Chapter 9: The Question of Women and If one is a young Cambodian

their Emancipation woman, she could be abducted by

traffickers and brought to a brothel in
Introduction: Thailand or Malaysia where she will be
A woman in almost any part of the world is imprisoned and violently raped by
faced with challenges that make it difficult customers who pay a high price because
for her to realize her potential as a she is young and innocent. They brutally
person.For example,if one were a young girl abuse her until she loses all sense of self-
in Southern India, she is snatched away worth and feels that no one, not even her
from her family to be forced to marry a family, will accept her so that time will come
much older man. That man and his mother that she will not even want to escape
treat her like an unpaid servant and a anymore.
producer of children.She raises the
children,works constantly in the house and If one is a wife and an academic in the
on the farm, and receives beatings from her United States, a supposedly empowered
kidnapper husband and his mother. If she and liberated woman in a gender-equal
manages to escape and report this crime to world, one probably spends 51 hours
the police, they will most likely bring her working and another 51 hours on household
back to her abductors and abusers because chores. Married male professors who are
in their eyes she is the property of that supposed to be more liberal and
family. enlightened about gender issues only spend
32 hours on household work. The wife also
In many parts of Africa (in Somalia, probably earns a third of a man's salary
Guinea,Sierra Leone, among others), a even if she does the same kind of work.
daughter's own mother and other women
from her family hold her down and cut In obviously violent or subtle ways,
off her clitoris without anesthesia, and women are victims of unequal treatment in
then sew up her vagina so that she does much of the world. No matter how much
not feel any sexual pleasure and remain they work, they are paid less. No matter
faithful to the man who marries her, even how talented they are, they are less likely to
if there is very low expectation for him doing
be hired than their male counterparts. They
the same. In fact, this future husband will
are the overwhelming victims of sexual
probably have unprotected sex with high
school-aged girls and infect her with HIV violence. Many forms of modern slavery are
reserved for women. This is the reason why
feminism as a framework for thinking about
justice and fairness is necessary. Because
of the forms of violence and injustice that
are particular to women, a specific form of
ethical theory has to be developed.
 This feminist ethical theory is a Finally, it is necessary to formulate
theory born from the realization that women ethical theories from women's perspective
have a different set of issues that male- because this perspective allows for the
dominated ethical theories cannot fully critique of existing systems that victimize
address. The clear example for these are them. There are many social structures that
the forms of discrimination and violence seem fair but actually disadvantage
particular to women like the belittling of their Women. For instance, the kinds of work
work as homemakers and child bearers. traditionally assigned to women such as
Although traditional ethics could explain the nursing, preschool and elementary
injustice of the violence of trafficking and education, and domestic work, on the
rape, it does not easily understand the whole, pay lower than most other work
violence of discrimination and dominated by men. Even the fact that
marginalization. Thus, a woman's lens is women are assigned to particular forms of
needed to explain why certain social work assumed by men to be best suited to
structures are ethically wrong. women is a discriminatory act that people
took for granted until Feminist thought
Another reason for the necessity for emerged. Even the fact that higher
women's perspective in ethics is the education systems favor male forms of
different way women reason morally. thinking went unnoticed until women
Women have a different way of deciding on thinkers were able to articulate how these
the best action to take given a moral structures were degrading to them and
dilemma. Studies have shown that women disadvantaged their development. In fact, it
have a different way of assessing the good took women's research and reasoning to
and understanding how best to realize the expose how the seeming lack of aptitude of
good. This way of thinking about the good women for science was conditioned by
and acting on it has not been reflected in social structures and educational
abstract, calculative and law- or rule-based systems.Only when women thinkers
thinking of men. Because of this, philosophy reflected on language did civilizations
has had a bias against women's forms of realize that their own languages took forms
ethical reasoning. This has always been that belittled the value of women in the
considered too particular, narrowly focused world.
on the domestic, and lacking in gravity
because men set the standard of what ● Why Feminist Ethics?
questions are worthy of philosophical
reflection and how to arrive at the good.
