h
g(x + h) g(x) + k(x + h) k(x)
=
h!0 h
✓ ◆
g(x + h) g(x) k(x + h) k(x)
= +
h!0 h h
g(x + h) g(x) k(x + h) k(x)
= + = g 0 (x) + k 0 (x).
h!0 h h!0 h

f (x) = 3x4 2x2 g(x) = 3x4 k(x) =

2x2 f (x) = g(x) + k(x)
g 0 (x) = 3 · 4 · x3 = 12x3
k 0 (x) = ( 2) · 2 · x = 4x f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) + k 0 (x) =
12x3 4x

(g(x) · k(x))0 = g 0 (x)·

k 0 (x) g(x) = k(x) = x
 g k f (x) = g(x) · k(x)

f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · k(x) + g(x) · k 0 (x).

g(x)
g k f (x) = k(x)

g 0 (x) · k(x) g(x) · k 0 (x)

f 0 (x) = .
(k(x))2

f (x) = g(x) · k(x)

f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) =
h!0 h
g(x + h) · k(x + h) g(x) · k(x)
=
h!0 h
g(x + h) · k(x + h) g(x + h) · k(x) + g(x + h) · k(x) g(x) · k(x)
=
h!0 h
k(x) · (g(x + h) g(x)) + g(x + h) · (k(x + h) k(x))
=
h!0 h
k(x) · (g(x + h) g(x)) g(x + h) · (k(x + h) k(x))
= +
h!0 h h!0 h
g(x + h) g(x) k(x + h) k(x)
= k(x) · + g(x + h) ·
h!0 h h!0 h!0 h
= g 0 (x) · k(x) + g(x) · k 0 (x)

g(x)
f (x) = k(x)
g(x) = f (x) · k(x) g 0 (x) = f 0 (x) · k(x) + f (x) · k 0 (x)
g(x)
f 0 (x) f (x) = k(x)

g 0 (x) f (x) · k 0 (x)

f 0 (x) =
k(x)
g(x)
g 0 (x) k(x) · k 0 (x)
=
k(x)
0
g (x) · k(x) g(x) · k 0 (x)
= 2 .
(k(x))
 ⇤

x 1
f (x) = x+1 g(x) = x 1 k(x) =
g(x)
x+1 f (x) = k(x) g 0 (x) =1 k 0 (x) =1

g 0 (x) · k(x) g(x) · k 0 (x) 1 · (x + 1) (x 1) · 1 2

f 0 (x) = 2 = =
(k(x)) (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2

1 n
n f (x) = xn = x

(1)0 · xn 1 · (xn )0 0 · xn 1 · n · xn 1
f 0 (x) = n 2
=
(x ) x2n
1
= n · xn 1 2n
= n·x n 1
= n · n+1
x
(xn )0 = n·xn 1

f (x) = (x2 3x + 13)17 f (x) = u(v(x))

u(y) =y 17 v(x) = x2 3x + 13 f0
(x3 3x + 13)17

u v f (x) = u(v(x))

f 0 (x) = u0 (v(x)) · v 0 (x).

f
f0 = x
 f u(v) u(v) v
f0 = = = · = u0 (v) · v 0
x x v x

f (x) = u(v(x))

f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) =
h!0 h
u(v(x + h)) u(v(x))
=
h!0 h
✓ ◆
u(v(x + h)) u(v(x)) v(x + h) v(x)
= ·
h!0 v(x + h) v(x) h
u(v(x + h)) u(v(x)) v(x + h) v(x)
= ·
h!0 v(x + h) v(x) h!0 h
u(v(x + h)) u(v(x)) 0
= · v (x)
h!0 v(x + h) v(x)

ĥ = v(x + h) v(x) h!0 ĥ ! 0

v

u(v(x + h)) u(v(x)) u(v(x) + (v(x + h) v(x))) u(v(x))

=
h!0 v(x + h) v(x) h!0 v(x + h) v(x)
u(v(x) + ĥ) u(v(x))
= = u0 (v(x)).
ĥ!0 ĥ

f 0 (x) = u0 (v(x)) · v 0 (x) ⇤

f (x) = (x2 3x + 13)17 f (x) = u(v(x))

u(y) = y 17v(x) = x2 3x + 13 u v
u0 (y) = 17y 16 v 0 (x) = 2x 3 f 0 (x) = u0 (v(x)) · v 0 (x) =
17 · (x2 3x + 13)16 · (2x 3)
 f (x) = (x)
⇡
0 f 0 (0) ⇡ 1 2
f 0 ⇡2 = 0 ⇡
3⇡ 3⇡
f 0 (⇡) ⇡ 1 2 f0 2 =0

f 0 (x) = (x)

g(x) = (x) g 0 (x) = (x)

(x)
(x) =
(x)

360 2⇡ 180 ⇡ y

y y
· 2⇡ = ·⇡
360 180
 2 (x) + 2 (x) =1
0 (x) · (x) (x) · 0 (x)
0
(x) =
( (x))2
(x) · (x) (x) · ( (x))
= 2 (x)
2 (x) + 2 (x) 1
= 2 (x)
= 2 (x)
.

2 (x) + 2 (x) 2 (x)

0 2
(x) = 2 (x)
=1+ 2 (x)
=1+ (x).

0 1 2
(x) = 2 (x)
=1+ (x).

0
(x) = (x)
0
(x) = (x)
0 1 2
(x) = 2 (x)
=1+ (x)
 f (x) = (x2 ) + ( (x))2 g(x) = (x2 )

g 0 (x) = 0
(x2 ) · 2x = 2x · (x2 ).

k(x) = ( (x))2

k 0 (x) = 2 · (x) · 0
(x) = 2 (x) · (x).

f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) + k 0 (x) = 2x · (x2 ) + 2 (x) · (x).

f (x) = ax ,
a>0

f (x + h) f (x) ax+h ax
f 0 (x) = =
h!0 h h!0 h
x h x
✓ h ◆
a ·a a a 1 x
= = ·a
h!0 h h!0 h
✓ ◆
ah 1
= · ax
h!0 h

ah 1
h!0 h
x

a=2 3
h a=2
 h = 0.1 h = 0.01 h = 0.001
2h 1
h 0.717... 0.695... 0.693...
3h 1
h 1.161... 1.104... 1.099...

a = 2, 3

1 a=3 1 e 2<e<3

eh 1
=1
h!0 h

ex = ex .
x

ex ex
e = 2.7182...
e

eh 1
e e h!0 h =1
e h

eh 1
⇡ 1.
h
eh ⇡ 1 + h
1
e ⇡ (1 + h) h .
1
h!0 ⇡ = h= n
✓ ◆n
1
e= 1+ .
n!1 n

e e ⇤
 ax

(x) = e (x).

u= (x)

eu = e (x)
= x.

a>0 f (x) = ax
⇣ ⌘x
f (x) = ax = e (a)
=e (a)·x
.

⇣ ⌘x
f 0 (x) = e (a)·x
· (a) = e (a)
· (a) = ax · (a).

ax (a) · ax

(x)

1
(x) = .
x x

(x)
x=e

(x) (x)
1= x= e =e · (x) = x · (x).
x x x x

1
(x) = .
x x
⇤
 f (x) = 23x
f 0 (x) = 3 · (2) · 23x

f (x) = xr r
⇣ ⌘r
f (x) = xr = e (x) = e (x)·r
.

u(y) = ey v(x) = (x) · r f (x) = u(v(x))

1 xr
f 0 (x) = u0 (v(x)) · v 0 (x) = e (x)·r
·r· =r· = r · xr 1
.
x x

f (x) f 0 (x)
xr r · xr 1
ex ex
ax (a) · ax
1
(x) x
(x) (x)
(x) (x)
1 2 (x)
(x) 2 (x) =1+
 f 00 (x) f (x) f 0 (x)
f 000 (x)
f 00 (x) n f (n) (x)
(n 1) f (n 1) (x)

f (x) = ex

f 00 (x) = (f 0 (x)) = (ex ) = ex .

x x

g(x) = (x)

g 00 (x) = (g 0 (x)) = ( (x)) = (x).

x x

k(x) = 12 x2

k 00 (x) = (k 0 (x)) = (x) = 1.

x x

f x0 f x x0
f x0 x x0

f (x) ⇡ f (x0 ) + (x x0 ) · f 0 (x0 ) =: T1,f,x0 (x).

f x0
T2,f,x0 (x) x0 f (x0 )
f x0 T2,f,x0 (x)

1
T2,f,x0 (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) + f 00 (x0 )(x x0 ) 2 .
2

f T1,f,x0 T2,f,x0

Tn,f,x0 (x) n f
x0 n kn

(k)
Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (k) (x0 ).
 Tn,f,x0 (x)
n f x0

n
X 1 (k)
Tn,f,x0 (x) = f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ) k
k!
k=1
1
= f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) + f 00 (x0 )(x x0 ) 2
2
1 (n)
+ ... + f (x0 )(x x0 ) n
n!

n! = n · (n 1) · . . . · 2 · 1 0! = 1

5 f

f 5
 f (x) = ex x0 = 0 xe
x = ex f (n) (x) = ex
n f (n) (x0 ) = e0 = 1 n
n
X 1 k
Tn,f,0 (x) = 1 + x
k!
k=1

ex n 0

ex ⇡ 1 + x
x 0

f (x) = (x) x0 = 0 f 0 (x) = (x) f 0 (0) = 1

00
f (x) = (x) 00
f (0) = 0
1
T2,f,0 (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0)x + f 00 (0)x2 = x,
2
x 0

(x) ⇡ x.

f (x) = (x) x0 = 0 f (0) = (0) = 1

f 0 (x) = (x) f 0 (0) = (0) = 0 f 00 (x) = (x)
f 00 (0) = (0) = 1

1 x2
T2,f,0 (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0)x + f 00 (0)x2 = 1 ,
2 2
x 0

x2
(x) ⇡ 1 .
2

f
Tn,f,x0 f
f (x) = Tn,f,x0 (x) + O(|x x0 |n+1 ).
O(|x x0 |n+1 ) |x x0 |n+1
C>0 |x x0 |
|f (x) Tn,f,x0 (x)|  C · |x x0 |n+1 .

f 0 (x) = f (x).
f f0
f f (x) = ex
c2R f (x) = cex

f x=0
f 0 (x) = f (x), f (0) = 3,
f (x) = 3ex

c2R f0 > 0
f 0 (x) = cf (x), f (0) = f0 .

f (x) = f0 ecx .
 f 0 (x) = 1 + f (x)2 , f (0) = 0.

f (x) = (x)

f (0) f 0 (0) ↵>0 f0 2 R

f 00 (x) = ↵2 f (x), f (0) = f0 , f 0 (0) = 0.

f (x) = f0 (↵x).

↵>0

f 00 + 2↵f 0 + ↵2 f = 0.

↵t
f (x) = (b1 + b2 t)e ,

b1 b2
 f F
F
f (x) = F 0 (x) = (x).
x

1 3
f (x) = x2 F (x) = 3x F 0 (x) =
1
3 · 3 · x2 = x2 = f (x) F
G(x) = 13 x3 + 42 G0 (x) = f (x)
f F f c
F (x) + c f

(F (x) + c) = F (x) + 0 = F 0 (x) = f (x).

x x
F G f
c
G(x) = F (x) + c.
F G f F (x) G(x)

(F (x) G(x)) = F (x) G(x) = f (x) f (x) = 0.

x x x
F (x) G(x)

c
 f (x) F (x)
1
xr r 6= 1 r+1 · xr+1
1
x |x|
ex ex
ax
ax (a)
(x) (x)
(x) (x)

f F s
s·F s·f

f g F G
F +G f +g

f f
x

f a b ab
f a b
ˆ b
f (x) x
a

f x a
b x

ˆ b
f (x) x = A B + C.
a
 ´b
a
f (x) x

ˆ 2
f (x) x
1

f (x) = x
1 2 (2 1) 1 2

´2
1
x x
 2
1+2 3
ˆ
x x= · (2 1) = .
1 2 2

a>b ˆ b ˆ a
f (x) x = f (x) x.
a b
x x

a b c
ˆ c ˆ b ˆ c
f (x) x = f (x) x + f (x) x.
a a b

´b
a f (x) x f
[a, b] a = x0 < x 1 < . . . < x n 1 < xn = b
xk := xk xk 1 f (xk )
k = 1, . . . , n
n
X n
X
f (xk ) · (xk xk 1) = f (xk ) · xk .
k=1 k=1

a = x0 < x 1 < . . . < xn 1 < xn = b

n
ˆ b
f (x) x.
a
P
´
xk x
 f a

ˆ x
If,a (x) = f (t) t.
a

x
t If,a (x) t
b

ˆ b ˆ b
If,a (b) = f (t) t = f (x) x.
a a
 f (x) = x If,1 (x)
2 x
x x
1+x x2 1
ˆ ˆ
If,1 (x) = f (t) t = t t= · (x 1) = .
1 1 2 2
x2 1
If,1 (x) = 2 x
✓ ◆
0 x2 1
If,1 (x) = = x = f (x).
x 2

f a
If,a f
✓ˆ x ◆
0
If,a (x) = (If,a (x)) = f (t) t = f (x).
x x a

0 If,a (x + h) If,a (x)

If,a (x) = .
h!0 h
If,a (x + h) If,a (x)
ˆ x+h ˆ x ˆ x+h
If,a (x + h) If,a (x) = f (t) t f (t) t = f (t) t.
a a x
fh,min f x x+h
fh,max f x x+h
ˆ x+h
h · fh,min  f (t) t  h · fh,max .
x
 h
x+h
1
ˆ
fh,min  · f (t) t  fh,max .
h x

If,a (x + h) If,a (x)

fh,min   fh,max .
h
h!0 fh,min ! f (x) fh,max ! f (x)

If,a (x + h) If,a (x)

f (x)   f (x).
h!0 h

0 If,a (x + h) If,a (x)

If,a (x) = = f (x)
h!0 h
If,a f ⇤
 ˆ b
f (x) x = If,a (b).
a
F f
If,a (x) f (x) c

If,a (x) = F (x) + c.

