Name: Julie Angeles Course: BS-Psychology

Subject: Fundamentals of Biology

A. Morphology of Flowering Plants

- In biology, morphology is the study of the sizes, forms, and structures of

microbes, plants, and animals as well as the relationships between all of the parts that
make them up. Angiosperms, or flowering plants, are attractive to research because
of their enormous morphological diversity, but they also have some features in
common. Here are some examples: roots, stalks, leaves; flowers; fruits; seeds.
These plants bloom. The reproductive unit that defines flowering plants apart from
other seed plants and enables them to fill a range of ecological needs is their flowers,
which are the most significant component of a flowering plant.

The process via which flowering plants fertilize is called pollination. Pollen
grains are moved from the stigma of the female flower to the anther of the male flower,
where they are fertilized and seeds are formed.

PARTS OF A FLOWERING PLANT:

The morphology of flowering plants has two systems: root system and shoot
system. The underground part is known as root and the one above is called shoot.

Root system: The portion of the plant that grows below the surface is called the root,
and since it lacks chlorophyll, it appears brown and nongreen in color. Growing
negatively away from light, they grow toward the soil and water. There are 3 variety of
root system and they are: taproot, fibrous root, and adventitious root systems.

a.) Taproot System - The radicle of the germination seed is where the taproot
system originates. Another name for it is the normal root system. Dicotyledonous
plants are the only ones with taproot systems. The taproot system gives the plant a
strong stabilization, and it penetrates the soil deeply. Examples of it are Mango, Gram,
Mustard and etc.
 b.) Fibrous Root System - for monocotyledonous plants, the fibrous root
system is visible. These roots do not go deeper into the ground. They stay in close
to the surface. Therefore, unlike Taproots, they are incapable to offer a solid
anchorage. This kind of root originated from primary roots that grew from the stem or
from thin, medium-branching roots. Examples of it are Wheat, Onion, Paddy and etc.

c.) Adventitious Root System - an adventitious root system is one that

originates from any region of the plant body other than the radicle. Most monocot
plants have this type of root structure. Adoptive root systems provide a variety of
functions in plants, including mechanical support and vegetative expansion. Examples
of it are Banyan tree, Oak tree, Black pepper tree and etc.

The structure of roots helps them to execute their primary purposes and this purposes
have 3 major jobs: absorbing water and minerals, anchoring and supporting
the plant for the reason that it allows the plants to grow tall and to support the plant
to do not lose their balance and falling down, lastly, it helps as for storing food
because it produced by the leaves during the photosynthesis.

Shoot system: The plant structures that are developing above ground define the plant
shoot system. Sometimes the term "plant shoot" is used to refer to the stem as a
whole. The stems, nodes, leaves, buds, and flowers are examples of these structures.
Initially green, young stems eventually turn brown and woody. The stem can take on
many shapes depending on its purpose. By shifting the shoot, or stem, toward the
direction of the sun, the plant shoot allows it to react to sunlight. In the leaves located
along the main and secondary stems, it helps in photosynthesis.

The stem is altered into the many configurations such as suckers, runners,
tubers, rhizomes, tendrils, cladode, thorns, and climbers. They also have some
important characteristics such as the shoot of the flowering plants is divided by nodes (
it is the points where the plant bear the leaves) and internodes ( it is the area
between the nodes). It’s also growing upright and away from the ground and toward
the light is the stem. Additionally, young stems are green and photosynthetic and
the stem and branches of mature plants bear fruits and flowers.

Leaves: the leaf is squeezed into a structure that goes laterally. It is the main
component of the process of photosynthesis in plants. It allows gas exchange
through the stomata and absorbs light. The presence of the photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll and the microscopic hole or opening known as stomata, which is where
gas exchange occurs, are what give leaves their green color. Venation is the
arrangement of veins and veinlets in a leaf. The lamina, petiole, and leaf base are
some of the major parts of the leaf.

Under certain conditions, a leaf's whole structure or a portion of it changes to carry out
particular duties. Certain plants that are carnivores use their leaves to capture their
prey. In certainly leaves evolve into protective buds. A variety of leaf structural forms
consist of: leaf tendrils, spines, storage leaves, and insect catching leaves.

Flowers: the reproductive organ of flowering plants is the flower. A lot of them smell
pleasant and are bright and beautiful. This will lure birds and insects to them, which will
then serve as carriers or vectors for the movement of pollen grains. They reproduce by
self-pollination and cross-pollination. The term inflorescence refers to the
arrangement of flowers on the floral axis. It consists of two main parts: racemose,
which allows the main axis to continue growing, and cymose, which stops the
main axis in a flow. It contains of 4 different whorls: calyx (the outermost), corolla
(composed of petals), androecium (composed of stamens), and gynoecium
(composed of one or more carpels).

Some important functions of the flowers in a plant are it can help for the process of
reproduction, the ovary of the flower can develop into a fruit that consist of a seed,
lastly, the flowers attract insects and birds in which serves as the agent to transfer the
pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of some other flower.