 In this section, we reflect on the To a large extent, feminist ethical theory can
questions posed by feminist ethics. It is a be understood as both a response to and a
branch of ethical thinking framed by women movement against, a historical tradition of
to confront the challenges women face. It is more abstract, universalist, ethical theories
a theory of good and justice that puts into such as utilitarianism, deontology ,and in
focus the abuses and injustices that women certain respects, contractarianism and virtue
have to suffer and theorizes why these theory, which tend to view the moral agent
injustices exist and how we can address either as an autonomous, rational actor,
them. But more than just a theory about deliberating out of a calculus of utility or
injustices and abuses and how to address duty, or else as an often disembodied and
these, feminist theory presents a way of decontextualized ideal decision-maker,
theorizing the good from the perspective of unburdened by the non-ideal constraints of
women. This is an important task because luck (moral and otherwise), circumstance, or
academic ethics is defined by a very male capability (Nagel 1979; Brennan
perspective. This quote best summarizes 1999;Nussbaum 2000).Specifically, feminist
the importance of women's ethics: ethicists contend that this top-down,
juridical, principalist theorizing has largely
neglected the centrality of physical,
social,and psychological
situatedness,power differentials,and,
importantly,the voices of women whose
lived experiences have simply not been part
of any ongoing moral debates(Young
2005;Jaggar 1992;Walker 1997;Lindemann
Nelson 2001; Held 1990;Tessman 2005).As
Alison Jaggar argues,traditional ethics
emphasizes male-centered issues of the
public and the abstract while dismissing the
private and the situated. As a result,
women, and "women's issues" that have to
do with care, interdependent relationships,
community, partiality, and the emotions, are
de-centered, and relegated to the margins
of serious intellectual (and specifically
philosophical) inquiry (Tong and Williams
2014;Jaggar 1992).

This quote is worth reflecting on.

It is true that many of the theories studied in The reason why these rules are important to
the first half of this book presuppose that traditional ethics is because these male-
the ethical person must be trained to act as defined frameworks think about people as
an individual whose ethical mind is independent or autonomous individuals,
autonomous and not dependent on anyone who act using their reason which calculates
but his own rationality. The basis of acting the good based on clear formulas that
on the good is a set of criteria which guides certainly lead the free person to a clear
us in calculating the good act from an decision on what is acceptable as good to
abstract perspective. Abstract deliberation all rational, free persons .The emphasis on
means thinking about the good based more traditional ethics was to find a way for free
on what rules or laws it follows. These could and autonomous persons to have a
be rules of social cohesion and order. For systematic process for arriving at a
instance, how do stealing and cheating universal conception of the good on which
violate principles of private property or to base action. The quest for ethical
ownership? If one steals, is social order not theorists was to have a systematic process
disturbed? Are the principles of private at arriving at socially binding conceptions of
ownership, which is the keystone to much the good.
economic activity, not violated and
disrespected? The rules could also be rules This method of arriving at a
of deliberation. For instance, how does one conception of the good was concerned
properly think about stealing? What are the mainly with questions of the good in the
proper steps in coming to a moral public sphere and in acts that shape the
understanding of stealing? Is one's own historical unfolding of civilizations or the
decision about this particular case of development of nations and communities.
stealing consistent with the kind of decision Thus, ethics was preoccupied with
arrived at by one who follows the proper questions regarding justice, profit and
steps for genuine moral thinking? business relations, crime and punishment,
the relations between citizens and the state,
and the dealings of people with each other.
It became necessary ,therefore, for ethics to
think about abstract, universal bases for
deciding the good.
 Women ethical theorists recognize as The famous example used by Carol
well the value of abstract ethical thinking as Gilligan is the male and female response to
a guide to thinking about the good. the Heinz dilemma. Heinz poses this
However, they would like to demonstrate dilemma: If one's wife was sick and could
how women have another voice or another only be saved if one steals the medicine
ethical rationality that is not confined to from the druggist due to lack of money,
these traditional theories. Rather than should he steal the medicines? Males
decide from purely abstract rationality, they would typically argue that the husband
wish to show that women's conception of should because the principle was that the
the good is relational and situated or right to life overrides the right to property.
Or that he should not because stealing is a
concrete. In Carol Gilligan's ground-
crime that violates the rules of the state.
breaking book,In Another Voice, she shows
However, women reason otherwise.They
that women decide the good based on their
argue that instead of stealing, the husband
concern for preserving relationships and for
should plead with or negotiate with the
their concern for the welfare or feelings of druggist. This way everyone is cared for, is
others. Rather than focus on abstract, allowed to realize their goodness, and
universalizable rules, they decide based on relationships are preserved.