F (b) F (a) = If,a (b) + c (If,a (a) + c) = If,a (b) If,a (a) = If,a (b),
ˆ a
If,a (a) = f (x) x = 0.
a

ˆ b
f (x) x = If,a (b) = F (b) F (a).
a

F (b) F (a)
[F (x)]ba = F (b) F (a)

ˆ 2
x x.
1
f (x) = x F (x) = 12 x2

2  2
1 2 1 2 1 2 3
ˆ
x x= x = ·2 ·1 = .
1 2 1 2 2 2
 ˆ 1
x2 x.
0

f (x) = x2 F (x) = 13 x3

1  1
1 3 1 3 1 3 1
ˆ
2
x x= x = ·1 ·0 = .
0 3 0 3 3 3

ˆ ⇡
(x) x.
0
(x) (x)
ˆ ⇡
(x) x = [ (x)]⇡0 = (⇡) ( (0)) = ( 1) + 1 = 2.
0

f
ˆ
f (x) x

´ f
f (x) x

f f
F f F0

x2
f (x) = e
 u v
f (x) = u(x) · v(x)

f 0 (x) = (u(x) · v(x)) = u0 (x) · v(x) + u(x) · v 0 (x).

x

ˆ
u(x) · v(x) = u0 (x) · v(x) + u(x) · v 0 (x) x
ˆ ˆ
= u (x) · v(x) x + u(x) · v 0 (x) x.
0

ˆ ˆ
u0 (x) · v(x) x = u(x) · v(x) u(x) · v 0 (x) x.

ex · x u(x) = ex v(x) = x

ex · x = u0 (x) · v(x).

ex · x
ˆ ˆ
x
e ·x x= u0 (x) · v(x) x
ˆ
= u(x) · v(x) u(x) · v 0 (x) x
ˆ
x
=e ·x ex · 1 x

= ex · x ex .

ex · x ex ex · x
 2 (x) u(x) = (x)
v(x) = (x) u0 (x) = (x)
2
(x) = u0 (x) · v(x).

ˆ ˆ
2
(x) x = u0 (x) · v(x) x
ˆ
= u(x) · v(x) u(x) · v 0 (x) x
ˆ
= (x) · (x) ( (x)) · (x) x
ˆ
2
= (x) · (x) + (x) x.

2 2
(x) = 1 (x)

ˆ ˆ
2 2
(x) x = (x) · (x) + (x) x
ˆ
2
= (x) · (x) + 1 (x) x
ˆ ˆ
2
= (x) · (x) + 1 x (x) x
ˆ
2
= (x) · (x) + x (x) x.

2 (x)
´
x
1
ˆ
2
(x) x = ·( (x) · (x) + x)
2
x (x) · (x)
= .
2 2

2 (x)
 (x)

(x) = 1 · (x).

u(x) = x v(x) = (x)

(x) = u0 (x) · v(x).

v 0 (x) = x1
ˆ ˆ ˆ
(x) x = 1 · (x) x = u0 (x) · v(x) x
ˆ
= u(x) · v(x) u(x) · v 0 (x) x
1
ˆ
= x · (x) x· x
x
ˆ
= x · (x) 1 x

= x · (x) x.

2
f (x) = 2x · ex .

f
f (x) = k 0 (x) · g 0 (k(x)),
k(x) = x2 g(y) = ey

f (x) = k 0 (x) · g 0 (k(x)) = g(k(x)).

x

2
F (x) = g(k(x)) = ex
 f

u v
U u U (v(x)) u(v(x)) ·
0
v (x) ˆ
u(v(x)) · v 0 (x) x = U (v(x)).

U (v(x)) u(v(x))·v 0 (x)

v
v(x) = ax + b.
u U u u(ax + b)

1
ˆ ˆ
u(ax + b) x = u(ax + b) · a x
a
1
= U (ax + b).
a

v
v x x
0 v
v (x) = x v 0 (x) x = v
ˆ ˆ
0
u(v(x)) · v (x) x = u(v) v = U (v(x)).

e3x 2

1 3x
ˆ
e3x 2
x= ·e 2
.
3
 (x)

(x) (x)
(x) = = .
(x) (x)
v
v(x) = (x) x = (x)

(x) x = v.

1
ˆ ˆ
(x) x = ·( (x)) x
v(x)
1
ˆ
= v= (|v|) = (| (x)|).
v

u v
a b

ˆ b ˆ v(b)
0
u(v(x)) · v (x) x = u(v) v.
a v(a)

ˆ ⇡
2
(x) · (x) x.
0

v(x) = (x).
v= (x) x
ˆ ⇡ ˆ ⇡
2 2
(x) · (x) x = v(x) · (x) x
0 0
ˆ v( ⇡2 )
= v v
v(0)
ˆ (⇡)
2
= v v
(0)
 2 1
v
=
2 0
1
= .
2

1
.
ex +1
v(x) = ex
v = ex x.

1 1
ˆ ˆ
x= · ex x
ex + 1 (ex )2 + ex
1
ˆ
= 2
· ex x
v(x) + v(x)
1
ˆ
= 2
v
v +v
 1 1 (v + 1) v
= =
v2 +v v(v + 1) v(v + 1)
v+1 v
=
v(v + 1) v(v + 1)
1 1
= .
v v+1

1
ˆ
v= (|v|) (|v + 1|).
v2 +v

1 1
ˆ ˆ
x
x= v
e +1 v2 +v
= (|ex |) (|ex + 1|)
= (ex ) (ex + 1)
=x (ex + 1).

x (ex + 1) x
1
ex +1

p
1 x2 .

x x(u) u

x(u) = (u)

p p
1 x2 = 1 2 (u) = (u).
x= (u)

x= (u) u.

ˆ p ˆ p
1 x2 x= 1 2 (u) ·( (u)) u
ˆ
= (u) · ( (u)) u
ˆ
2
= (u) u
✓ ◆
u (u) · (u)
=
2 2
2 (u)

p p
(u) = 1 2 (u) = 1 x2 .

u= ( (u)) = (x).

ˆ p ✓ ◆
u (u) · (u)
1 x2 x=
2 2
p !
(x) x· 1 x2
= .
2 2
p
1 x2
 C R3
C ⇢
V C m C
m = ⇢ · V.
⇢
C C1 , ..., Cn C1 [C2 [...[Cn =
C C1 , ..., Cn ⇢1 , ..., ⇢n
V1 , ..., Vn C
C1 , ..., Cn
n
X
m = ⇢1 · V1 + ... + ⇢n · Vn = ⇢k · V k .
k=1

⇢ ~x C ⇢ = ⇢(~x)
~x 2 C ⇢ R3 C C
C1 , ..., Cn C1 [ ... [ Cn = C
Ck ~xk 2 Ck k = 1, ..., n Vk
Ck m C
n
X
m⇡ ⇢(~xk ) · Vk
k=1

m C
˚
m= ⇢(~x) V (~x).
C

1
(x) = p .
x 1 x2
y= ( (y))
2 2
(x) + (x) = 1.
 P ˝

⇢ = ⇢(~x) f = f (~x)

y
dV (~x)

~x

V
⇢ V

˚
f (~x) V (~x)
C

f R3 R C ⇢ R3

V A
¨
f (~x) A(~x)
C

C ⇢ R2 f = f (~x) R2 R
C f
f
 f

x2 = 1

R
1 1

x2 = 1

p x x2 0
1 R

i2C i2 = 1
C i i
z2C

z = x + iy
 x, y 2 R i x z
<(z) (z) y z =(z)
(z)
y=0 z x=0 z

x y

iR

3i
z = 3 + 2i
2i
|z|
i
✓
R
i

z
(x, y) (|z| , ✓)

x = |z| (✓)
y = |z| (✓)

z
z x y |z|
z ✓ x
z = x + iy
= |z| (✓) + i |z| (✓)
= |z| ( (✓) + i (✓))
i✓
= |z| e

ei✓ = (✓) + i (✓)

(✓) (✓)

ei✓ = (✓) + i (✓)

i✓
e = ( ✓) + i ( ✓)
= (✓) i (✓)

ei✓ + e i✓
(✓) =
2
ei✓ e i✓
(✓) =
2i
 (2✓)
(2✓) ✓ 2✓

ei(2✓) = (2✓) +i · (2✓)

| {z } | {z }
<(e2i✓ ) =(e2i✓ )
⇣ ⌘2
ei(2✓) = ei✓
= ( (✓) + i (✓))2
2
= (✓) + 2i (✓) (✓) + i2 2
(✓)
2 2
= (✓) (✓) +i · 2 (✓) (✓)
| {z } | {z }
<(e2i✓ ) =(e2i✓ )

i2 = 1

(2✓) = 2 (✓) (✓)

2 2
(2✓) = (✓) (✓)

⇠(x, t)

⇠(x, t) = ⇠0 (kx !t)

⇣ ⌘
⇠(x, t) = ⇠0 < ei(kx !t)

⇠(x, t) x t ⇠0
 ⇠(x, t) = ⇠0 ei(kx !t)

⇠(x,t) 2 ⇠(x,t)
˙ t) ⌘
⇠(x, ¨ t) ⌘
⇠(x,
t t2
⇠(x, t)
 O

x
y z

t ~r(t)

0 1
x(t)
~r(t) = @ y(t) A
z(t)
 x(t) x t
O x x(t)
x(t)
x(t)
y z

P (t)
~v (t)
~r(t)

y(t)
O x

z(t)
x(t)

t
P (t)
O
P (t)

~r(t) t
t1 t2 ~r(t1 )
~r(t2 ) ~v

0 x 1
~r(t) ~r(t2 ) ~r(t1 ) @ t
~v (t) = = = y A.
t t2 t1 t
z
t

t
 ~v (t)

0 x(t)
1 01
t vx (t)
~r(t) B C @
~v (t) = =@ y(t)
t A= vy (t) A .
t z(t) vz (t)
t

q ~r(t)
2 2 2
v = |~v (t)| = vx + vy + vz

~a

0 vx (t)
1 0 1
2~ t ax (t)
~v (t) r(t) B C @
~a(t) = = =@ vy (t)
A= ay (t) A .
t t2 t
vz (t) az (t)
t

~a x
y z

x t0

x
y z
y z

t0
 x0 v0
t
t = t0
v0 t0 t = t0
v0

ˆt
v(t) = v0 + a(t0 ) t0
t0
ˆt
= v0 + a t0 = v0 + a(t t0 ).
t0

t0
t0 x ↵ @

x0

ˆt
x(t) = x0 + v(t0 ) t0
t0
ˆt
= x0 + v0 + a(t0 t0 ) t0
t0
1
= x0 + v0 (t t0 ) + a(t t0 ) 2 .
2

a
t0 = 0
v t
t vt ⇠ t2

v0
t0 t0 1
a v x

v v0 x
x0
t0 t t0 t t0 t
a v x

t0 t
v v0 t
x x0

~a(t)
~a(t)
~a(t)

x0 = 4
3
2
1
 g= 9.81 · 2

4 t = 0
v = gt = 9.81 · 2t

x 4
0

ˆt
x(t) = x0 + v(t0 ) t0
t0
ˆt
= x0 + v0 + at0 t0 , v0 = 0
t0
1 2
=4 9.81 · · t2 .
2
x(t) = 0
t

r
2·4
t= 2
⇡ 0.28
9.81 ·

2
g = 9.81 ·
 '(t)

v(t)

~r(t)

!t R (')
'(t)
O x
R (')
'0

R
'

x=R (')
y=R (').

'
!= t
'(t) = !t + '0
 x(t) R (!t + '0 )
vx = = = R! (!t + '0 )
t t
y(t) R (!t + '0 )
vy = = = R! (!t + '0 ).
t t
~r
|~r|

|~r|

~v

q p
|~v | = vx2 + vy2 = R! (!t + '0 )2 + (!t + '0 )2 = R!.

vx (t) R (!t + ')

ax = = = R! 2 (!t + ')
t t
vy (t) R (!t + ')
ay = = = R! 2 (!t + ').
t t

~r · ~a < 0

~a O

a = !2R
v2
=
R
v = !R
 t
~r(t) ~v (t)
~a(t)

~a(t)
~v (t)
~ak (t)
~a? (t)
~a? (t) ~v (t)
~ak (t) ~v (t)
~r(t)
~v (t)

~a(t)

~a? (t)
~ak (t)

~v (t)
 ~
F
m ~a = m
F~ F~

m
 ~v =
F~ F~AB F~BA
~v
~a
F~ = 0 , ~a = 0 F~AB = F~BA

F~tot = m~a

F~ F~
 (m~v )
= F~
t
m~v m

i
F~i,

X
F~i = F~ji + F~i,
j6=i

F~ji j 6= i i

0 1
X X X
F~ = F~i = @ F~ji + F~i, A .
i i j6=i

i j ~ji
F i j
 1 F~21 F~12 2
F~1, F~2,
F~32
F~31

F~13 F~23

3 F~3,

F~ji

i j j i
F~ji

X
F~ = F~i, .
i

i
2r
~i
t2
mi

X X 2r 2
P
~i i mi r
~i
F~ = F~i, = mi 2 =M
t t2 M
i i
P
M = i mi

P
~C = i mi r
~i
R .
M

~C
R
 ~
2R
C
F~ =M
t2

~C
R

~C
R
 m1 m2 r

Gm1 m2
F =
r2

G = 6.67 · 10 11 3· 1· 2
M

GM 2 1
g= ⇡ 9.81 · = 9.81 ·
r2

m M F = mg

~r M m
m

~r

M m M m
F~

M m

GM m GM m
F~ = ~e~r = ~r
|~r|2 |~r|3

~
r
~e~r = |~
r| ~r

e
q m
 x y z

m t=0
v ↵ ~v
~v

~v = (↵)v~ex
~v = (↵)v~ey

~r(t = 0) = ~0
t>0

vx = v0 (↵)

v~0
vy = v0 (↵)

↵
x

z z
z z(t) = 0

x
x x(t) = v t v = |~v |

y
t0 =
0 x0 = 0 v0 = v = |~v | a = g < 0 g > 0
 y
g 2
y(t) = v t + 2t

3
y
x x
x
t x t= v
y

✓ ◆2
g x g x v g 2
y(x) = v t(x) t(x)2 = v = x x
2 v 2 v v 2v 2

F~G

F~N

F~S
 F~N

F~M

F~?

F~G
F~k

F~G F~k F~?

F~m F~N
 µ

F~N

F~
F~f

F~G

F~ F~f
F~N = F~G

Fs = µ s FN
µs FN
FN = mg (↵) ↵

F < Fs F Fs
 Fd = µ d FN µd  µs

F = Fd
1
a= m (F Fd )

µr

p~ = m~v
 p~

ˆ t2
p~ = p~(t2 ) p~(t1 ) = F (t) t.
t1

F W

W =F s

s ·
· 1
2 W = Fs = 1 · 9.81 · 2 ·2 = 19.62

W = F~ · ~s
 F~ F~k
~s

F~ s?