Fruits: a ripened or mature ovary is called a fruit, and what the ovules grow into after
fertilization is called a seed. Fruits are what distinguish flowering plants from other
types. Parthenocarpic fruit is defined as one that develops without fertilization. There
are 3 different types of fruits according to their development. 1. Simple, it means that
a single fruit grew from a single flower's ovary, examples plums and peaches. 2.
Aggregate, it is the little fruits that are produced by multiple ovaries in a single flower
and the best example of it is the strawberry. Lastly, 3. Multiple fruits, this one is
when the ovaries of many flowers grow closely together to create one large fruit, the
best example for it is the pineapple.
Seeds: a seed is a fundamental plant component that is located inside of a fruit. The
embryo is covered by a layer of protective material on the exterior of the seed known
as the seed coat. Seeds are categorized as Monocotyledons or Dicotyledons based on
the quantity of cotyledons they contain. The Monocotyledons, which have only one
embryonic leaf, while the Dicotyledons, have two embryonic leaves.

B. Solanaceae Family - other names for the Solanaceae family are nightshade or
potato families. Order Solanales includes the family Solanaceae. There are many
different types of flowering plants in this family, including ornamentals, medicinal
plants, spices, shrubs, trees, and annual and perennial herbs.

The characteristics of Solanaceae in terms of vegetative characters are root system,

stem, and the leaves. When it comes to flower characteristics some characteristics of
it are inflorescence (usually cymose), corolla (have five petals), and seed (many
seeds). These family have a big contribution to the economics specially in foods, drugs,
and ornamental plants to humans like the potatoes, tomatoes, and chilly are used
for vegetables. The tomatoes used in manufacture of sauce and ketchup. The
belladonna is used in tinctures and plasters.
B. Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Plants tissues have 2 types:

a.) Meristematic tissue – cells divide actively

1. Apical meristem - develops primary tissues, including as dermal,
vascular, and ground tissues, at the tip.
2. Intercalary system - develops between fully developed tissues in
grasses.
3. Lateral meristem - produces secondary tissues

b.) Permanent tissue - after achieving their specialized shape and function, cells stop
dividing
 1. Simple tissue - a single cell type with identical structure and functionality
2. Complex tissue - many cell types that cooperate with one another

Epidermal Tissue system

 It comprises the outer covering of the plants, such as epidermis, cuticle,

stomata, epidermal extensions; trichomes in stem and root hairs
 Stomata regulate gaseous exchange and water loss by transpiration
 Guard cells are bean-shaped in dicots and contain chloroplasts
 Grasses have a dumb-bell shaped guard cells
 Root hairs are unicellular
 Trichomes are multicellular

The Ground tissue system

 They form the major bulk of tissues between epidermal and vascular tissues,
e.g. cortex, pericycle, pith
 It contains simple tissues
 Mesophyll of leaves is a ground tissue with chloroplast

Vascular tissue system

 It consists of complex tissues of xylem and phloem

 Dicots have cambium present between xylem and phloem of vascular bundle
 Cambium forms secondary vascular tissues
 Dicots have an open vascular bundle
 Monocots have a closed type of vascular bundle, i.e. cambium is absent
 Roots have a radial arrangement of vascular bundles, i.e. xylem and phloem are
present alternatively

Dicotyledonous Root

 Epiblema is the outermost layer, which contains root hair

 Several layers of cortex present, that ends with innermost layer endodermis,
which contains waxy material called suberin forming Casparian strips
 Next is pericycle, which gives rise to lateral roots and vascular cambium
 Two to six vascular bundles are present
  Radial and exarch vascular bundles

Monocotyledonous Root

 The structure is similar to dicot root but polyarch xylem bundles are present
 Pith is large and no secondary growth

Dicotyledonous Stem

 The outermost layer is the epidermis with cuticle

 Trichomes and stomata may be present on the epidermis
 The cortex consists of three layers; outermost hypodermis (collenchymatous),
middle parenchymatous cortical layer and the endodermis containing starch
grains
 Below endodermis, pericycle and radially located medullary rays are present
 Vascular bundles are arranged as a ring
 Vascular bundles conjoint, open and with endarch protoxylem

Monocotyledonous Stem

 Hypodermis is sclerenchymatous
 Vascular bundles are scattered, conjoint and closed

Dicotyledonous Leaf

 Also known as dorsiventral leaf due to distinct dorsal and ventral side
 Reticulate venation
 The epidermis covers both the upper and lower surface
 There are more stomata present on the abaxial epidermis
 Mesophyll cells are parenchymatous and perform photosynthesis
 The mesophyll is made up of elongated palisade and oval or round spongy
parenchyma cells
 Vascular bundles are surrounded by bundle sheath cells and present on veins
and mid-rib

Monocotyledonous Leaf

 Also known as isobilateral as both sides are similar

 Parallel venation
 Stomata are equally distributed on both sides
  The mesophyll is not differentiated between palisade and spongy parenchyma
cells
 Some cells of the epidermis are modified into large cells called bulliform cells in
grasses, they help in minimizing water loss
 Vascular bundles are of the same size

C. Structural Organization in Animals

Morphology, Anatomy, and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory,

respiratory, nervous, and reproductive) of frog.

