Unsteady Flow in Closed Conduits

Unsteady flow − mean flow properties, V, p, etc. vary with time.

1. Classifications of the unsteady flow in a pipe:
Time
Classification Caused by Analysis assumptions
scale
from Slow disturbance •water incompressible,
Surge minutes e.g. oscillations between •pipe walls rigid,
(Tc > 20 L/c) to hours reservoirs and surge •analytic and numerical
tanks. solutions possible.
seconds Sudden change in flow •water compressible,
Water hammer
rate, e.g. valve closure, •pipe walls are elastic,
(Tc < 20 L/c)
pumps: starting and •numerical solutions.
stoping.
where L is the length of the pipe and c is the speed or celerity of
the pressure wave; Tc is the closure time. 1
 Threshold concept
1. Inertial effect needs to be considered in the energy equation if the
fluid inside a pipe is accelerated or decelerated;
2. Pressure changes along the pipe at different time due to water hammer
effects.
Lecturer’s expectation for this section
1. How to use the energy equation when inertial effect is considered; we
need to consider the head of acceleration and deceleration;
2. How to analyze water hammer and pressure variation along the pipe at
different time.

References:
[1] Fluid Mechanics with Eng Appl, EJ Finnemore and JB Franzini, 10th Ed, 2002.
[2] Mechanics of Fluids, by MC. Potter and DC. Wiggert (any Edition will be fine),
Prentice-Hall.
2
Application of surge tank when turbine rotating speed changes

(4) The change of P in (3) Water level

(2) P and Q will
this pipe is small will fluctuate
change significantly
- tunnel is protected in the surge
in the pipe
chamber

(1) Turbine rotating speed

 may change due to the
required load or accident
Hydroelectric plant

Figure 1 Reaction of pressure in the pipes when  changes

3
2. Unsteady Incompressible Flow in Pipes-Energy Eq
(Fluid Mechanics with Eng Appl, EJ Finnemore and JB Franzini, 10th Ed, 2002)

Neglecting the derivations, the energy equation for an unsteady flow

between locations (1) and (2) can be written as:
Additional term: the acceleration head

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝐿 𝑑𝑉
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝑓 + 𝐾𝑖 +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 (8.1)

where V is the velocity in the pipe and V1 and V2 are velocities at

locations 1 and 2.
p L dV
The pressure rise due to acceleration (surge pressure): h = =
 g dt
Note: if there are more than one pipe in the system, Eq. (8.1) is
4
valid for each pipeline.
5
6
The unsteady-flow energy equation is
V22 f1L1 V12 f 2 L2 V22 L1 dV1 L2 dV2 V12
15 + h p = + + + + + 0.5
2 g D1 2 g D2 2 g g dt g dt 2g
dQ
In terms of Q, it is69.73 = 5223.7Q + 1422.498
2
(1)
dt
The initial condition is Q = 0.1 m3/s at t = 0.

Solving (1) for dt and integrating,

t Q dQ
 dt = 1422.498
0
69.73 − 5223.7Q 2
0.1

 0.1155 + Q 
 t = 1.179 ln − 2.63
 0.1155 − Q 
7
 0.1155 + Q
 0.848t + 2.63 = ln
0.1155 − Q

 0.848t + 2.63 0.1155 + Q

e =
0.1155 − Q

 e0.8485t + 2.63 − 1 
 Q = 0.1155  0.8485t + 2.63 
e + 1

When the final steady-state condition is reached,

Q = 0.1155 m3/s where hp = 54.73 m.

8
9
10
where V = 0 at t = 0.
V → V0 asymptotically as t → .

Eqs. (1) and (4) are also valid for submerged discharge.

From Eq. (4)  the steady flow will be obtained in an infinite

time.

In reality, there will be elastic waves and damping in the fluid

 the steady state will be reached in a finite time.

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3. Unsteady compressible flow
3.1 Velocity of Pressure Wave in Pipes (Celerity)
It can be proved that for a rigid pipe, the velocity or celerity of a pressure
wave can be calculated using:
Ev gEv
c= = (8.6)
 
where Ev is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid (can be found from
fluid property table).
For water in an elastic pipe, the velocity or celerity of a pressure wave is
calculated using:
c 1
cj = =
D Ev  1 D
1+   +  (8.7)
t E  Ev tE 
where E is modulus of elasticity of the pipe material and t is thickness of pipe.
As the denominator is larger than 1, cj < c. For rigid pipe, E→ and cj →12c.
Example 1
Calculate c and cj of water in an cast iron pipe. Thickness of pipe: 5mm,
diameter: D=30cm. Water temperature 15 C.
(a) pipe is rigid; (b) pips is elastic with modulus of elasticity E=200109 N/m2

For water at 15C, Ev=214107 N/m2 and  = 999.1 kg/m3.

If the pipe is rigid, using Eq. (8.6), we have:

Ev 214 107
c= = = 1463.5m / s
 999.1
If the pipe is elastic, using Eq. (8.7), we have:
1 1
cj = = = 1142m / s
 1 D  1 0.3 
  +  999.1 + 9 
 214 10 0.005  200 10 
7
 Ev tE  13
Engineering materials
Modulus for water and selected
Engineering materials

Water

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3.2 Water Hammer
If the velocity of a liquid in a pipeline is abruptly decreased due to valve
movement, very high pressure will be generated at the valve and transmitted
upstream. This phenomenon is called water hammer.
•Water hammer is accompanied by pressure velocity perturbations
•Pressure wave transmit at high velocity (Eq. (8.6) or (8.7).