~s F~
F~ k ~s W = F~k ~s = F~ · ~s

~s F~

W = F~ · ~s

~sˆ
+ ~s

W = F~ · ~s.
~s

x(t)
 z

F~e

F~

~r
F~e s

xy
F~

z
W (z) = |F~ |z
E (z = 0) E (z) = W (z) = |F~ |z

z
 m F~ = gm~ez
F~e = F~ s
W = |Fe |s = F~e · s~ez = F~
~ · s~ez > 0 xy
z
E

E = F~ · ~r = |F~ |z

~r

E
F~ = ~ez .
z

M m
F~~r
~r M m

~r0 E = 0

W m ~r0 ~r

ˆ~r
E (~r) = W (~r0 ! ~r) = F~ · ~s
~
r0

F~e = F
m

~r0 ~r ~r0 ~r

M ~r m
m
 E (~r0 ) = 0
M
~r0

~r E (~r)

M m
~r m
~r0 ~r

˛
W = F~e · ~s = 0

~r1 ~r2
~r2 ~r1

0 1
ˆ~r2 ˆ~r2 ˆ~r1
B C
E = F~ · ~s = F~ · ~s @ F~ · ~sA = E (~r2 ) E (~r1 ).
~
r1 ~
r0 ~
r0

~r0
 0 @ 1
@x
F~ (~r) = @ @
@y
AE (~r)
@
@z

@
x y z

t h = 12 gt2 mgh

Ekin = mgh
1
= mg 2 t2 , gt = v
2
1 1 p2
= mv 2 = pv =
2 2 2m
v
2
 W
P T W P = T

W
P (t) = .
t

t1 t2
T = t2 t1
N
N

N
P1 + P2 + P3 ... + PN 1 X Tj
P ⇡ = P (t1 + )
N N N
j=1
N
X Tj
P (t1 + N ) 1
= N
T
T
j=1
ˆt2
1
! P (t) t = P
T
t1
T
N ! t N
·
1 · = 3.6

40
40
40 · 3600 = 144000

7500 ·
 mi

X X1 X1 1
Erot = Ekin,i = vi2 mi = ! 2 ri2 mi = ! 2 I
2 2 2
i i i

P ! vi = !ri I =
2
i ri mi

M = 80 v = 10 ·
1 E = 12 M v 2 = 4000

m = 0.6 R = 0.5
v
I = mR2 = 0.15 · 2 ! = R = 20
1

E = 2 · 12 ! 2 I = 60 E = Ekin + Epot = 4060

~r
m L

L = rmv?

v? ~r r = |~r|

L = I!.
 ! ↵
360 2⇡

T
! = 2⇡/T

r?

!
 !
~

~v

r?

!
~
! = |~
!| !
~
!
~ ~v

~v

~ ⇥ ~r
~v = !

~r

!
~ '
~
!
~
ˆ
'
~= !
~ t+C
 C
'
~ !
~ '
~
l
'
~

l = |~
! ⇥ ~r|.

!
~
x y z

!y

!x
!z

0 1
!x
~ = @ !y A .
!
!z
 ~v
~a = t

!
~ 2'
~
↵
~= = .
t t2

~ ⇥ ~r
~a = ↵

~r
↵
~=

!
~ (t) = ↵t + !
~0
1 2
'
~ (t) = ↵ ~t + !~ 0t + '
~0
2
!
~0 '
~0 t=0
 ~x, ~v , ~a, F~
~x0 , ~v 0 , ~a0 , F~ 0

! m

~v =

F~ = m~a = m! 2~r

~a

~r m

F~ 0 = m! 2~r
 y0 ! x0
y0 x0 !
!

y0 s(t)
m s(t)
x0 m
~v m ~v ~v

t=0 t= t t=2 t

v t
x=v t
vr0 vt0

vr0 = v r(t)
vt0 = r(t)! s(t) = 'r(t) = !tvt
t
x(t) = 1/2at2
x(t) s(t) a

a0 = 2!v.
 ~a = ! ⇥ ~v
2~

F~ = m~a

a F

F0 = F
F0

m ⌃
⌃0 e~x e~y e~z ⌃
⌃0
~
R(t)
 m y0 x0

~r ~r0
y ⌃0

~
R(t)
z0
⌃
x

⌃ ⌃0
~
R(t)

~ + r~0 (t).
~r(t) = R(t)

~r(t) r~0 (t)

m
~r(t)
~v (t) = = ~r˙ (t)
t
~˙ ˙ ~ (t) + r~˙0 (t)
= R(t) + r~0 (t) = V
~ (t)
V
r~0 (t)
!
~ ⌃0

˙0 = ṙ0 e~0 + ṙ0 e~0 + ṙ0 ~e0 + r0 e~˙0 + r0 e~˙0 + r e~˙0

~r(t) x x y y z z x x y y z z
~0
= v (t) + ~u(t)

v~0 m ~u(t) = ! ⇥ r~0

~˙ +~v ˙
~a = ~v˙ = V ~ ⇥ r~0
˙ 0+!
 !
~v˙0 = a~0 + !
~ ⇥ v~0 ~v˙0 = !
~ ⇥ v~0 + ! ! ⇥ r~0 )
~ ⇥ (~

~ + 2~
~a = a~0 + A ! ⇥ v~0 + ! ! ⇥ r~0 ).
~ ⇥ (~

⌃ m~a = F~
⌃ 0
ma~0 = F~ + F~f F~f a~0

a~0 = ~a ~
A ! ⇥ v~0
2~ ! ⇥ r~0 ).
~ ⇥ (~
!

~a F~ = m~a
a~0 ~a

~
A
! ⇥ v~0
2~
! ⇥ r~0 )
~ ⇥ (~
!

⇤
 102 3
m
⇢ = mn n

N
X N
X
P~ = p~i = mi~vi
i=1 i=1

mi i ~vi
 N
X XN
~ri
P~ = mi = mi~ri = R ~CM
t t t
i=1 i=1

M
P~

P
~ mi r~i
RC = Pi .
i mi

~r V (~r) m(~r)

m(~r) = ⇢(~r) V (~r)

⇢(~r) ~r

´
~ C = ´V ~r m(~r)
R
m(~r)
´V
~r⇢(~r) V (~r)
= V´
V ⇢ V (~r)

V
 h h r(h)
h ⇢
m = ⇡⇢r(h)2 h
hC

ˆh2 ˆh2
1 1
hC = hdm = ⇡⇢ r(h)2 h h
M M
h1 h1

h1 h2

h
R
r(h) = h.
H
H

ˆh2
1
hC = ⇡⇢ r(h)2 h h
M
h1
ˆH ✓ ◆2
1 R
= ⇡⇢ h h h
M H
0
ˆH
1 R2
= ⇡⇢ 2 h3 h
M H
0
1 1 4 R2
= ⇡⇢ H
M H2 4
1 3 3
= MH = H
M4 4
 O

hC

H R

M = ⇢ 13 ⇡R2 H H = 12
9

m = F /a

v = r! r

r2
r2
I

ˆ
2
I=⇢ r? V
V
r?
 ~r
V 2
r?

r? = 0

r?

r? = R m=⇢ V

ˆ ˆ
2 2
I=⇢ r? V =R m = R2 M
V V

H R

h V = h· A
r
r

V = H2⇡r r
I = r2 ⇢ V.

3x3
 R

ˆ ˆ ˆR
I= I=⇢ r? V = ⇢H2⇡ r2 · r r
V
0
1 1
= 2⇡⇢H R4 = R2 M
4 2

M = ⇢H⇡R2 r
r? = r

h p
r(h) = R2 h2
I = 1/2⇡⇢r(h)4 h
 ˆR
1
ˆ
I= I= ⇡⇢r(h)4 h
2
R
ˆR
⇡
= ⇢ (R2 h2 ) 2 h
2
R
ˆR
⇡
= ⇢ R4 2R2 h2 + h4 h
2
R
✓ ◆
⇡ 4 5 2 5
= ⇢ 2R5 R + R
2 3 5
✓ ◆
⇡ 16 2 2 4 3 2
= ⇢ R5 = R ⇡ ⇢R = R2 M
2 15 5 3 5

M
 T~

+ T~ ) m(~r)
´
~C0 V (~
r
R = ´
V m(~ r)
(~r + T~ ) m(~r)
´ ´
V ~r m(~r)
= ´ + V ´
m(~r) m(~r)
´V ´ V
~r m(~r) ~ V m(~r)
= ´V +T´
V m(~ r) V m(~ r)
=R~ C + T~

~C
R
T~

I d
I0

d
 ˆ
0
I =⇢ (r? + d)2 V
ˆV
2
=⇢ (r? + 2r? d + d2 ) V
V ˆ
= I + d2 ⇢ V
V
= I + d2 M

2r? d

2 7
I = R2 M + R2 M = R2 M.
5 5

r? r?
N

3N
6

r2
r1

F F

r1 r2
W = F 2⇡r

M~ = ~r ⇥ F~
~ | = rF?
|M

~r F~
r F? ~r
~r ⇥ F~ F~ ⇥ ~r

~ri i F~i
Mi = ~ri ⇥ F~i
~

↵
~ I
~ = I↵
M ~.

I
F~ ~r

m(~r 0 ) ~r 0 F~ (~r 0 ) = m(~r 0 )~a = m(~r 0 )~r 0 ⇥ ↵

~
2⇡r1 6= 2⇡r2
 ↵
~ ~a
~r 0

M (~r 0 ) = ~r 0 ⇥ F~ (~r 0 ) = m(~r 0 )~r 0 ⇥ (~r 0 ⇥ ↵

~)
= m(~r 0 )~r 0 ⇥ (~r 0? ⇥ ↵
~)
2
= m(~r 0 )~r 0? ↵
~

~r 0?
↵
~ ~a ⇥ (~b ⇥ ~c) = (~a · ~c)~b (~a · ~b)~c
2
~r 0? 0
· ~r = ~r 0?

ˆ
~ = ~r ⇥ F~ =
M M (~r 0 ) m
ˆ
2
= ~r 0? ↵
~ m(~r 0 )
ˆ
2
~ ~r 0? m(~r 0 )
=↵

= I↵
~.

⇤
 ~ = ~r ⇥ p~
L
~r p~
~v k~
p

~
L ~r p~
= ⇥ p~ + ~r ⇥ = ~r ⇥ F~ = M
~.
t t t

P
N
~i
~ L
L i=1
=
t t
XN ~i
L
=
t
i=1
XN ✓ ◆
~ri p~i
= ⇥ p~i + ~ri ⇥
t t
i=1
XN
= ~i = M
M ~ .
i=1

~
L
~ = I~
L !
I !
~

~
L !
~
=I = I↵ ~
~ =M
t t
 m(~r) ~r E

1
E = mv 2
2
1 2 2
= mr? !
2
r? (~r)
!
ˆ
E = E
ˆV
1 2 2
= r? ! m
V 2ˆ
1 1
= !2 2
r? m = I! 2 .
2 V 2

I
!
1
E = I! 2
2
I
 m

v = r!

v = r! r

1 1
E = mv 2 = mr2 ! 2
2 2
1 11 2 2
E = I0 ! 2 = mr !
2 22
3 3
E = E + E = mr2 ! 2 = mv 2 .
4 4

I0

1 3
I = I0 + mr2 = mr2 + mr2 = mr2 .
2 4
 E =0
1 13 2 2
E = I! 2 = mr !
2 22
3 3
E = E + E = mr2 ! 2 = mv 2 .
4 4

m̃ = 32 m v = r!

m̃

2~
rC
m = m~aC = F~ .
t2

2'
~
I = I↵ ~
~ =M
t2

I
'
 r ~r '
~
v ~v ! !
~
a ~a ↵ ↵
~
m I
p = mv p~ = m~v L = I! ~ =!
L ~ ⇥ F~
F = ma F~ = m~a M = I↵ M~ = I↵
~
W = F~ ~r ~
´ ´
W =F r W =M ' W = M ' ~
P = F~ ~v ~ !
´ ´
P = Fv P = M! W = M ~
E = 12 mv 2 E = 12 m~v 2 E = 12 I! 2 E = 12 I~
!2

m1 ~r1
m1 m2
F~1!2 = G (~r1 ~r2 )
|r~1 r~2 |3

m2 ~r2
11 3 2 1
G = 6.67 · 10
 m1 m2
F =G
r2

F m1
m2 r

m1 m2 ~r1 ~r2 m2 m1

F~2!1 = F~1!2 ,

m
mi F~i m

mi m
F~i = G (~ri ~r) ,
|~ri ~r|3
~ri i mi ~r m
m

mA mB m mA m F~A
mA m F~B
 mB m mB m
m mA mB

F~A + F~B .

m
X X mi m
F~i = G (~ri ~r)
mi i
|~ri ~r|3
!
X mi
=m· G (~ri ~r) .
i
|~ri ~r|3

mi ~r
~g (~r) ~r

F~ = m ~g (~r) .

X mi
~g (~r) = G (~ri ~r) .
i
|~ri ~r|3

% (~r)
 ~r %
⌦

% (~r0 )
ˆ
~g (~r) = G ~r0 ~r V 0.
⌦ |~r0 ~r|3

⌦ @⌦ ~g
˛
~=
~g · A 4⇡Gm⌦ ,
@⌦
m⌦ ⌦

M R

r
~g
~g
 ~r

~g (~r) = g(r) r̂

g (~r) r̂
r<R V (r) r

@V (r) A
n̂ ~g · A n̂

ˆ
A ~g ( ) · n̂ ( )
@V ˆ
= A (g(r)r̂) · r̂
@V ˆ
= g(r) A
@V
= g(r) · @V (r)
2
= g(r) · 4⇡r ,

n̂ = r̂
˛
~ = 4⇡r2 · g(r),
~g · A
@V (r)

4⇡G mV (r) = M · (r/R)3

V (r)

M 3
4⇡r2 · g(r) = 4⇡G · r
R3
GM
, g(r) = r.
R3

r>R
mV (r) r
 M
4⇡r2 g(r) = 4⇡GM
GM
, g(r) = ,
r2
M

M R

4⇡ 3 M
~g (~r) = G⇢ r , ⇢ = 4⇡ 3
3 3 R
GM 3
= r r̂, 0 < r < R
R3
M

GM
~g (~r) = r̂, r > R.
r2

Mm
E = G
r

m M
r

r
~r r
~r0 r0
~r0 ~r ~r0 ~r
ˆ
W = m~g · ~s
 ~s
m~g
~s
~g · ~s = 0 W
~r0 ~r
~r0 ~r W
r0 r M W
~r0 ~r (r0 , 0, 0) (r, 0, 0)
r ✓ ◆
GM m
ˆ
W = + x̂ · ( x x̂)
x=r 0 x2
ˆ r
x
= GM m 2
0 x
✓x=r ◆
1 1
= GM m 0 ,
r r

M
m r0
r
✓ ◆
1 1
GM m .
r0 r

r0 ! 1
 1 mM
E = mv 2 G
2 r
m M

m1 m2

(m1~r1 + m2~r2 ) / (m1 + m2 )

E=E +E +E
1 1 m1 m2
= m1 v12 + m2 v22 G
2 2 r12
r12

~ = m1~r1 ⇥ ~v1 + m2~r2 ⇥ ~v2

L

E E
 m1 m2
E = G .
r12

m1 ~r1 m2
~r2 m1
~r1
m2 m1
m2 m1

m2 ~r2 m1
~r1 m2
m1
 <1

xy

⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2
+ =1
a b

p
r(#) =
1+" #
 a b p "

2a 2b
x y

p
p ( s, 0) (s, 0) s= a2 b2 a>b
(0, s) (0, s) s= b2 a2 b > a

x y
xy
p "

2"p/ 1 "2 , 0
x
x = p/"
r
x "
y p

~r = (r ') x̂ + (r ') ŷ,

 ~v = '˙ ((ṙ ' r ') x̂ + (ṙ '+r ') ŷ) .

~ = m~r ⇥ ~v = r2 '˙ ẑ
L

m
t
A '=! t ! = '˙
1
2 · r · r ' = !r2 t/2
!r2
A t

t t1 t2 = t1 + t

t2 t2
1 2 L L
ˆ ˆ ˆ
A= !r (t) t = t= · t,
[t1 , t2 ] t1 2 2m t1 2m

m R M
T

✓ ◆2
2⇡ mM
m R=G ,
T R2

R3 GM
=
T2 4⇡ 2 ,
17 4
⇠ 1023

NA

NA
NA ⇡ 6.022 ⇥ 1023 1

kb

kb ⇡ 1.380 ⇥ 10 23 1

k b R = kb · NA

n
N

Q
 U

mass number of particles

mass of one particle

Avogadro constant
density molar mass

molar volume amount of substance

volume

0
101.325
 273.15 0
<0

T[ ] + 273.15 = T [ ]

21
kb T 300 ) kb T = 4.1 ⇥ 10
1 = 1 ⇥ 10 21
 A B
TA TB
Teq
Teq TA
TB

TA < Teq < TB TA > Teq > TB ,

1 = 4.1868 ,

1
p=1 287.65 288.65

Q
T C

Q
C= , Q=C· T
T

Cm CM

1 Q
Cm =
m T

1 Q
CM = .
n T
 Cp
CV

R = Cp CV .

n T

V Q = nCV T V
p p+ p
T T+ T

V Q = nCp T V + V
p p
T T+ T
 pV = nRT,

pV = N kb T.

1
p / V V / T
V /n

U (p, V, T )
p V T

U = UE UA

Q W

dU = Q. + W .
 V T p
S N n Q
W

f
= kb T.
2
n
f f
U = nNA kb T = n RT.
2 2
Q = nCV T CV = f2 R Cp = f +2
2 R
 f CV
2 2 = R

pV

ˆ Vb ˆ Vb
. .
W = W = pdV,
Va Va

Va Vb

ˆ Vb
.
W = p dV = p(Vb Va ) = nR(Tb Ta ).
Va

U=
nCV T

Q. = U W . = nCV T + nR T = nCp T.
 T = const.
U = U (T ) =
const pV = const.

ˆ ˆ
. .
Q = Q = W. = W. = W%

Vb Vb ✓ ◆
dV Vb
ˆ ˆ
%
W = pdV = nRT = nRT
Va Va V Va

V = const.

dU = Q. .
 ˆ Tb
.
Q = nCV dT = nCV T.
Ta

nRT
W = pdV = dV
V
dU = nCV dT.

Q=0
nRT
nCV dT + V dV =0 nT

CV R
ˆ ˆ
dT = dV
T V
CV (T ) = R (V ) + const.
R
)T =V CV
· const0 .,

TV  1
= const.

pV  = const00 .
T  p1 
= const000 .

Cp R
 = CV CV = 1
 S = kb W,

S W

Q.
dS .
T

Q.
dS = .
T

S(0 ) = 0
p V
 T W Q

! T2 ! T1 W1. = nCV (T1 T2 )

! T1 W2% = nRT1 Vc
Vb Q.
2 = nRT1
Vc
Vb

! T1 ! T2 W3% = nCV (T1 T2 )

! T2 W4. = nRT2 Vd
Va Q%
4 = nRT2
Vd
Va

TV  1 = const.

T2 Va 1
= T1 Vb 1

T2 Vd 1
= T1 Vc 1

V a · V c = Vb · Vd .

W1. + W2% + W3% W4. T1 T2

⌘C = = = .
Q.
2
T1

Thot Tcold
= ⌘real  ⌘C = .
Thot

Q
˛ ˛
S= dS = =0
T
 L

P =P ,x P ,x =P ,x ( P ,x ) = 2P ,x = 2mvx ,
P

2L
t=
vx

P mvx2
F = = .
t L

mv¯x2
F = N · F̄ =N ,
L

v¯2 = v¯x2 + v¯y2 + v¯z2 = 3v¯x2 .

F N mv¯2
p= = ,
L2 3V
V = L3

N mv¯2
pV = = N kb T,
3
kb m N

mv¯2
kb T = .
3

1 ¯2 3
mv = kb T,
2 2
 pT

0 100

2
L Lm
Q

Q = mLm .

✓ ◆
an2
p+ 2 (V nb) = nRT.
V

P = T 4.
 2⇡ 5 kb4 8 2 4
= ⇡ 5.670 ⇥ 10 ,
15c2 h3
c h
 x(t)
T

x(t) = x(t + T )

t
T 2T
T
T
T

f ⌫
1/T
1
 T
f = 1/T

x(t)

x(t) = A (!t + ')

A x
x
! 2⇡f

t
!t

'
!t
 2A

⇡/2

x(t + T ) = A (!(t + T ) + ')

=A (!t + !T + ')
=A (!t + 2⇡f T + ')
=A (!t + 2⇡T /T + ')
=A (!t + ' + 2⇡)
=A (!t + ')
= x(t)

X
Fi = ma
i
 k
m

F = kx

k · 1 · 2

a = ẍ

k
ẍ + x=0
m

x(t)
ẍ(t) x(t)

x t
 x
t
x

x(t) = A (!t + ')

ẋ(t) = !A (!t + ')
2
ẍ(t) = ! A (!t + ')

k k
ẍ + x = !2A (!t + ') + A (!t + ')
m ✓ ◆ m
k
= !2 + A (!t + ')
m
!
=0
t

k
!2 + =0
m

r
k
!=
m
p
k/m
Kx K
1 2
V (x) = 2 Kx
 J

'
J  M

M= '

X
Mi = J↵
i


'¨ + '=0
J
⇣p ⌘
'(t) = /Jt + ✓
 l
'
~g
F~T
m

F~g

'

F~P F~T

MT = 0

MP = mgl (')

J = ml2

g
'¨ + (') = 0
l
 '

x3 x5
(x) = x + + O(x7 )
6 120

(x) ⇡ x x
'⌧1 '

g
'¨ + ' ⇡ 0
l

p
g/l '⌧1

V (x)

V 00 (0) 2
V (x) = V (0) + V 0 (0)x + x + O(x3 )
2
V 0 (0) = 0 V 00 (0) > 0
x

V 00 (0) 2
V (x) ⇡ V (0) + x
2
V (0) V
 @V
F = = V 00 (0)x
@x
x V 00 (0) 0

bv
B (⌦t)

kx bv + B (⌦t) = ma

B
ẍ + 2⇣! ẋ + ! 2 x = (⌦t)
m
⇣= pb
2 mk
B=0

⇣=0

0⇣<1

⇣!t
x(t) = Ce (˜
! t + ')
˜

C '˜

!
˜

p
!
˜=! 1 ⇣2

⇣=1

⇣!t
x(t) = (C1 t + C2 )e

C1 C2
 ⇣>1

⇣ p ⌘ ⇣ p ⌘
⇣ ⇣ 2 1 !t ⇣+ ⇣ 2 1 !t
x(t) = C1 e + C2 e
C1 C2

B 6= 0

B
x(t) = p (⌦t + )
m 4! ⌦ ⇣ + (! 2
2 2 2 ⌦2 ) 2
 p
Z= 4! 2 ⌦2 ⇣ 2 + (! 2 ⌦2 ) 2

p
⇣< p1 Z ⌦r = ! 1 2⇣ 2
2

⇣=0
⌦r

x( )
x(0)

⌦r
 u(~r, t) u(x, t)

~u(~r, t)

@ 2 u(t, x) 2
2 @ u(t, x)
= v
@t2 @x2

u
@u
@t

v
c v
 u(x, t) = A (!t kx + ')

u(x, t) = A (kx !t+'0 )

' '0

u(x, 0) u
A
x

A
u(x, t)

u(0, t) u
T
A
t

A
u( x, t)

u(x, t) '=0
0
 u t x

x
t

!
x
t k
T = 2⇡/!

= 2⇡/k

@u
= !A (!t kx + ')
@t
@2u
= !2A (!t kx + ')
@t2
@u
= kA (!t kx + ')
@x
@2u
= k2 A (!t kx + ')
@x2

@2u
!2A (!t kx + ') =
@t2
! @2u
= v2 2
@x
= v 2 ( k 2 )A (!t kx + ')

) !2 = v2 k2
) v = !/k = /T = f

v ! k
 u(x, t) u(~r, t)
~k

u(~r, t) = A (!t ~k · ~r + ')

~k
~
k = |k|

~u(~r, t)
~
A
~k

~k
 ~k

~k

~k ~k
343 · 1
 ~
E ~
B ~k E
~ ~
B

Penetrates Earth's
Atmosphere?

Radiation Type Radio Microwave Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma ray
Wavelength (m) 103 10 2 10 5 0.5×10 6 10 8 10 10 10 12

Approximate Scale
of Wavelength

Buildings Humans Butterflies Needle Point Protozoans Molecules Atoms Atomic Nuclei

Frequency (Hz)

10 4 10 8 1012 1015 1016 1018 1020

Temperature of
objects at which
this radiation is the
most intense
wavelength emitted 1K 100 K 10,000 K 10,000,000 K
272 °C 173 °C 9,727 °C ~10,000,000 °C
 v
f v v
d

v v

v v

v v
 emitter receiver

vem v vre

t1

vt1 = d + v t1

t1 = d/(v v ) t2
1/f
1 1
vt2 = d v +v + v t2
f f
⇣ ⌘
t2 = d + (v v ) f1 /(v v )
t1 t2 f
f t2 t1

1 1 v v
f = 1 = v v 1 v v 1 = f
t2 t1 + f v v f + v v f
v v
 ' '

' = '
 B

'i ' r

'0i

Ã

A B
à A 'i = '0i 'r = '0i
ÃB 'i = 'r
 n c
v n = c/v

'1
'2 n1 n2

n1 ('1 ) = n2 ('2 )

u(~r, t) v(~r, t)
u(~r, t) + v(~r, t)
 A

'1
n1
n2
'2

C
A0

'01
n1
n2
'02
A00
'001
n1
n2

A
n1 C n2 n2 < n1
⇡
'02 = 2 '01 '001 > '01
 u(x, t) + v(x, t) = A1 (!1 t k 1 x + ' 1 ) + A2 (!2 t k 2 x + '2 )

A1 A2 !1
!2 k 1 k2 '1 '2

A1 = A2 = A ! 1 = ! 2 = ! k1 = k2 = k

'1 = 0 '2 = '

 u(x, t) + v(x, t) = A (!t kx) + A (!t kx + ')
⇣ '⌘ ⇣'⌘
= 2A !t kx +
2 2

'

' = 0 ±2⇡ ±4⇡ 2A

' = ±⇡ ±3⇡

A x
'=0
A

A x
⇡
'= 4
A

A x
3⇡
'= 4
A

A x
'=⇡
A

u(x, t) v(x, t)
' v
u ( '2 )
A1 = A2 = A !1 = !2 = ! k1 = k2 = k ' 1 = '2 = 0

u(x, t) + v(x, t) = A (!t kx) + A (!t + kx)

= 2A (!t) (kx)
!t kx

(kx)

(!t)

2
T
2

A1 = A2 = A k1 = k2 = k !1 6= !2

u(x, t) + v(x, t) = A(!1 t kx) + A (!2 t kx)

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
!1 + !2 !1 !2
= 2A t kx t
2 2
!1 +!2
2

!1 !2
x 2 !1 ⇡ !2

!1 ⇡ !2
 w
w(x, 0) 2A
w(x, t) x
w(x, 2 t) 2 2
2A

w(0, t) w
2A
w( x, t)
t
w(2 x, t)
2T T T 2T
2A

w(x, t) = u(x, t) + v(x, t)

x t
'
n
2
nT
2 n2Z w(x, 0) = 0 x
 1

t
⇡ 4⇡ ⇡
!1 !2 !1 +!2 !1 !2

w
2A

t
⇡ ⇡
!1 !2 !1 !2

2A

2A
 P

P
P
P
P P

P
 ↵1 = ↵2 = ↵

↵1 ↵2

P P0

↵2 ↵1
S
↵1

↵
S

P0 P0
P S P

c = 2990 7920 458 · 1

 v n

c
n=
v

c
f T = 1/f

v c 0c
= = = .
f nf n

↵1
↵=0

n1 n2 ↵1

d
(↵1 )d/ 1 4 1

(↵1 )d (↵1 )dn1 c (↵2 )dn2 c (↵2 )d

= = =
1 f f 2
(↵1 )n1 = (↵2 )n2

↵2 d, c f

n1 < n2
 n1
↵2
↵1
↵2

0
↵1

n2

↵1
n1 n2 > n1

n2 > n1
0
↵2

n1 > n 2
(↵1 )

n1
(↵2 ) = (↵1 ) >1
n2
 n
R

d⌧R #1

↵1 ↵2
d f
#1
R n

n
d #1
f
 #1

↵ 1 = #1 +
d
= #1 + ( )
R
d
⇡ #1 +
R
d/R d⌧R

1
(↵2 ) = (↵1 )
n

# ↵1 (↵1 ) ⇡ ↵1
↵2 < ↵ 1 ↵2
1
↵2 ⇡ (↵2 ) = (↵1 )
n
1
⇡ ↵1
n
1 d
⇡ (#1 + ).
n R
#2

d
#2 = ↵ 2 ( )
R
d
⇡ ↵2
R
1 d d
= (#1 + )
n R R
1 d 1
= #1 + (1 )
n R n
d⌧R
#1
 #1 = 0

d f d

d = f (#2 )
1 1
= (#2 )
f d
1
⇡ #2
d
d 1 1 1
= (1 ) = (1 ).
dR n R n
f d

✓ ◆
1 1 1 (n 1)t
= (n 1) +
f R1 R2 nR1 R2

R1 R2
Ri
t

t=0

f #1
 f

#1
d

#1 6= 0
 f

4f

f
d1 > f
 d1 = f

d1 < f

f
h1

f h2

d1 d2
d1
d2
 h1
h2 d1 d2 M
h2 d2
M= = .
h1 d1

d2

h2 d2 f d2
= =
h1 f d1
d2 d2
1=
f d1
1 1 1
=
f d2 d1
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2

4f
f1 f2
f1 f1 + f2
f2
4f
 ↵1
↵2
s1
s2

f1 f1 f2 f2
4f
↵1
↵2 ↵1

f2
M= .
f1

↵1

↵2

f1 f2
(↵) ⇡ ↵

↵1 f2
= =M
↵2 f1

s1 s2
s2 ↵1
=M =
s1 ↵2
) s1 ↵1 = s2 ↵2
 n( )

400 750

↵1
n( )

1
(↵2 ( )) = (↵1 ).
n( )

90
1( ) = 90
↵2 ( ) 2( )

( 2( )) = n( ) ( 1( ))
= n( ) (↵2 ( ))
✓ ✓ ◆◆
(↵1 )
= n( )
n( )
 2

↵2
↵1

↵1

2( )

nh
nl

90
 i

nh ( i ) = nl
90

( 0) = nh ( i)
= nh ( (nl /nh ))
p
= nh 1 ( (nl /nh ))2
q q
= nh 1 n2l /n2h = n2h n2l
 400 800

⇡ 150

25
10
17
17
24

20 = 2/60

25

2
s
( 2) =
f
s f

l = 25
s
( 1) =
l
 s '1

'2

f f

2 > 1

( 2) 250
M= = .
( 1) f

f = 50mm
5

f1
f2 < 0 |f1 | > |f2 |
 f2
f1

s0 s

f1

s
l f1 , f 2
↵1

s
↵1 ⇡ .
l

2.4
 4f

↵1 ↵1 f1
↵2 = =
M f2
s 0
=
l
s0 ↵2
|f1 | > |f2 | s0 = sf1 /f2

f1 + f2 < f 1 f2 < 0
f1 + f2 > f 1 f2

f1 f2 f1 + f2

d1 = 1
d2 = f

1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
 f d1 d2

M = d2 /d1

f2
f1

f1 f2
 f
E0
E(t) = E0 (2⇡f t) kx

E0
E1 (t) = p (2⇡f t)
2
E0
E2 (t) = p (2⇡f t + 0)
2
0 p
1/ 2
 s

E0
E1t (t) = (2⇡f t + t)
2
E0
E1r (t) = (2⇡f t + r)
2
E0
E2t (t) = (2⇡f t + 0t + 2⇡f s/c)
2
E0
E2r (t) = (2⇡f t + 0r + 2⇡f s/c)
2
t r

= 0r t

E(t) = E1t (t) + E2r (t)

E0 E0
= (2⇡f t) + (2⇡f t + + 2⇡f s/c)
2 ✓ 2 ◆ ✓ ◆
+ 2⇡f s/c + 2⇡f s/c
= E0 2⇡f t +
2 2
✓ ◆
2 + 2⇡f s/c 2
I ⇠ E = I0
2

I0
(2⇡f t)

s
+ 2⇡f s/c 2⇡

+ 2⇡f s/c ⇡
 ✓ ◆2 !
+ 2⇡f s/c
I ⇠ I0 1 .
2

'

(') =
d

'

(') ⇡ 1.22
D
D
'

'

d
'

' .
d
 '

'

1.22

' 1.22
d
d

1
d

'
d
s

'

'

s= (')d = n , n 2 Z.

n n=0
 n2Z
|n| > 1

90
✓ ✓

2
I2 = I1 ✓,
I1 , I 2
✓
 Incident ray Reflected ray
(unpolarised) (polarised)

Refracted ray
(slightly polarised)

✓B

90

✓B

n2
(✓B ) = ,
n1
n1 n2
 P

S
yp

S
P

yP
S P

s(yP )
x
y

yP = 0
/2 yP
(1/2+n), n 2
N
 P

yP
 ~v

v = |~v |

⇢
 r
h
V = ⇡r2 h
F = V⇢ g g = 9.81 · 2

p = ⇢gh

d
h

a
 r

d F = pa2 = ⇢gda2 d+a

F = ⇢g(d + a)a2
F =F F = ⇢gaa2 = ⇢gVd Vd
F =0

F > Fg = mg
⇢ <⇢
 ~

~
d

~ ~

d+a

A a B b a
t va A⇢ t b
va A⇢ t = vb B⇢ t
va A⇢a = vb B⇢b

t
M = vA⇢ t
M = ⇢V
⇢V = vA⇢ t
⇢ A
⇢ t = vV ⇢

v
⇢ ⇢ a b
 ⇢
⇢ t

a b
⇢
va A⇢a vb B⇢b = Vab ,
t
Vab A B

v2
⇢ + ⇢gh + p = const.
2

const.

a b i
Ai hi pi
Aa
a da b db = Ab da= AVb
a W a = d a Aa p a = V p a b Wb =
d b Ab p b = V pb
a
W = Wa + Wb = V (da db )
V ha
hb E = ⇢V g(hb ha )
E = ⇢V 2
2 (vb va2
W = E + E V

A
 db

pb
da
Ab

pa
Aa
hb

ha

E
E
= A
a

2 (⇥)
pc =
a
⇥

h
R
Fr = 6⇡⌘Rv
v ⌘

v2
Fr = cW A⇢
2
cW
A

10

60
 q1 q2 r
F~ q2

q1 q2
F~12 = k 2 e~r
r

e~r = |~~rr| q1 q2 1
1 k

k
 19 1 12 1
1.602 · 10 k= 4⇡✏0 ✏0 = 8.85 · 10
k 4⇡

q1
q2

1/r2

q1
q2 q2
~
E F~
q2

F~12 q1
E~q1 = = e~r
q2 4⇡✏0 r2
 ~ r)
E(~ ~r
F~ q0 ~r

~
~ r) = F (~r)
E(~
q0
q0

q q q1 qN

PN qj q
j=1 4⇡✏0 rj2 e~rj
~ N
X
~ =F = qj
E = e~r
q q
j=1
4⇡✏0 rj2 j

e~rj qj q
 1 = 6.2 · 1018
q
⇢ = V
q V
q = ⇢V ⇢
V ~y ⇢(~y )
~x
V (~y ) ~y
V (~y ) V ~y V

⇢(~y ) ~x ~y
˚
~ x) =
E(~ V (~y )
2
4⇡✏0 |~x ~y | |~x ~y |
V

⇢(~y )
V (~y )
 1/r2
Q

~
E
~ ·A
=E ~ ~
A

A
~
S ~· S
=E ~

~
S ~
E

A ~
E ~
S
= ±E S E S
~
E ~
S ±
Q<0
Q>0
 ‹
=
‹A
= ~ S
E ~
‹A
= E S
A
Q Q
‹
=E S= 2
4⇡r2 =
A 4⇡✏0 r ✏0

~
S E = Q
4⇡✏0 r 2

S
S A A = 4⇡r2
V

‹
= ~ S
E ~=0
@V

@V

~ = Qin = 1
‹ ˚
= ~ S
E ⇢(~y ) V (~y )
@V ✏0 ✏0 V
 =0

Qin
¨
= ~ S
E ~
✏0 2S
A
= E · 2A
✏0
~ = ± e~z
E ±
2✏0
 z l r

S E

l Qin
‹
= = ~ S
E ~
✏0 ✏0
¨
= E S
A
¨
=E S
A
= E2⇡rl

A A = 2⇡rl

0 1
x
~ =
E e~r = @ y A
✏0 2⇡r ✏0 2⇡(x2 + y 2 )
0

z z
 z

r
x=z=0 y=r
V z
x y

0 1
ˆ x
~ =
E p @ y A z
3
z x2 + y 2 + z 2
4⇡✏0 z
0 1
ˆ1 0
= p @ r A z
4⇡✏ r 2 + z23
1 0 z

z y ~
E z
z
0 p 3
z 2 +y 2

z0 z0
z
z0 z0 z y
 1
r
ˆ
Ey = p 3 z
4⇡✏0 1 r2 + z 2

z=r (u) z=r (u) u

1
r2 u
ˆ
Ey = u
4⇡✏0 1
2
(r ( (u) + 1))3/2
2
1
1
ˆ
= u
4⇡✏0 1 r (u)2
 1
1
= (u)
4⇡✏0 r 1

= 2= .
4⇡✏0 r 2⇡✏0 r

F~ q ~
E F~ = q E
~
P1 P2
F~ F~ext = F~ = ~
qE q
S W

ˆP2 ˆP2 ˆP2

W = F~ext · ~s = F~ · ~s = q ~ · ~s
E
P1 P1 P1

q >0
q>0
 P1 P2
P2 P1
P1 E0 P2
Ep = W + E0
E0
P2
'(P2 )

ˆP2
Ep ~ · ~s
'(P2 ) = = E
q
P1

Q q
q
q P1 P2
r S
r Q

Q q
P2

q
Q
 r ' P1 r1
P2 r2

ˆr2 ˆr2
~ · ~s = Q
'2 '1 = E r
4⇡✏0 r2
r1 r1
 ✓ ◆
Q 1 r2 Q 1 1
= =
4⇡✏0 r r1 4⇡✏0 r2 r1

r1 r1 = 1

ˆR ✓ ◆
Q Q 1
'(R) = 2
r=
4⇡✏0 r 4⇡✏0 R
1

' r1 r2

ˆr2
Q
'= r
4⇡✏0 r2
r1
ˆ1 ˆr2
Q Q
= r r
4⇡✏0 r2 4⇡✏0 r2
r1 1
= '(r2 ) '(r1 )
 Ep q ~r
n q1 qn r~1 r~n
q
q

ˆ~r X
n
qqj
Ep (~r) = (~r r~j ) ~s
4⇡✏0 |~r r~j |3
1 j=1
n ˆ~
X
r
qqj
= (~r r~j ) ~s
4⇡✏0 |~r r~j |3
j=1 1
rj0
n ˆ
X X qqj n
qqj
= r =
4⇡✏0 r2 4⇡✏0 rj0
j=1 1 j=1

rj0 = |~r r~j | q qj

n
X qj
'(~r) =
4⇡✏0 rj0
j=1

⇢ V

~r

⇢(~y )
ˆ
'(~r) = V (~y )
4⇡✏0 |~r ~y |
V

~y q = ⇢(~y ) V (~y )
 1 = 1 /1

W
q r~0
r~0 W = 0
r~0 r~0 W q

˛
~ · ~s = 0
E
 ~ =0
E

U q

| U q|

U
q

C· U= Q

1 = 1 · 10 6 · 1
 A
d d⌧A Q
d⌧A

Q
= A

U
 ˆ
U= E~tot ~s

ˆ ˆ
= ~
E ~s + ~
E ~s

=E d E d
Q Q
A A Qd
= d d=
2✏0 2✏0 A✏0
C

Q A✏0
C= = .
U d

~r1 ~r2
~ · (~r2
U =E ~r1 )
~
U = |E|d d

E
E = QU

ˆQ
E = U (q) q
0
ˆQ  2 Q
q q Q2
= q= =
C 2C 0 2C
0
Q
C= U
 ˆU
E = Q(u) u
0
ˆU
C 2 Q2
= Cu u = U = .
2 2C
0

Q
Q
F = EQ = 2✏0 A Q A
d

ˆd
E = F s

ˆd
Q2 Q2
= s= (d ).
2✏0 A 2✏0 A

A✏0
= 0 C = d
Q2
E = 2C

~ =
E 2⇡✏0 r e~r e~r
R1 R2 R1
R2 ~
E ~r
 ˆR2
'(r) = ~ ~r
E
R1
ˆR2
= E r
R1
ˆR2
= r
2⇡✏0 r
R1

= [ (r)]R 2
R1 = ( (R2 ) (R1 ))
2⇡✏0 2⇡✏0

C1 C2

C1

C1 C2

C2

U
Qi = U C i i = 1, 2 Q=
Q1 + Q2 = U (C1 + C2 )
 Q
C = = C1 + C2
U
d
A1 A2
A1 + A2

Q Ui = Q/Ci
U = U1 + U2

1 Ut ot 1 1
= = +
C Q C1 C2

I
Q
I= t Q
 ~
B
1 =1 · 1· 2 =1 ·· 1· 2

5 · 10 5

0.1

‹
~ S
B ~=0
@V
F~

F~ = I~l ⇥ B
~

~l ~
B
q

q q~l ~l
I~l = ~l = = q = q~v
t t t
~v

F~ = q~v ⇥ B
~
 U I
U
I

R U = RI R

U I
 I R1 R2
U = R1 I + R2 I = I(R1 + R2 )
R = R1 + R2
R
Pn n R1 , R2 , ...Rn
R = j=1 Rj

U
U U
I = R3 + R4

U 1
R= = 1 1
I R3 + R4

0 1 1
Xn
1 A
R =@
Rj
j=1
 R

rho
R

l
R=⇢
A
l A
⇢ = 1.7 · 10 8 /⌦· 1

1
= .
⇢

RS
RS RS

RS

P = UI
P I U
 I1 I2 + I3 I4 I5

k k
U1 + U2 + U3 + U4 + U5 = 0

n
n n

U0
 P
U0
R P = U I = I 2R I= R+RS
R
U02 (R+R S)
2 R

P
0=
R
(R + RS )2 2(R + RS )R
= U0
(R + RS )4
= R + RS 2R
R = RS

R RS
 C R
U0 t=0

VC
U0 = UR + UC UR = RI
Q
UC = C Q
 Q
U0 = RI + ,
C t
I I
0=R +
t C
I
= RC +I
t
1 I
t=
RC I
ˆt ˆI(t)
1 I
t0 =
RC I
0 I0
1 I(t)
t= ( )
RC I0
1
I(t) = I0 e RC t
U0
I0 I0 = R