the concrete needs of the persons involved
and how their decisions cultivate or harm This discovery and articulation of the
their relationships with other people. ethics of care is a breakthrough in ethical
Women have another way of articulating the thinking because it balances the way people
good which deserves to be recognized as think about the good. The canon of ethical
another way of moral deliberation. thinking only represents calculative, abstract
thinking about the good and does not
Concretely, this means that when articulate how we can arrive at the ought
some women think about stealing, they do using concrete, relational care for the other-
not think about how an autonomous,rational based thinking. With feminist ethics,
being ought to think about stealing but they Philosophy has come to realize that ethical
would think about it like a person whose
deliberation must learn to take into
meaning and worth are tied in a community
consideration the well-being of all
of persons whose well-being is founded on
concerned from a more holistic and
those relationships. Thus, their main
particular perspective.
concern when they think about the good is
who will be harmed by one's actions and ● Equality and Discrimination
decisions. And the harm, of course,
concerns the interests and well-being of
people, but it also considers if relations will
be preserved and if the interests of the
parties concerned can be preserved and
cultivated. Often, this is known as the ethics
of care because of its interest in deciding for
what is best, such that everyone is cared
for.
 The primary concern of feminist The reason for this acceptance of
ethics is the question of equality. For as women’s marginalization is because people
long as the dominant world civilizations have taken this lower status to be ordained
have existed, women have been treated as by the gods or by nature. And so, women
the lesser sex that has to suffer abuse and themselves do not think that the removal of
discrimination. This takes on many forms, a clitoris or the sewing up of a vagina so it
the most pervasive of which are sexual does not feel sexual pleasure is bad. In
exploitation, confinement to only a few tasks fact,they seek it for their children because it
in society which are not equally is the only way for their daughters to find a
compensated, the prevention from taking on husband and security.Little girls themselves
significant leadership roles in the family and look forward to the day of their
the public sphere, and the expectation to circumcision.Women believe that because
rear children while often bearing the burden they bear children,they should be solely
of providing for their sustenance. responsible for the raising of their children
even if in some circumstances they are
This is not to mention the various responsible for providing as much,if not
forms of violence that women have to more, of the family's sustenance.
contend with such as domestic
abuse,rape,and fatal neglect.There are truly Why is the inequality of women
some things women suffer just because accepted and propagated by society?
they are women.For instance,wotnen are Feminist thinkers have shown that the
almost always the victim of rape; widows acceptance of women's inequality lies in
are exiled or burned,and female children are how the discrimination is inscribed in culture
neglected to die or killed just because they and social structures. For
are female. instance,circumcision is accepted because
certain societies value the fidelity of women
The reason for such abuse is that to their husbands. This has much to do with
women are not considered as valuable as the passing of property to one's own heirs.
men and,therefore,can be In a patriarchal society where the ownership
used,neglected,and abused without of land is assigned to the men, they have to
remorse.Women have been so conditioned be sure that the inheritors of their land are
to this degradation that they often cooperate males of their own genetic line.
with it. Mothers hold down their own
daughters as they are circumcised.,Women
gossip about and ostracize those women
who choose to focus on their careers and
share child-rearing tasks with their
husbands or their parents.Women
themselves facilitate in the trafficking of
other women.On the whole,women have
accepted their lower status and do not
challenge it. They have embraced the
double burden of childrearing and
housework even if they have a high status
in society.
 Women today are defined by how their There is no social support system for
bodies are shaped according to how media mothers who want to work unless other
have determined their desirability.The main women are employed to care for her
traits of desirable women are children. Women are taught the value of
thinness,firmness that is still defined by soft nurturing relationships and peace building
lines, flawless skin, silken hair.and while in the economic realm,
whiteness-and, to some extent firm, round aggressiveness and competitiveness are
breasts.Women are generally so obsessed the values that define success. Society
with this standard of universal womanhood supports inequality, and, because inequality
is built into our societies, it is accepted as
that they go on starvation diets,engage in
natural.
exercise regimens, and the application of
numerous whitening, smoothening, Thus, a very important theme of
polishing,and reducing processes.Men do Feminist ethics is to emancipate women
not subject themselves to such processes from social structures that keep them
and do not feel the necessity to be defined oppressed and unequal. The struggle for
this way. The reason for this is because in justice and liberation has focused on certain
most contemporary societies, women have themes which reflect the different aspects of
been determined to be objects of the male emancipation for women.
gaze. They exist to be desired, owned, and
shown off as trophies of successful The first phase of their struggle for
men.Women are often objects for men to liberation was the struggle for equal rights,
act upon. This is supported by the mass which took the form of the suffragette
media and is portrayed in their commercials movement. Here, women demanded for the
every day. All our social structures support equal right to vote, and later expanded to
the demand for equal rights in various
this image. