UNIT INTRODUCTION 7 Computer System - Elements and organization; Operating System Overview - Objectives and Functions - Evolution of Operating System; Operating System Structures - Operating System Services - User Operating System Interface - System Calls - System Programs — Design and Implementation-Structuring methods. INTRODUCTION 202 Operating System is a program that acts as an interface between a user of a computer and the computer hardware, Eg. Windows (Microsoft), i0S (Apple), Android (Google), Linux/Ubuntu (open souree) Goals of Operating System: 4 Exocute user programs and make solving the user problems easior 4 Make the computer system convenient to use ¢ Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner 1. COMPUTER SYSTEM. A computer system can be divided roughly into four components: the hardware, the operating system, the application programs, and a user Hardware: The Central Processing Unit (CPU), the Memory, and the Input/output (1/0) devices provides the basic computing resources for the system. Application Programs: Such as word processors, spreadsheets, compilers, and web browsers define the ways in which these resources.are used to solve users’ computing problems. Operating System: Controls the hardware and coordinates its use among the various application programs for the-various users.User “Application Programs (Compilers, Web Browsers ‘Operating System ‘Computer Hardware (CPU, Memory I/O ete.) Figure : Computer System ‘The operating system provides the means for proper use of these resources in the operation of the computer system. Operating Systems from two viewpoints: + User View + System View . User View The user's view of the computer varies according to the interface being used. Many computer users sit with a laptop or in frant ofa PC consisting of a monitor, keyboard, and mouse. Such a system is designed for one user to control its resources. For this, the aperating system Is designed mostly for ease of use, performance and security and not to resource utilization, Many users interact with mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. These devices are connected to networks through cellular or other wireless technologies, The user Interface for mobile computers generally features a tauch screen, where the user interacts with the system by pressing and swiping fingers acrass the screen rather than using physical keyboard and mouse. Many mobile devices also allow users to interact through a voice recognition interface, such as Apple's Siri, = System View From the computer's pain: of view, the operating system is the program mast intimately involved with the hardware. Itisa resource allocator. 4. computer system has many resources that may be required to solve « problem: CPU time, memory space, storage space, I/O devices, and 80 on, The operating system acts as the manager af these resources. The operating system must decide how to allocate the resources to specific programs and users so that it can operate the computer system efficiently and fairly.Components of Operating System. Shell: + Environment that gives a user an interface to access the operating system's services: Launch Applications + User Mode Kernel: “Keep track of the hardware and computer's operations > Kernel Mode2. COMPUTER SYSTEM ~ ELEMENTS AND ORGANIZATION mouse — keyboard printer monitor disks ee G fast, 2, [_] wpe ePu ] eee A computer system consists ef CPU and a number of device controllers connected through a common bus that provides access between components and shared memory. Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of davice, more than one device may be attached. For example, one system USB port can connect to a USB hub, to which several devices can he connected, & device contraller maintains some local buffer storage and a set of special purpase registers. The device controller is responsible for maving the data between the peripheral devices that iteontrols and its local buffer storage. Operating systems have a device driver for each devico controllcr. This device driver understands the device controller and provides the rest of the operating system with a uniform Interface to the device. The CPU and the device controllers can execute in parallel. ‘Three key aspects of the system are Interrupts Storage Structure 1/0 Structure Interrupts Hardware may triggeran interrupt by sending a signal to the CPU. Software may trigger an interrupt by executing a special operation called a system call. When the CPU Is interrupted, it stops what it is doing and immediately transfers execution to a fixed location. The fixed location usually contains the starting address where the service routine for the interrupt is located. The Interrupt service routine executes; on completion, the CPU resumes the interrupted computation, time line of this operation Is shown belowThe interrupt routine is called indirectly through the table, The table holds the addresses of the interrupt service routines for the various devices, This array, or interrupt vector, of addresses is then indexed by a unique device number, given with the interrupt request, to provide the address