UC (t) = U0 RI(t)
1
= U0 (1 e RC t )

t
 B

~
B
~
B
A

¨
= ~· A
B ~
A

~
A
~· A
B ~ A

~
E
 ~ ·A
=B ~

~
A

S
I
S

˛ ¨
~ ~l = µ0 Iin =
B ~
µ0~j S
@S S

@S S ~l
Iin
S ~j
~l

~l ~
S
 ~l

~
B

S
~l

q
r~0 ~v
~r

~ r) = k q ~r r~0
B(~ ~v ⇥
|r r0 | 2
|~r r~0 |

~r r~0 ~r k
µ0 7 1· 1
k= 4⇡ µ0 = 4⇡ · 10 ··
 ~
B q
r r~0 |2
|~
~
E

q |~r r~0 | 4⇡

4⇡r2 |~r|

~v ~r
~v ~v ~r r~0

~r
|~v | ⌧ c c

dq l
dq = ⇢ l ⇢
v l t
q ⇢ l
I= t = t = ⇢v qv = ⇢ lv = I l q

~
B r~0 ~l(r~0 )
l

~ ~0 ~0
~ r) = µ0 I l(r ) ⇥ (~r r ) .
B(~
4⇡ |~r r~0 |3

~r
~
B
 µ0 ~l(r~0 ) ⇥ (~r r~0 )
ˆ ˆ
~ =
B ~ =
B I .
4⇡ |~r r~0 |3

x
x
R

~
B ~ ~s = B s
B
B s

˛
µ0 I = ~ ~s
B
˛@S
= B s
@S
˛
=B s
@S
= B2⇡R
µ0 I
B= .
2⇡R

B B r
 ~
B ~
B

R
x

x R

x x y=
r>0 xy I1 I2

+x

0 1
0
µ I
~ = 0 1 @ 0 A.
B
2⇡r
1

0 1
l
F~ = I2 @ 0 A ⇥ B ~
0
0 1 0 1 0 1
l 0 0
µ0 I1 I2 @ A @ A µ0 I1 I2 l @
= 0 ⇥ 0 = 1 A.
2⇡r 2⇡r
0 1 0
 2 · 10 7

µ0 = 4⇡ · 10 8 ·· 1· 1

l L

˛
µ0 I = ~ · ~s
B
@S
µ0 Inl = lB
B = µnI

Itot = nlI I

7
10
 l

~
B

l ⌧ ~ · ~s = 0
B
L
u

˛
~ ~s = u
E =
t
 I

= LI L

i
uind = = L .
t t

B = µnI n
l I
A = BA = µnIA
!
U = ! = !µnIA N = ln
U = !µnIAN = !µN 2 Al I = L!I
 µN 2 A N2
L= =
l Rm

Rm
N2 N
N N

N2
N

✓ ◆
~ =B (!t)
B
(!t)

B !
 !

= Bx A A
Bx
x

u = = BA! (!t)
t
U = Nu

N
N
 Ns

Np

Np Ns

Np
Ns

Us Ns
=C
Up Np
C

C=1 !
Up up (t) = Up (!t)

B(t)A
up (t) = Np ,
ˆt
1 U
B(t) = u(t) t = Up (!t)
Np A Np A!
A

BA Ns A
us (t) = Ns = up (t)
t Np A

Us Ns Ip
= =
Up Np Is

Ip Is
Pp = Ps
 I B

I
B
E

C = ✏ Ad
A d
 Q = CU,
Q U
I= =C
t t
A E
=✏ d
d t
E
= ✏A
t

E U
U = Ed I

✓ ◆
E
˛
~ ~l = µ0 Itot = µ0
B I + ✏A
@S t
!
¨ ~
E
= µ0~j + µ0 ✏ ~
S.
S t

S
@S ~j ~j

S
~
E ~
B

V @V
V V
V @V ~
S
~
| S| ~
S

A @A
~
A
d~l | ~l|
~
A
~l ~
A
~l

1
‹ ˚
~ S
E ~= ⇢ V
✏0
‹@V V

~ S
B ~=0
˛@V ¨
~ ~l =
E ~ S
B ~
@A t
˛ ✓¨ A ¨ ◆
~ ~l = µ0
B ~ + ✏0
~j A ~ A
E ~
@A A t A

@V V
⇢ ~j

F~ = q(E
~ + ~v ⇥ B)
~

q ~v

@ 2 Ey @ 2 Ey
= ✏ 0 µ 0
@x2 @t2
2
@ Bz @ 2 Bz
= ✏ 0 µ 0
@x2 @t2

y z
@ @ ~
E ~
B
x, y, z, t
 c

1
c= p .
✏ 0 µ0

x x
~
E ~
B

x y z

@Bz
@x x

y
y
@Bz
Bz Bz + @x x
x

~
B y
~
B y
x
 ✓ ◆
@Bz @Bz
˛
~ ~l =
B Bz + x z Bz z = x z.
@A @x @x

xz y

@Ey
¨
µ0 ✏ 0 ~ A
E ~= µ0 ✏ 0 x z
t A @t

@Bz @Ey
= µ0 ✏ 0
@x @t

x y

@Ey @Bz
= .
@x @t
x

@ 2 Ey @ @Bz
=
@x2 @x @t
@ @Bz
=
@t @x
@ 2 Ey
= ✏ 0 µ0 .
@t2
t
x Ey Bz
⇤
~
E
 ~p
E
~0
E

- +- + - +-
+- + - +- + - +
+
-
- +
- +- + - +-

+- + - +- + - +
+
-
- +
- +- + - +-
+- + - +- + - +
+
-
- +
 ~ =E
E ~0 + E
~p

✏r

~ 0 = ✏r E,
E ~
~p = E
E ~ E0 = (1 ~ = E
✏r )E ~

✏r = 1 =0 ✏=1
✏ = 10
~0
E

U
U E= d d

✏r

✏r U
E0 = ✏ r E = .
d

U ✏r ✏0
= ✏ 0 E0 =
d
A✏0 ✏r
C = d A
 ~
D
~
E ~
D
~
E
F~ q
F~ = q E
~ ~
E
✏0 ✏0
✏r ✏0
~
D

q
~
D

~ = q
D ~er
4⇡r2
~
E ✏0
~
D

‹ ˚
~ S
D ~= ⇢ V.
@V V

~
E ~
D
~
D ⇢

~
E
- +
+
-
- + - +
+
-
- +
- +
+
-
- + - +
+
-
- +
- +
+
-
- + - +
+
-
- +
~
E ~
D

~
E
~
D

~
D

~ = ✏0 ✏r E.
D ~

P~

P~ = D
~ ~ = ✏0 E.
✏0 E ~
 D · 2A = Q
A
D = Q2A
D D = QA D · 2A = Q

Q
D= A
D
✏r 6= 0
D D D
E = ✏0 ✏r E = ✏0 6= ✏0 ✏r
~
D ~
E

~r
E
~a
E

u ~ r · ~ez l
=E ~ a · ~ez l = 0
E
~r = E
E ~a

~ez l
 ~r
E ~a
E
S
l

✏r

✏r
S

~
H ~
B

~
H ~
B
~
D ~
H ~
E ~
B

~
M ~
H ~
B

P~
~
M
~
B
~
H
 ~ = µ0 µr H
B ~ = µ0 H
~ +M
~,
~ = mH
M ~

µr
m

✏r 1

1 < µr . 1.1

µr ⇡ 100 10000

µr < 1

0.99  µr  1.01
~
H
 ~
B
~
H

~
D ~
H
✏ = ✏0 ✏r
µ = µ0 µr

‹ ˚
~ S
D ~= ⇢ V,
‹@V V

~ S
B ~ = 0,
˛@V ¨
~ ~l =
E ~ S,
B ~
@A t A
˛ ✓¨ ¨ ◆
~ ~l =
H ~+
~j A ~ ~
D A
@A A t A

~ = ✏0 ✏r E,
D ~
~ = µ0 µr H.
B ~
 ~
D
~
H
~
H ~
B

~
H
✏r µr

@ 2 Ey @ 2 Ey
= ✏ 0 ✏ r µ 0 µ r ,
@x2 @t2
@ 2 Hz @ 2 Hz
= ✏ 0 ✏ r µ 0 µ r .
@x2 @t2

✏r µr

1 c0
c= p = ,
✏ 0 ✏ r µ0 µr n
1
n= p
✏ r µr

c0 n
 ~
E ~
H

⇣ x ⌘
E y = E0 !(t ) ,
⇣ c ⌘
x
H z = H0 !(t ) ,
c

! E0 H0

@Hz @Ey
= ✏0 ✏r
@x @t

! ⇣ x ⌘ ⇣ x ⌘
H0 !(t ) = ✏0 ✏r ! !(t )
c c c
H0 = c✏0 ✏r E0 .

~
H
~
E Z

~ r
E0 |E| µ0 µr
Z= = = .
H0 ~
|H| ✏0 ✏r
 ~
H ~
D

W = 12 QU Q
U
C
D

Q = DA
A

U = Ed
d

1
W = AdED.
2
Ad u

1~ ~
u= E ·D
2

~
E
~
D ~
E ~
D
✏0 A
C = d
A
d
 1~ ~
u= H · B.
2

1 ✏0 ✏r 2
ue = 2 DE = 2 E
µ0 µr 2
um = 12 HB = 2 H q
µ0 µ r
E = ZH Z= ✏0 ✏r ue = um

EH
u = ue + um = ✏ 0 ✏ r E 2 = µ0 µr H 2 = .
c
I

I = uc

c
u
E A t

E = uAc t.

I = uc
 u

c t
t c A A

I = EH.

~
S
~
E ~
H

~=E
S ~ ⇥ H.
~
 I

~
H ~
E ~
H ~
H

~
S
~
S
f (t) fn (t)

f (t)
T t f (T +t) = f (t)
f (t)

1
X
f (t) = (An (!0 nt) + Bn (!0 nt))
n=0

2⇡
!0 = T An Bn
f (t)
 u(t) = U0 (!t + ')
2⇡
U0 ! = T
'

u(t) U0 , Uef f

u(t) t
U0
!

x y
z = x + jy 2 C j
pR
x, y 2 p
r = zz = x2 + y 2

i i = i(t) j
 u(t) U0
!

z = rej(!t+') = r (!t + ') + jr (!t + ').

z r r = U0
x
z

u(t) = (z) = U0 (!t + ').

 u(t) =
U0 ej(!t+')

z1 = a1 + jb1 z2 = a2 + jb2 a1 , a 2 , b1 , b2 2 R

<(z1 + z2 ) = <(a1 + a2 + j(b1 + b2 ))

= a1 + a2 = <(a1 + jb1 ) + <(a2 + jb2 ) = <(z1 ) + <(z2 ).

U
R R = I
 Z Z
Z

u(t) = U0 ej!t
i(t) = I0 ej(!t+')

u(t) U0 j'
Z= = e .
i(t) I0
U0
|Z| = I0

R R

u(t) U0
R= = .
i(t) I0

Q
C=
U
Q U
 U0 = 9
I0 = 4.5
'
|Z| = 2 '=1 != 10
2⇡
T = ! = 20

u(t) = U0 ej(!t+')

u(t)C = q(t)
u(t) q(t)
C = = i(t)
t t
U0 ej(!t+')
C = CU0 j!ej(!t+') = jC!u(t) = i(t).
t
ZC

u(t) u(t) 1 j
ZC = = = = .
i(t) Cj!u(t) jC! C!
j 90

!
!

t = 0
x

L = I
I

j 90
j 90
 i(t)
u(t) = u (t) = L
t

L u(t)
u (t)
u(t) i(t)
180

u(t)
i(t) = I0 ej(!t+')

i(t) I0 ej(!t+')
u(t) = L =L = LI0 j!ej(!t+') = jL!i(t).
t t

u(t) jL!i(t)
Z= = = jL!.
i(t) i(t)

j
90
 t=0
x

ik (t)
q(t)

X q(t)
ik (t) = .
t

P
ik (t) = 0
 uk (t)

X
uk (t) = uind = .
t

P
uk (t) = 0

i(t)

uk (t) = i(t)Zk P
u(t) = uk (t)

P X
u(t) i(t) Zk
Z= = = Zk
i(t) i(t)
Zk

✓X ◆ 1
1
Z=
Zk
 uin (t)
uout (t)

j
Z = ZR + ZC = R + ,
!C
1 1 !C !C(R!C + j)
= j
= = ,
Z R !C R!C j (R!C)2 + 1
s ✓ ◆
2
1 2
|Z| = R +
!C

R C !
u(t) = U0 ej!t

u(t) ! 2 C 2 R + j!C
uR (t) = Ri(t) = R = Ru(t) .
Z (R!C)2 + 1

U R0 '
 p p
RU0 ! 4 C 4 R2 + ! 2 C 2 RU0 !C (R!C)2 + 1) RU0 !C
U R0 = 2
= 2
=p ,
(R!C) + 1 (R!C) + 1 (R!C)2 + 1
!C 1
(') = 2 2
= .
R! C R!C
U R0
! '

!!1

U R0 '

6 !
U0 = 1 R = 1000⌦ C = 10 x f= 2⇡
 i(t) = I0 (!t)
u(t) = U0 (!t)

U0 I0

uR (t) = Ri(t) = RI0 (!t)

I0
90 uC (t) = !C (!t)

✓ ◆
1
u (t) = UR (t) + uC (t) = I0 R (!t) + (!t) = U0 (!t ').
C!

s ✓ ◆2
1
U 0 = I0 R2 + ,
!C
✓ ◆
1
'= .
!CR
q
U0 1 2
I0 = R2 + !C

R 6= 0
⌦
 ⌦

✓ ◆
1
Z = ZR + ZC + ZL = R + j L⌦ .
⌦C

⌦ = !0

1 1
L!0 = ) !0 = p .
!0 C LC
 q0

i(t) 1
0 = uL (t) + uR (t) + uC (t) = L + Ri(t) + q(t)
t C
2q q 1
= L 2 + R + q.
t t C

q = q(t)
q(t) = q0 e t
L
R2 4C <0

✓ q q ◆
t j !02 2t j !02 2t
q(t) = e Ae + Be ,
R 1
= , !0 = p .
2L LC
A B t=0
t=0
✓q ◆
t
q(t) = q0 e !02 2t .
p
! = !02 2 < !0

u(t) = U0 ej⌦t
 1 jLi(t) 2
U0 ej⌦t = jL⌦i(t) + Ri(t) j i(t) = !0 ⌦2 + 2j ⌦ ,
⌦C ⌦
R 1
= , !0 = p .
2L LC
j⌦ 1
i(t) = U0 2 2
ej⌦t ,
L !0 ⌦ + 2j ⌦
1 j⌦ 1
= ,
Z L !02 ⌦2 + 2j ⌦
1 ⌦ 1
= p 2
|Z| L (!0 ⌦ )2 + (2 ⌦)2
2