A frog is any one of an unique species of amphibians with a small body that are
tailless. Scientists have identified more than 5,000 kinds of frogs, and they are always
finding new ones. There is a wide range of sizes and colors across frog species. All
continents, with the exception of Antarctica, are home to them in a range of
environments. Frogs are classified as amphibians, which are vertebrates with cold blood
that lack scales and have backbones. Amphibians are aquatic and land animals.

The necks of frogs and toads seem to be nonexistent. But the majority of animals
have big, projecting eyes that allow them to observe most directions without turning
their heads. It is also a fantastic ability for most species to hop in any direction. They
can hop very far because of the strong muscles in their rear legs. Although there are
many different colors for frogs, there are two primary color schemes. Different survival
methods are employed with each color schemes. Predators have a harder difficulty
identifying them because of their usage of mottled green and brown hues for
concealment. Predators are alerted to the poisonous nature of the skin by the vivid
hues, which appear like those of the poison frog. Certain frogs, such as the smooth-
sided toad, have glands behind their eyes that secrete potent poisons that are lethal to
any predator that tries to consume them.

When it comes time for mating, male frogs yell out to attract females. As she
releases her eggs in a mating hug known as an amplexus, the female will select a male
whose call she finds interesting, and the male will grab her. Fertilization of the eggs
occurs outside the female's body in almost all frog species. For certain species, like the
Andean toad, amplexus can extend for several days, weeks, or even months.
Depending on the species, the female can lay anywhere from two to over 50,000 eggs.
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A FROG
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF A FROG
Morphology:

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura

Functions of different systems

1. Digestive system - the mouth, throat, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, and cloaca are among the organs that make up the digestive tract, which is
the same as that of humans. Essential activities for digestion are carried out by
accessory organs and glands such the tongue, teeth, salivary glands, gastric glands,
pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. Together, these organs help to digest food by
dissolving it into smaller, more absorbable molecules or nutrients. The body uses these
nutrients, which enter the circulation through the bloodstream, to power its tissues and
cells as they perform essential functions. As carnivorous animals, frogs mostly consume
fish, snails, earthworms, spiders, tiny frogs, and insects. With the help of their long
tongue, they catch their meal and consume it completely.

2. Circulatory system - the circulatory system of frogs is closed, making them

amphibians. Frogs only have one heart to circulate blood throughout their body,
excluding an abnormal mutation. A frog's heart consists of three chambers. A ventricle
and two atria are part of the chambers. Blood from the veins enters the right atrium
deoxygenated. The ventricle, which pumps blood, has a propensity to mix blood that is
deoxygenated and oxygenated. Both the skin and the lungs supply oxygenated blood to
the left atrium. Unlike humans, frogs have three circuits for their circulation instead of
only two. However, frogs have a systemic circuit that circulates oxygenated blood
throughout the body, just like humans do. To absorb oxygen, blood is transported to
the lungs via the pulmonary circuit. A pulmocutaneous circuit is also present in frogs,
via which deoxygenated blood is sent to the skin for gas exchange and oxygen
absorption.
3. Respiratory system - even when totally immersed, an adult frog can breathe
because to its thin, fluid-filled skin. This thin membrane-like skin easily absorbs oxygen,
giving the frog the oxygen it needs to survive underwater without the need of gills. A
frog's skin is flexible, thus moisture is quickly lost, and most of them need to be in a
damp or humid environment to keep their water levels stable.
Frogs' lungs are highly developed and complicated in comparison to those of many
other amphibians. They are split into several smaller sacs called alveoli, which are in
charge of the gas exchange inside the lungs. Frogs utilize both their mouths and noses
to help them breathe, in contrast to mammals that use the diaphragm to regulate
breathing. The floor of the mouth drops and the throat relaxes as a frog inhales. The
frog then expands its mouth and neck by opening its nostrils, which drives air into its
lungs. Finally, it closes its mouth to let out air.

4. Nervous system - the nervous system in frogs is the most complicated organ
system. The nervous system controls equilibrium, movement in space, and all of the
senses, including hearing, sight, and smell. It consists of the nerves crisscrossing the
body (peripheral nervous system) and the brain and spinal cord (central nervous
system).

5. Reproductive system - every frog species has a unique reproductive mechanism

that produces gametes for fertilization. The sperm produced by a male frog's testes
goes through the cloaca. A female frog's two ovaries create ovum, which is then sent to
the oviduct, which opens into the cloaca. One frequent route for reproduction and
excretion is the cloaca. Two thousand to three thousand externally fertilized eggs are
deposited at a time.