of the interrupt service routine for the interrupting device. The interrupt architecture must also save the address af the interrupted Instruction, After the Interrupt is serviced, the saved return address is loaded into the program counter, and the interrupted computation resumesas thaugh the interrupthad not occurred. The device controller raises an interrupt by asserting a signalon the interrupt request line, the CPU catches the interrupt and dispatchos it te the interrupt handler, and the handler clears the interrupt by servicing the device. + au CPU eccwng cts tor yp courte Teiatest/0 ——_} ___ Tapa Ready ump ‘FU resivingnterropt Comlete se ter “Traneors cone eerrupt eons ere ates ‘Sina — Interrupt ander prowess strc, Remar rom torr CPU Fesimes processing of teteevuptoa Yasie Most CPUs have two interrupt request lines. Qhe fs the honmaskable interrupt, which is reserved for eventasuchas unrecoverable memory errors The second interrupt lineis maskable: it can he tarned aff by the CPU before the execution of critical instruction sequences that must not be interrupted. The maskable interrupt is used by device controllers to request ser vice. * — Storage Structure © KB: 1024 Bytes + MB; 1024? Bytes * GB: 1024 Bytes (1 Million Bytes } «© TB: 1024 Bytes (1 Billion Bytes } « PR: 1024 5 Bytes‘The CPU load the instructions from memory, General-purpose computers run mostof their programs from rewritable memory, called main memory (RAM). ‘The first program to run on computer te power ON |s a bootstrap program, which then loads the operating system. Since RAM is volatile, loses its content when power is turned off or otherwise lost. So the bootstrap program cannot be stored in RAM. So the computor uses electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) and other forms of firmware, storage that is infrequently written to and is nonvolatile. EEPROM can be changed but cannot he changed frequently. In addition, itis low speed, and so it containsmostly static programs and data that arent frequently used. For example, the iPhone uses EEPROM to store serial numbers and hardware information about the device. All forms of memory provide an array of bytes. Zach byte has its own address. Interaction achieved through a soquonco of load or storo instructions to spocific momory addrossos. Tho load instruction moves a byte or word from main memory toan internal register within the CPU, whereas the store instruction moves the content of a register to main memory. The CPU automatically loads instructions from main memory for execution from the location stored in the program coumer. First fetches an instruction from memory and stores that instruction in the instruction register. The instruction is then decoded and may cause operands to he fetched from memary and stored in sone internal register. After the instruction on the operands has been executed, the result may be stored hack in memory. ‘The programs and data mus: be in main memory permanently. This arrangement is not possible cn most systems for two reasons: Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs and data permanently. + Main memory, is volatile, it loses its contents wher power is turned off or atherwise lost. Most computer systems provide secondary storage as an extension of main memory. The main requirement for secondary storage is that it be able te hold large quantities af data permanently. The most common secondary-storage devices are hard-disk drives (HDDs) and nonvolatile memory (NVM) devices, which provide storage for both programs and data. Mast programsare stored in secondary storage until they are leaded inte memory. Secondary storage is also much slower than main memory. Other possible components inelude cache memory, CD-ROM, magnetic tapes, and so on. Thos: that are slow enough ond large enough that they are used only for special purposes, to stare backup copies ef material stored on other devices, are called tertiary storage. ‘The wide variety of storage systems can be organized in a hierarchy according to storage capacity and access time, Smaller and faster memory closer to the CPU. Various storage systems are either volatile ornonvolatile, Volatile storage, loses its contents when the power to the device is removed, so data must be written to nonvolatile storage for safekeeping. Tho top four levels of memory are constructed using semiconductor memory, which consists of semiconductor based electronic circuits. Non Volatile Memory devices, at the fourth level, are faster than hard disks. The most common form of NVM device is flash memory, which is popular In mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Increasingly, flash memory Is being used for long term sterageon laptops, desktops, and servers as well,Storage Capacity Access Time Volatile storage will be referred to simply as memory. Nonvolatile storage retains its contents when power is lost. This type of storage can be classified into two distinct types: ‘| Mechanical : Storage systems are HDDs, optical disks, holographic storage, and magnetic tape. © Electrical : Storage systems are flash memory, FRAM, NRAM, and SSD. Mechanical storage