1
|Z|
⌦

1 1
|Z| 1D ⌦ 2D 2(!02 ⌦2 )( 2⌦) + 4 2 2⌦
0= = ,
⌦ L D2
p 1
D= (!02 ⌦2 )2 + (2 ⌦)2 |Z|
LD3

0 = ((!02 ⌦2 )2 + 4 2 ⌦2 ) + 2⌦2 (!02 ⌦2 ) 4 2 ⌦2 = !04 ⌦4 ,

⌦ = ±!0 .
 1 1 1
uC = j
i(t) = U0 ej⌦t ,
⌦C LC (!02 ⌦2 ) 2j ⌦
U0 1
U C0 = p ,
LC (!0 ⌦ )2 + (2 ⌦)2
2 2

!02 1
= U0 p 2 = U0 q
(!0 ⌦2 )2 + (2 ⌦)2 (1 ⌦2 2
)2 + 4 ! 2 ⌦
2
!02 0 !2
0

U C0 uC (t)

U C0 1 2(!02 ⌦2 )( 2⌦) + 4 2 ⌦
0= = U0 ,
t LC 2D3
) ⌦2 = !02 2 2 .

p
⌦ = !02 2 2

U0
 U C0
y RLC
x !0
⌦

p
!02 2

!0

p
!02 2 2

!0 = p1 = R
LC 2L
 t p(t) = u(t)i(t)

T
u(t) = U0 (!t) i(t) = I0 (!t + ')
'

ˆT
1
P = u(t)i(t) t
T
0
ˆT
U 0 I0
= (!t) (!t + ') t
T
0
0 1
ˆT ˆT
U 0 I0 @
= 2
(!t) (') t (!t) (!t) (') tA
T
0 0
U 0 I0
= (')
2
(!t + ') = (!t) (') (!t) (') (!t) (!t) =
1 T
2 (2!t) 2
I0 U0

´T 2
´T 2
0
(!t) t = 0 (!t) t = A A
´T 2
´T 2
´T T
A= 0
(!t) t = 0
1 (!t) t = 0 1 t A = T A A= 2
 '=0
' ± 90
' = 90

u(t) = U0

P = UI 2
(')

1
U = p U0 ,
2
1
I = p I0 ,
2

U I

P =U I (').

'=0
(')
 p U = 230
U0 = 2 · 230 ⇡ 325

u = U0 (!t)
i(t) = I0 (!t + ') = I0 ( (!t) (') (!t) ('))
I0 (') I0 (')

P =U I (')
S =U I

Q=U I (') 2 (') + 2 (') =1

S 2 = P 2 + Q2 .

'=0
 2⇡
120 = 3

L1 L2
L3

120

120 120
 120
!
N
L1 L2 L3
U0
u1 = U 0 (!t) u2 = U 0 (!t + 120 )
u3 = U 0 (!t + 240 )

L1
u1
 u(t) L1
L2

u(t) = u1 u2 = U 0 ( (!t) (!t + 120 ))

= U0 ( ((!t + 60 ) 60 ) ((!t + 60 ) + 60 )
= U0 ( (!t + 60 ) (60 ) + (!t + 60 ) (60 )
(!t + 60 ) (60 ) + (!t + 60 ) (60 ))
p
= 3U0 (!t + 60 )).

p
3U0
L1 L2 L3 L1 L3 L2
20
20
 ~
B ~0
B
e e
~v v~0 = 0
F~

I I0

t ~x(t)

~x(t) = ~0

⌃ ⌃0

⌃
⌃
⌃0

~ = m~a
F
 ⌃ ˜
⌃
v(t) ⌃ F ⌃
a= F ˜
⌃
m
F̃ ã ˜
⌃
v(t)

v
a = ã + = ã
t

v
t = 0
v = 0 ˜
⌃

⌃ ⌃

⌃ ⌃0

t = t0

⌃0
x ⌃ ⌃
⌃0
⌃0 0
⌃
 0 1 0 1
vt x0
O ⌃0 =@ 0 A+@ 0 A
0 0
x0 ⌃0 t=0 ⌃
r~0 ⌃0 ~r ⌃

0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
x vt x vt
~r = @ y A = @ 0 A + @ y 0 A = @ 0 A + r~0 .
z 0 z0 0
y z
y= y0 z= z0 x x = vt + x0 x0 = x vt

x v

t = t0
x = vt + x0
y = y0
z = z0
x
 c

c c = 2990 7920 545.8 · 1

 t0

t
t0 + 2

t0 + t
 ⌃ ⌃0 t0
⌃0

2L0
t0 =
c
L0 c

⌃0 ⌃

L = L0 ct

vt

L = L0 ⌃

L
t=2
v?

v?
v? t
 1
t = 2L ,
v?
1
= 2L p ,
c2 v 2
2L 1
= p = t0 ,
c 1

v
= ,
c
1
=p .
1 2

⌃0
⌃

L=c T L= L0
 t1

t2

t1 t2
t1 + t2 2c

L0 ⌃0
 ⌃ ⌃0 ⌃
L0
⌃0 t0 = c ⌃ t1 t2

L
t1 = ,
c v
L
t2 =
c+v

c+v
c+v ⌃0
t1 + t2 = ( t01 + t02 ) = 2 t0

1
t0 = ( t1 + t2 )
2
✓ ◆
L0 1 L L
= +
c 2 c v c+v
q
v2
2c L 1 c2
=
2 c2 v 2
L 1
= q
c 1 v
2
c2
0
L = L.

t=
t0
t0 = t

t = t0 = 2 t
2 =1 >1 v>0
 ⌃ ⌃0 t
t0 ~r = (x, y, z) ⌃ ~
r = (x , y 0 , z 0 )
0 0

⌃0
⌃0 v
t= t0 =0

⇣ v ⌘
t0 = t x
c2
x0 = (x vt)
0
y =y
z0 = z

= q 1
v2
1
c2
 t ct ct

⇣ v ⌘
x0 = x ct
⇣ c ⌘
v
ct0 = ct x .
c

t
t0 =

~r t
t ~r t=0
~r0 = ~r ~v t
t=0 t00 ⌃0
x00 x0
~r t=0 t00 = c = c
t
t0 = ~r0
 ⌃0 ⌃ ⌃0

⇣ v ⌘
x= x0 + ct0
⇣ c ⌘
v
ct = ct + x0 .
0
c

t1
t2 ⌃ t01 t02 ⌃0 ⌃0
x1 t1 x2 = x1 + v(t2 t1 ) t2 x01 = x02

⇣v ⌘ ⇣ v ⌘
t0 = t02 t01 = xt2
2 t 1 x1
⇣ c2 c2 ⌘ ⇣
v v ⌘
= t2 (x 1 + v(t 2 t 1 )) t1 x1
c2 c2
v2
= (t2 t1 ) (t2 t1 )
c2
2
1 vc2 1
=q (t2 t1 ) = t
2
1 vc2

⌃0
⌃ v v
 t
t0
c c

x0

s= s0

x t
x0 t0

⌃ ⌃0 ⌃
t1 r~1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) t2 r~2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
⌃0

t01 ~r0 = (x01 , y10 , z10 ) t02 r~2 0 = (x02 , y20 , z20 )

s 2 = c 2 t2 ~r 2
= c2 (t2 t1 ) 2 (x2 x1 ) 2 (y2 y1 ) 2 (z2 z1 ) 2
= c2 (t02 t01 )2 (x02 x01 )2 (y20 y10 )2 (z20 z10 )2
= c2 t02 r~0 2 = s02
 s02 = s2

⌃0 ⌃ v

(y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2 = (y20 y10 )2 + (z20 z10 )2

c2 t02 x02 = c2 (t02 t01 )2 (x02 x01 )2

⇣ ⌘
= 2 (ct2 x2 ct1 + x1 )2 (x2 ct2 x1 + ct1 )2
2
= c2 t2 + 2 x2 2c t x x2 + c 2 2
t2 + 2c t x
1 1
= 2
c 2 t2 1 2
+ 2
x2 1 2
= c 2 t2 x2
1 1

c 2 t2 < ~r 2

s2 = 0
t1 r~1 r~2 r~2 t2
s2 = 0

c t = | ~r|
| ~r|
c=
t
s2 = ~r 2 c 2 t2
2
s
 r~1 r~2
t c

s2 > 0

| ~
r|
v= t <c
s2 >0
t1 r~1 r~2 t2
t2

s2 < 0
t

t=0 s2 ~r 2

t1 r~1

01
ct1
B x1 C
r1 = B
@ y1 A
C

z1
 0 1 0 1
ct1 ct2
B x1 C B x2 C
B C B C = ct1 ct2
@ y1 A · @ y2 A (x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 )
z1 z2

v
v
 ⌃ ⌃0 v
⌃0 ⌃0
u0 ⌃0 ⌃
u=v+ u0
c
x

x 0
x ( x 0 + v t0 ) t0 + v u0 + v
u= = = 0 = 0
t t0 + cv2 x0 1 + cv2 xt0 1 + vu
c2

x0
t0 u0 = t0

v⌧c u0 ⌧ c 1

v=c u0 = c u=c

v u0

⌃0 ⌃ ⌃0

v ? u? u0? u?
u0? v

⌃0 v u0

x = ( x 0 + v t0 ) t =
0 v 0
t + c2
x
 ⌃0 ⌃
v ⌃ ⌃0
q u? u?
⌃ v 2 + u2?
u?
x? = x0?

x? x0? u0? u0?

u? = = ⇣ ⌘= ⇣ ⌘=
t t0 + v
x0k 1+ v 0
u
c2 c2 k

⌃0
u0k = 0 u? v u0?
v

r = (ct, x, y, z)
t ~r = (x, y, z)
u

01 0 1
ct c
B x C B vx C
u= B C=B C
t @ y A @ vy A
z vz

vx x y z

u · u = u2 = c 2 vx2 vy2 vz2 .

|u|2

x
t t
x
u0k
 ⌧
⌧
1
⌧= t
d
0 1 0 1
ct c
B x C B vx C
u= B C= B C
1
t@ y A @ vy A .
z vz

u·u
u·u

vx = vy = vz = 0 u · u = c2

u · u = u2 = 2
(c2 vx2 vy2 vz2 )
1
= v2
c2 (1 v 2 ) = c2
1 c2

vx2 + vy2 + vz2 = v 2

E = mc2
p~ = m~v m
v x v
x
x
v x

2p p
x

v
v

v+v 2v
v2 = vv = 2
1 + c2 1 + vc2

p = mv

2v
p = 2mv 6= v2
m=p .
1+ c2

1
p = mv = q mv.
v2
1 c2

m m = m
 v

p~ = m~v
v

0 1
c
B vx C
p = mv = m B C
@ vy A .
vz

p2 = m2 c2
mc
 p
ˆ ˆ
E= F s= s m c2
t

0 1 0 E 1
c c
B vx C B C
px
p = mv = m B C
@ vy A =
B C
@ py A .
vz pz

p~ = 0 =1 p 2 = m2 c 2

E2
= m2 c2
c2
E = mc2

E = mc2
c2

p c2

p2 c2 = m2 c4 = E 2 p~ 2 c2
E 2 = p~ 2 c2 + m2 c4 .
 p p
E= p~ 2 c2 + m2 c4 = mc2 2 2 +1
s
2
= mc2 2
+1
1
s
2 +1 2
= mc2 2
1
r
1
= mc2 2
= mc2 .
1

v=0

✓ ◆
2 2
E = mc ⇡ 1+ v mc2
v2 v 2 =0
✓ ◆
1 v2 1
= 1+ mc2 = mc2 + mv 2 .
2 c2 2

F~ = p
~
t p~ = m ~v m
~v

~v
 ~v
F~ = m
t

= 3 ~v ~v
t c2 t

✓ 2
◆
3v ~v ~v ~v
F~ = m + =m 3
c2 t t t

F~
~a

⇡ 0.25c
 c

c
v
v c c v
c+v

v
v
 L

L0e = L = p 1
1 2
v
= c c

L0
L0p = 1 L
F~ = m~a

T
 f f
f+ f

500

f f+ f
 4⇡f 2 V
g(f ) f = f
c3
V

kB T kB T

8⇡f 2
⇢(f ) f = kB T f
c3
2

E0 = hf h
h = 6.626 · 10 34 ·

8⇡hf 3 1
⇢(f ) f =
c3 hf
e kB T
1

hf
hf hf
e kB T 1 ⇡ 1+ kB T 1= kB T

E0
 f

U U >0

U <0
I
U

U
Ut

Ut

U < Ut

Ut

Ut
V0 e e

Ut f

h
E = hf
 I1
I2
I = I1 + I2

A1 A2
A = A1 +A2
A2
I1 I2
 P
P / (E1 + E2 )2 E1
E2

(E1 + E2 )2 6= E12 + E22

(x)
x (x) P
x P = | (x)|2

P
x0 x0

P12 x1 x2

ˆx2 ˆx2
P12 = P (x) x = | (x)|2 x
x1 x1

P x
x x+ x

(x)
x x x+ x
 (x)

| (x)|2 | (p)|2 p
(P )

p̂ p̂( (x)) = (p) p (x) p (x)

| (x)| 2
p
p x p
p (x) p0
p0 (x) p0 (x) 6= (x)

h
=
p

p h = 6.626 · 10 34 ·

⇡ 10 34

⇡ 10 10
 E 2 = c 2 p2 + c 4 m2
E p c m
E = pc
hc
= E f =c E = hf

l < l

x
p

h
x · p
4⇡
h

h
E · t
4⇡
E t
 (x, t)
t

h @ h2 @ 2
i = + V (x)
2⇡ @t 8⇡ 2 m @x2
i m V (x)
@
@t @
t x @
@2
@x2
x

h @
i 2⇡ @t
E
h @
i 2⇡ @t = E

h2 @ 2
E = + V (x)
8⇡ 2 m @x2
 f

E
⌫ E = h⌫
 nh
2⇡r = n =
mv
r n
h
= p p = mv m
v

v2 Ze2
m =
r 4⇡✏0 r2
Z 1

✏ 0 h2
rn = n2
⇡mZe2
rn n
r1 = 5.3 · 10 11

ra
rb

✓ ◆
Ze2 1 1
E =
4⇡✏0 ra rb
rn

1 1 Ze2
E rn = mvn2 =
2 2 4⇡✏0 rn
 ra rb

E = E + E rb E ra
✓ ◆
1 Ze2 1 1
=
2 4⇡✏0 ra rb
✓ ◆
1 Ze2 1 1
=
2 4⇡✏0 r1 a2 b2

ra = a 2 r1 rb = b2 r1 a b
ra > r b
E ch
⌫ = h = E
a=2 b=1 121

b=2

13.6

[0, a]
 x<0 x>a

h2 @ 2
= (E V)
8⇡ 2 m @x2

E V

0<x<a
 V x < 0 x > a

h2 @ 2
=E
8⇡ 2 m @x2
(x) (x)
(x) = A (kx) + B (kx)
A k

8⇡ 2 mE @2
=
h2 @x2
8⇡ 2 mE
(A (kx) + B (kx)) = k 2 (A (kx) + B (kx))
h2
p 2⇡
k = 2mE
h
A B x=0