3.2.1 Instantaneous closure

─ Physically impossible, but the concept is important

•First layer close to the valve stops. Pressure increases by p.

Pressure wave starts to travel upstream at a velocity c (Fig. a).
•After a short interval of time, column BN will be brought to pressure
p(x)+p. The fluid in MB will flow with initial velocity u0 towards N
at the initial pressure p(x) (Fig. b),
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•When the pressure wave reaches M, the entire column of fluid MN will be
at rest with pressure p(x)+p (Fig. c),

•After the pressure reaches M, some fluid will flow back into the reservoir
with the velocity u0 while a pressure wave travels with the velocity c along
the pipe from M to N. When this wave reaches N, the entire mass of fluid
will be under the initial pressure (Figs. d and e)

•Due to the trend of fluid particles moving from N to M, the pressure at N

drops to p(x)-p. This drop will last until it reaches M (Fig. f). After which
due to the low pressure inside the pipe, the fluid from the reservoir will
flow into the pipe again, causing a pressure rise of p, which is transmitted
to N,

•The time for a round trip of pressure wave from N to M and back is

Tr = 2 L / c j (8.8) 16
 p(x)+p
L
(a) p(x) c t=0
M u0
(a) Instantaneous valve closure

Transmission of
Pressure wave p(x)+p
p(x) x=tc
(b) N
M u0 B t=x/c
(b) Passage of pressure wave Fluid compressed

p(x)+p
(c)
M u=0 t=L/c

(c) Fluid compresses throughout the pipe 17

 Transmission of
Pressure wave
p(x) p(x)+p
(d) c
M u0 L/c < t < 2L/c
(d) Decompression Fluid compressed

(e) p(x) same as (a)

M −u0 t = 2L/c
(e) Fluid decompressed throughout the pipe

p(x)−p
(f)
M u0=0 t = 3L/c
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(f) Negative pressure throughout the pipe
3.2.2 Calculation of the pressure rise p
Rapid closure and slow closure
If the valve closure time tc is smaller than the time of round trip Eq.(8.8)
tc  2 L / c j (8.9)
This is called the rapid closure.
If the valve closure time tc is larger than the time of round trip Eq.(8.8)
tc  2 L / c j (8.10)
This is called the slow closure.
(a) For instantaneous & rapid complete closure (tc  Tr = 2 L / c j )
The pressure rise :
p = c jV0 (8.11)
where V0 is the initial velocity before the closure.
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 For instantaneous or rapid partial closure, we have
p = c j (V0 − V ) (8.12)
where V is the final velocity after the partial closure.
For rigid pipes, the pressure rise p can be calculated by replacing cj in
Eqs. (8.9) and (8.10) with c.

(b) Slow closure (tc  Tr = 2 L / c j )

The maximum water-hammer pressure p' developed is approximated by
2L / c j
p ' p (8.13)
tc
i.e. using linear interpolation of the rapid or instantaneous closure

Note: for practical applications, due to the friction and damping effect,
surge pressure will decrease to zero quite quickly.
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Example 2
Given that the velocity of the pressure wave, cj is 960 m/s and water flows
at 0.9 m3 /s. Suppose the length of the pipe is 600 m and the diameter is 1.2
m. Find the water-hammer pressure at the valve if
a) the valve is closed i) instantaneously, ii) in 4 seconds,
b) the valve is adjusted so that the flow rate drops almost instantly from 0.9
m3/s to 0.3 m3/s.

Solution:
0.9
(a) (i ) p = c jV = 1000(960) = 764kPa
 0.6 2

2 L 1200
(ii) Tr = = = 1.25s  Tc = 4s Slow closure
c j 960

Tr 1.25
p ' = p = 754 = 239kPa
tc 4
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(b) Since the initial velocity in the pipe is:

Q0 0.9 0.9
V0 = = = = 0.8m / s
A D / 4  1.2 / 4
2 2

After the flow rate reduces to 0.3m3/s, the velocity reduces to:

Q 0.3 0.3
V= = = = 0.265m / s
A D / 4  1.2 / 4
2 2

p = c j (V0 − V ) = 999.1 960(0.8 − 0.265) = 513kPa

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Example 3
A valve is placed at the downstream end of a 3km long pipeline. Water is
initially flowing along the pipe at a mean velocity of 2.5m/s. What is the
magnitude of the pressure rise generated by a sudden and complete valve
closure? Sketch the variation in pressure at the valve and at the mid-point of
the pipeline after valve closure (Ev = 2.2×109 N/m2;  = 980 kg/m3)
Solution:
The velocity of pressure wave:
Ev 2.2 109
c= = = 1500 m / s
 980
The pressure increase is:
p = cV = 980 1500  2.5 = 3.675 106 Pa

The time of round trip for the pressure wave:

T = 2 L / c = 2  3000 / 1500 = 4s
r
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 L/2 L/2
p(x)+p
c
C
B
L/c=2s

p
B
Tr=4s

p
C

1s

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 24
Time (s)
 L/2 L/2
p(x)+p
c
C
B
L/c=2s

p
B
Tr=4s

p
C

1s

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 25
Time (s)