is generally larger and less expensive per byte than electrical storage. Conversely, electrical storage is typically costly, smaller, and faster than mechanical storage. + 1/0 Structure A large portion of operating system code is dedicated to manage 1/0. General purpose computer system consists of multiple devices, all of which exchange data via a common bus, The form of interrupt driven [/0 is fine for moving small amounts of data, direct memory access (DMAJ is used for bulk data transfer.System Bus Normal Data Transfer DMA Data Transfer After setting up buffers, pointers, and counters for the 1/0 device, the device controller transfers an entire block of data directly to or from the device and main memary. with no intervention by the CPU. Only one interrupt is generated per block, to tell the device driver that the operation has completed, rather than the one interrupt per byte generated for low speed devices, While the device controller is performing these operations, the CPU is available to accomplish other work, Some high-end systems use switch ratherthan bus architecture. On these systems, multiple components can talk to other components concurrently, rather than competing for cyeles an a shared bus. Thread of Execution Instruction and. Mavernent Data cpu 3 Memory3. EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM cpu : The hardware that executes instructions. Processor; Aphysical chip that contains one or more CPUs. Core The basic computation uni of the CPU. Multicore: Ineluding multiple computing cores on the same CPU. Multiprocessor ; Including multiple processors. According to the number of goneral- purpose processors used it is divided into “& Single Pracessor Systems % Multiprocessor Systems + Clustered Systems 4 Single Processor Systems Processor Cache Bus Memory vo Ona single-processor system, there is one main CPU capable of executing the instructions. Most computer systems use a Single pracessor containing one CPU with a single processing core, The core is the component that executes instructions and registers for storing data locally. The one main CPU with its core is capable of executing a general-purpose instruction set, including instructions from processes. % Multiprocessor SystemsThey have mere processors, each with a single-core CPU. The processors share the computer bus anc sometimes the clock, memory, and peripheral devices, The main advantages are @ Increased throughput * Economy of scale # Increased reliability - graceful degradation or fault tolerance The advantage of multiprocessor systems is increased throughput. By increasing the ore work will be done in less time. The most common multiprocessor number af processors, systems use symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), in which each peer CPU pracessor performs all tasks, including operating-system functions and user processes, Processor Processarz PUL cPu2 Registers Repisters Cache Cache Mun Mewory The Figure ilustratesa typical SMP architecture with two processors, each with its awn CPU. Each CPU processor has its ownsset of registers, and local cache, Main Memory isshared. The benefit is that many processes can run simultaneously 4 processes can run if there are N CPUs without causing performance to deteriorate significantly. However, since the CPUs are separate, one may besitting idle while another is overloaded, resulting in inefficiencies. These inefficiencies can he avoided if the processors share certain data structures. The definition of multipracessar has evolved over time and now includes multicore systems, in which multiple computing cores reside ona single chip. Multicore systems can be more efficient than multiple chips with single cores. Pracessart RogistersIna dual-core design with two cores on the same processor chip. In this design, each core has its own register set, as well as its own lacal cache, often known as a level 1, or L1, cache. Notice, too, thata level 2 (L.2) cache is local to the chip but is shared by the two processing cores. © © © © Individual Individual Individual lnedisidual Memory Memory Memory Mernory Shared Memory Bus Interface NUMA Multiprocessing Architecture Adding additional CPUs to a multiprocessor system will increase computing power; and adding tao many CPUs, becames a battleneck and performance begins to degrade. instead to provide each CPU (or group of CPUs) with its own local memory that is accessed via a small, fast local bus. The CPUs are connected by a shared system interconnect, so that all CPUs share one physical address space. This approach known as Non-Uniform Memary Access,or NUMA I I i a CPUS _—- ‘The advantage is that, when a CPU accesses its local memory, itis fast, and no contention over the system interconnect. Thus, NUMA systems can scale more effectively as more processors are added. A drawback is increased latency. For example, CPUO cannataccessthe lacal memory of CPUS as quickly as it ean access its own local memary, slowing down performance. Because NUMA systems can scale to accommodate a large number of processors, they are becoming increasingly popular on servers as well as high-performance computing systems. aLClustered System: Computer Computer Computer Clustered computers share storage and are closely linked via a local-area network LAN oF a faster Interconnect. Clustering is usually used to provide high availability servies that is, service that will continue even if one or mare systems in the cluster fail. A layer of cluster software runs on the cluster nodes, Each node can monitor one or more: of the othars( over the network). If the monitored machine fails, the monitoring machine can take ownership of its storage ahd restart the applications that were running on the failed machine. High availability provides increased reliability, which is crucial in many applications The ability to continue providing service proportional to the level of surviving hardware is called graceful degradation, Some systems go beyond graceful degradation and are called fault tolerant, because they can suffer a failure of any single component and still continue operation. Fault tolerance requires a mechanism to allow the failure to be detected, diagnosed, and, if possible, corrected. (Clustering can be structured asymmetrically or symmetrically. In Asymmetric Clustering, one machine Is in hot standby mode while the other is running the applications. The hot standby host machine does nothing but monitor the active server, If that server fails, the hot standby host becomes the active server, Symmetric Clustering In symmetric dustering two or more hests are running applications and are monitoring each other, This structure is obviously more efficient, as it uses all of the available hardware, 124. OPERATING SYSTEM OPERATIONS “> Multiprogramming and Multitasking Dual-Modeand Multimode Operation > Timer % Multiprogramming Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization, so that the CPU always hasone to execute, In amultiprogrammed system, a program in execution is termedas process, Ma: | Operating System. Process 1 Process 2 0 Process 3 Memory Layoutof a Multiprogramming System ‘The operating system picks and begins to execute one of these processes. Eventually, the process may have to wait for some task, such as an 1/0 operation, to complete. Ina non- multiprogrammed System, the CPU would sit idle, In a multiprogrammed system, the operating system simply switches to, and executes, another process. When that pracess needs to wait, the CPU switches to another process,and soon, Eventually, the first process finishes waiting and gets the CPU back. As long as at least one process needs to execute, the CPU is never idle. Multitasking CPU switches jobs so Frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing Response time should be < 1 second. Each ugor hae at loast one program executing in memory Ifseveral jobs ready to run at the same time [ CPU scheduling] Ifprocesses don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory wees % — Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation The following are the modes 13. User Mode: Operating system running a user application such as handling a text editor. The transition from user mode to kernel made occurs when the application requests the help of operating system or an interrupt or a system call oceurs. The mode bit is set to 1 in the user mode. [tis changed from. 1 to. 0 when switching from user mode to kernel made. . Kernel Mode The systom starts in kernel mode when it boots and after the operating system Is laaded, it executes applications in user mode, There are some privileged instructions that can only he executed in kernel mode, These are interrupt instructions, Input output management etc. If the privileged instructions are executed in user mode, itis Mlegal and a trap is generated, The mode bitis set to 0 in the kernel mode. It is changed from 0 to 1 when switching from kernel mode to user mode, ‘The concept af modes of operation in operating system can be extended beyond the dual mode. Known as the multimode system. In those cases more than 1 bit is used by the CPU to set and handle the mode. * Timer A user program cannot get stuck in an infinite loop or to fail to eall system services and never return control to the operating system. A timer is used to accomplish this goal. A timer can be sot to Interrupt the computer after a specified period, A variable timer (s genorally implemented by a fixed-rate «lock and @ counter, The operating system sets the counter. Every time the dock ticks, the counter isdecremented, When the counter reaches 0), an interrupt occurs. 5. OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES Furthermore, the operating system, in one form or another, provides certain services to the computer system, + User Interface Program Execution 1/0- Operations File System Manipulation Communications Error Detection Resource Allocation Accounting Protection and Security ' Se eee oe 14User and Other System Programs oul Commind Line User Interfaces System Calls Progam | [ i/0 File | [Gommmnt| [RESOURCE | A soning Sxecution | | Operation || sywien || cao | Allocation ans Error Protection & erection Ginn Securit Operating System Hardware % User Interface Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI). Two types of User Interface are Commend Based Interface and Graphical User Interface Command Based Interface Requires a user to enter the commands to perform different tasks like creating, opening, editing or deleting afile, etc. The user has to remember the names of all such programs or specific commands which the operating system supports. The primary Input device used by the user for command based interface Is the keyboard, Command-based interface is often less interactive and usually allows 9 user to run s single program at a time. Examples of operating systems with command-based interfaces include MS-DOS and Unix, Command Based Interface Graphical User Interface Graphical User Interface (GUI) The interface is a window system with a mouse that serves as a pointing device to direct 1/0, choose from menus, and make selections and a keyboard toenter text. Mobile systems such as phones and tablets provide a touch-screen interface, enabling users to slide their fingers across the screen or press buttons on the screen to aclect choices, 15o Program Execution: The 05 is in charge of running all types of programs, whether they are user or system programs. The operating system makes use of a variety of resources to ensure that all types of Functions perform smoothly. Dbject Code + Input/Output Operations: ‘The operating system ts in charge of handling various types of Inputs, such as these from the keyboard, mouse, and deshtop, Regardingall types of inputs and outputs, the operating system handles all interfaces in the most appropriate manner. Keyboard [4 cpu Monitor Mouse ieee Printer Inpat aes Speaker Taput H Memory Output For instance, the nature ofall types of peripheral devices, suchas mice or keyboards, differs, and the operating system is responsible for transferring data between them. 4 File System Manipulation: ‘The OS is in charge of deciding where data or files should be stored, such as on a floppy disk, hard disk, or pen drive. The operating system determines how data should be stored and handled, % Communications: There are many circumstances in which one process needs to exchange information with another proves. Such communication may occur between processes that are executing on the same computer or between processes that are executing on different computer systems tied together by a network. Communications may be implemented via shared memory, in which two or more processes read and write to a shared section af memory, or message passing, in which packets of Information in predefined formats are moved hetween processes by the operating system, 16o Error Detection: The operating system needs to be detecting and carrecting errors constantly. Errors may occur in the CPU and memory hardware (such as a memory error or a power failure), in I/O devices (such as. parity error on disk, a connection failure on anvtwork, or lack of paper in the printer), ancin the user program (such as an arithmeticoverflow or an attemptto access an illegal memory location). For each type of error, the operating system should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing, Sometimes, ithas nachoice but to halt the system. At other timas, it might terminate an error-causing process or return an error code toa process for the process to detect and possibly correct. “Resource Allocation: The operating system guarantees that all available resources are properly utilized by determining which resource should be used by whom and for how long. The operating system makes all of the choices. % Accounting: The operating system keeps track of all the functions that areactive in the computer system atany one ume, The operating system keeps track ofall the facts, including the types of mistakes that happened. % Protection and Security : ‘The operating system is in charge of making the most secure use of all the data and resources available on the machine. Any attempt by an external resource to obstruct data or information must be foiled by the operating system. 6. USER AND OPERATING SYSTEM INTERFACE There are different types of user interfaces each of which provides a different functionality: Command Based Interface Graphical User Interface Touch Based Interface Voice Based Interface Gesture Based Interface Saeed % Command Based Interface Command based interface requires a user to enter the commands to perform different tasks like creating, opening, editing or deleting a file, etc, The user has to remember the names of all such programs or specific commands which the operating system supports. The primary input 7device used by the user for command based interface is the keyboard, Command-based interface is often less interactive and usually allows a user to run a single program at atime, Examples of operating systems with command-based interfaces include MS-DOS and Unix. Command Based Interface Graphical User Interface * Graphical User Interface Users run programs or give instructions to the computer in the form of icons, menus and other visual options. Icons usually represent files and programs stored on the computer and windows represent running programs that the user has launched through the operating system. The input devices used to interact with the GUI commonly include the mouse and the keyboard. Examples of operating systems with GUI interfsces include Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora and Macintosh, among uthers. % Touch Based Interface ‘Today smartphones, tablets, and PCs allow users to Interact with the system simply using the touch input: Using the touehscreen, a user pravides inputs to the operating system, which are interpreted by the OS as commancs like opening anapp, clasing an app, dialing anumber, scrolling across apps, ete, Examples of popular operating systems with wuch-based interfaces are Android and i0S, Windows 8.1 and 10 also support touch-based interfaces on touchscreen devices, u terface Voice Based Interface ‘Touch Based Voice Based Interface Modern computers have been designod te address the needs of all types of users including people with special needs and people who want to interact with computers or smartphones while 18doing some other task. For users who cannot use input devices like the mouse, keyboard, and touchscreens, modern operating systems provide other means of human-computer interaction, Users today can use voice-hased commands to make a computer work in the desired way. Same operating systems which provide voice-hased control to users inclide i0 (Siri), Android (Google Now or"OK Google”), Microsuft Windows 10 (Cortana), and so on, Gesture Based Interface Some smartphones based on Android and 10S as well as laptops let users interact with the devices using gestures like waving, tilting, eye motion, and shaking. This technology is evolving faster and it has promising potential for application in gaming, medicine, and other areas 7. SYSTEM CALLS A system call is a mechanism that provides the interface between a process and the operating system. It is a programmatic method in which a compater progam requests a service from the kernel of the OS. System call offers the services of the operating system to the user programs via API (Application Programming Intorfacc). Systom calls. ore the only ontry points for the kernel system. Working of system Call User Mode Mode Bi User Process |_[ Geteayarem earn fom Execuie can / ‘System Cal \ i ‘rap Mode Bi \ / Tiate Mode mit=1 ‘System Call Kemet Mode Mode Bit=@ 19Step 1) The processes exeeuted in the user mode till the time a system call interrupts it, ‘Step 2) After that, the system callis executed in the kernel-made on a priority basis, Step 3) Once system call execution is aver, control returns to the user mode., Step 4) The execution of user pracesses resumed in Kernel mode. Need of System Calll + Readling and writing from Mes demand system calls. + Ifa file system wants to create or delete files, system callsare required. « System calls are used for the creation and management of new processes, + Network connectionsneed system calls for sending and receiving packets, + Access to hardware devices like scanner, printer, need a system call. Example of how system calls are used, For Example Writing a simple program to read data trom one file and copy them to another file. ‘The first input that the program will need is the names of the two Miles: the Input file and the output file. These names can be specified in many ways, depending on the operating-system design. ‘One approach is to pass the names of the two filesas part of the command For example, the UNIX ep command: ep in.bat outixt This command copies the input file in.txt to the output file out.txt A second approach is for the program tw ask the user for the names. Inan interactive system, this approach will requirea sequence of system calls, firstto write 4 prompting message on the screen and then to read fromthe keyboard the characters that define the two files. On mouse-based and icon-based systems, a menu of file names is usually displayed ina window, The user can then uso the mouse to select the source name, and a window can be opened for the destination name to be specified. This sequence requires many I/O system calls. ‘Once the two file names have been obtained, the program must apen the input file and create and open the output file. Each of these operations requires another system call. Possible error conditions for each system call must be handled. For example, when the program tries to open the input file, it may find that there is no file of that name or that the file is protected against access. In these cases, the program should output an error message (another sequence of system calls) and then terminate abnormally [another system call), Ifthe input file exists, then we must create a new output file. We may Sind that theres already an outputfile with the same name. This sitwation may cause the program te abort (a system call), or we may delete the existing file {another system call) and create a new one (yet anather system call), Ancther option, in an interactive system, is to ask the user (via a sequence of system calls to output the prompting message and to read the response from the terminal] whether to replace the existing fle or to abort the program. 20