B=0 (a) = 0
⇡ ka = n⇡ n
E
 n 2 ⇡ 2 h2 n2 h2
En = =
2ma2 4⇡ 2 8ma2

n En
A
0 a 1

ˆa
1= | (x)|2 x
0
ˆa
= A2 (kx)2 x
0
 a
2 1 1
=A ( (kx) (kx) + x)
2 k 0
2a
=A
r2
a
A=
2

n (x)

r
2 n⇡
n (x) = ( x)
a a

n (x)

n 2 ⇡ 2 h2 n2 h2
En = =
2ma2 4⇡ 2 8ma2
 g

g
i
X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } n x̄
n
1X
x̄ = xi .
n
i=1

x̃

(
x[ n+1 ] n
x̃ = 1
2

2 · (x[ 2 ] + x[ 2 +1] ) n
n n

[ n2 ] n
2

10
5 5
10 10
5 10
t1 = 10.3 , t2 = 9.6 , t3 = 9.8 , t4 = 10.5 , t5 = 10.3

t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 + t5
t̄ = = 10.1
5
 T̄ = 1.01

9.6 , 9.8 , 10.3 , 10.3 , 10.5

t̃ = 10.3 , T̃ = 1.03

n n
!
1 X 1 X
2
= (xi x̄)2 = x2i nx̄2
n 1 n 1
i=1 i=1

CV
p
= 2

CV =
x̄

"add = ±0.001
"rel = ±0.1

"add
"rel =
|X|
 |X|

1
= 0.5
l = 1012 ± 0.5

68.3
[x̄ , x̄ + ] [x̄ 2 , x̄ + 2 ] 95.4
 10 t1 =
10.3 , t2 = 9.6 , t3 = 9.8 , t4 = 10.5 , t5 = 10.3
10 Ti = ti /10

v
u N
u 1 X
T =t (ti t̄)2
N 1
i=1
r
1
= (0.022 + ( 0.052 ) + ( 0.03)2 + 0.042 + 0.022 )
4
= 0.038078 ⇡ 0.04.
T̄

1
T̄ =p T = 0.017 ⇡ 0.02
N

T̄ = 0.02 T̄ = 1.01
T¯e = 1.013 3

T¯e = 1.013 ⇡ 1.01

U R
I
Ii Ui

R = R(X, Y, Z)
 X± X Y ± Y Z± Z
R R

R(X) = X + c
R= X

R(X, Y, Z) = X + Y Z
p
R = ( X)2 + ( Y )2 + ( Z)2

R(X) = a · X
R = |a| · X

X ·Y
R(X, Y, Z) =
Z s
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2
X 2 Y 2 Z
R = |R| · + +
X Y Z
R= X+ Y + Z
X, Y, Z
X Z
Y
 R(X, Y, . . . )
s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
@R @R
R= X + Y + ...
@X @Y
@R
@X

R(X, Y, ...) X
Y, ...

X, Y Z

g 4⇡ 2
= !2 = 2
l T
4⇡ 2
g = 2 l.
T
l = 0.252
l = 0.0005
T = 1.01 , T = T = 0.02 g g = 9.75
g

@g 4⇡ 2
= 2
@l T
@g 4⇡ 2
= 2 3 l.
@T T
 s✓ ◆2 ✓◆2
@g @g
g= l + T
@l @T
s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
4⇡ 2 4⇡ 2
= l + 2 3l T
T2 T
= 0.39 ⇡ 0.4

g = 9.8 ± 0.4
g = 9.75 ⇡ 9.8

n xi

xi
xi

n
1X
x̄ = xi
n
i=1
v
u n
1u X
x̄ = t ( x i )2
n
i=1

xi = x
x̄
v
u n
1u X
x̄ = t ( x i )2
n
i=1
q
1
= n ( x)2
n
1
=p x
n

p1
n

xi 1  xi  xi+1
p p
(1 p)
Q(0.25) Q(0.75)

Q(p) = (1 g) · xj + g · xj+1

✓ ◆
1 1
j = bpn + c g= pn + j
2 2

bzc z
k k k
p = 4 p = 10 p = 100
1
p= 2
(
x[ n+1 ] n
x̃ = 1
2

2 · (x[ 2 ] + x[ 2 +1] ) n
n n
 X Y xi
yi

n
X
1
Cov(X, Y ) = (xi x̄) (yi ȳ)
n 1
i=1

Cov(X, Y )
Corr(X, Y ) =
x· y

X Y
y = a + bx

Cov(X, Y )
b= 2
x

a = ȳ bx̄

ȳ x̄ Y X
F

F /N
 F/ l/ s/
0 50 0
0.5 62 12
1.0 66 16
1.5 77 27
2.0 93 43
2.5 97 47
3.0 113 63
3.5 123 73

F
l l0 = 50
s=l l0
10
10

1
l = 20.3 · F
100
 x y

y = a + by.
a b

b a

x F
F = kx
k

x 1
k= = 0.049 ·
y
 F =0
x=0

y = aecx

a c

ỹ = (y) = (a) + cx.

y
ỹ x
c a
y ã a = eã
y
y y
a
 I U

U
I(U ) = I0 e nUT

I0 n UT = kT /e =
0.0253 T k
e
UT I0 n

(e)U
(I) = (I0 ) +
nUT

U/ I/ (I/ )
0.230 0.0001 4.000
0.250 0.0002 3.699
0.277 0.0005 3.301
0.307 0.001 3.000
0.391 0.01 2.000
0.477 0.1 1.000
0.586 1 0.000
0.696 10 1.000
0.746 30 1.477
0.770 50 1.699
0.800 100 2.00
0.833 200 2.301
0.851 300 2.477
0.866 400 2.602
0.877 500 2.699
 n

(e) 1
= 10.1 , UT = 0.0253
nUT
(e)
n= = 1.70
10.1 1 UT
y0 I0

y0 = 6.1
I0 = 10y0 = 7.9 · 10 7
= 0.79

s=
0.5gt2

q a
b
y = axq + b.
x̃ = xq y x̃
a b

s t

1
s = gt2
2
g
s t2
t2
 t/ s/ t2 / 2
0 0 0
0.1 0.05 0.01
0.2 0.20 0.04
0.3 0.44 0.09
0.4 0.78 0.16
0.5 1.23 0.25
0.6 1.77 0.36
0.7 2.40 0.49
0.8 3.14 0.64
0.9 3.97 0.81

1 2
g = 4.90 ·
2
2
g = 9.80 · .
 q

x y

y = axb

a b
x y

ỹ = (y) = (a) + b (x) = ã + bx̃

z = a, x, y : z̃ = (z)

x̃ ỹ ỹ
a

x y a b

1
s = g · tq
2
a q
 t/ s/ (s/ ) (t/ )
0.1 0.05 2.303 2.996
0.2 0.20 1.609 1.609
0.3 0.44 1.204 0.821
0.4 0.78 0.916 0.248
0.5 1.23 0.693 0.207
0.6 1.77 0.511 0.571
0.7 2.40 0.357 0.875
0.8 3.14 0.223 1.144
0.9 3.97 0.105 1.379

q = 1.990 ⇡ 2

q 2

g
y0 y

1
y0 = ( g)) = 1.585
2
g = 2ey0 = 9.76.

g y0
q=2

2 2
[g] = · ) g = 9.76 ·
 q

x y
y = f (x) f a, b, c, ...

x̃, ỹ
ỹ = a + bx̃

0.5
q=2
 a b

a, b, c, ...
a b a
b

x y
ỹ = x2 y x̃ = x/y

C f

↵
f=
C + Cs
↵ Cs
C f ↵ Cs

1 1 Cs
= C+
f ↵ ↵
C 1/f
f

C/ f/ T = 1/f /
33 13.94 0.072
68 8.3 0.121
82 6.99 0.143
151 4.17 0.240
233 2.79 0.358
219 2.98 0.336
184 3.48 0.287
150 4.2 0.238
115 5.25 0.191
101 5.89 0.170
 ↵ s
1 1
s= = 0.0014 ·
↵
1 1 1
↵= = 710 · = 710 ·
0.0014
↵ y0 Cs

Cs
= y0 = 0.025
↵
Cs = y0 ↵ = 18
 Pn
i=1 xi = nx̄

n
X
1
2
= (xi x̄)2
n 1
i=1
n
X
1
= x2i 2xi x̄ + x̄2
n 1
i=1
n n n
!
1 X X X
= x2i 2x̄ xi + x̄2
n 1
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
!
1 X
= x2i 2nx̄2 + nx̄2
n 1
i=1
n
!
1 X
= x2i nx̄ 2
n 1
i=1

n
X
1
Cov(X, Y ) = (xi x̄) (yi ȳ)
n 1
i=1
Xn
1
= (xi yi xi ȳ x̄yi + x̄ȳ)
n 1
i=1
n n n n
!
1 X X X X
= x i yi ȳ xi x̄ yi + x̄ȳ
n 1
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n
!
1 X
= x i yi nx̄ȳ nȳx̄ + nx̄ȳ
n 1
i=1
n
!
1 X
= x i yi nx̄ȳ
n 1
i=1

y x ŷ = a + bx
y
a b

n
X
S(a, b) = (yi ŷ)2
i=1
n
X
= (yi a bxi )2
i=1

a b
a b a b

n
X
@S
= 2 (yi a bxi ) = 0
@a
i=1
Xn
@S
= 2 (xi (yi a bxi )) = 0
@b
i=1

n
X n
X n
X n
X
(yi a bxi ) = yi a b xi
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
= nȳ na bnx̄

2(nȳ na bnx̄) = 0
ȳ a bx̄ = 0
a = ȳ bx̄
 a
n
X n
X
(xi (yi a bxi )) = (xi (yi ȳ + bx̄ bxi ))
i=1 i=1
Xn n
X n
X n
X
= x i yi xi ȳ + xi bx̄ bx2i
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n
X Xn n
X n
X
= x i yi ȳ xi + bx̄ xi b x2i
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n n
!
X X
= x i yi nx̄ȳ + b nx̄2 x2i
i=1 i=1
2
= (n 1) · Cov(X, Y ) b(n 1) · x

2
2 (n 1) · Cov(X, Y ) b(n 1) · x =0
Cov(X, Y ) b x2 = 0
Cov(X, Y )
b= 2
x
 1N =
kg·m
1 s2

10 15 1015
10 12 1012
10 9 109
µ 10 6 106
10 3 103
10 2 102
10 1 101
 · · ·
· ·
· · · ·
· · ·
· ·
· · ·
· · ·
⌦ · · ·
⌦ · · ·
· · ·
· ⌦· · · ·

F = am
[M ][L] [L]
= · [M ]
[T ]2 [T ]2
u = 1.660 · 10 27

uc2 = 931.49
NA = 6.022 · 10 23 1

a0 = 5.2917 · 10 11

kB = 1.3806 · 10 23 · 1

e = 1.602 · 10 19

✏0 = 8.8541 · 10 12 ·· 1· 1

g = 9.807 · 2

R = 8.3145 · 1· 1

G = 6.673 · 10 11 3· 1· 2

c = 2.9979 · 108 · 1

µ0 = 4⇡ · 10 7 ·· 1· 1

p0 = 101324
h = 6.626 · 10 34 ·
me = 9.109 · 10 31

mn = 1.675 · 10 27

mp = 1.673 · 10 27

RH = 1.097 · 107 1

= 5.670 · 10 8 2· 4· 1

Z0 = 376.7 ⌦
 3 1 1 1 1
⇢ · cs · ↵ C · · Tm
6
2700 5240 23.8 · 10 896 660.1
6
11340 1250 31.3 · 10 129 327.4
6
7860 5170 12.0 · 10 450 1535
6
19290 3240 14.3 · 10 129 1063
6
8920 3900 16.8 · 10 383 1083
6
8470 18 · 10 380 905
6
10500 19.7 · 10 235 860.8

20
1 1 1
· · ⇢e ⌦· µr
8 5
239 2.82 · 10 1 + 2.1 · 10
7
34.8 2.2 · 10
7
80 1 · 10 ⇡ 5800
8 5
312 2.2 · 10 1 3.4 · 10
8 6
390 1.7 · 10 1 6.4 · 10
8
79 7.8 · 10
8
428 1.59 · 10
 3 1 1 1 1
⇢/ · cs / · ↵/ C/ · · Tm /
3
792 1190 1.49 · 10 2160 94.86
3
879 1326 .1.23 · 10 1725 5.53
3
789 1170 1.1 · 10 2430 114.5
⇡ 900
4
13546 1430 1.84 · 10 139 38.87
4
998 1483 2.07 · 10 4182 0

1 1
Tb / Lm / · Lb / ·
4 5
56.25 9.8 · 10 5.25 · 10
5
80.1 1.28 · 10 3.94 · 105
5
78.33 1.08 · 10 8.4 · 105

356.58 1.18 · 104 2.85 · 105

5
100 3.338 · 10 2.256 · 106
 p a b
1 4 2 3 1
Cp / / / Tm / Tb / b/
⇢/ ·
3 cs / · a/ · · ·
5
1.784 20.9 77.7 33.4 0.425 3.73 · 10
5
0.1785 1005 20.9 268.94 0.0034 2.36 · 10
5
1.977 268 36.8 78.45 0.366 4.28 · 10
5
1.293 344 29.1 191.4 0.135 3.65 · 10
5
0.717 445 35.6 191.4 0.229 4.28 · 10
5
0.9 20.8 248.61 245.06 0.0217 1.74 · 10
5
1.429 326 29.3 218.79 182.97 0.138 3.17 · 10
5
1.25 1310 29.1 210.0 195.82 0.137 3.87 · 10
5
33.6 0 100 0.553 3.04 · 10
5
0.0889 1310 28.9 259.2 252.77 0.0248 2.66 · 10
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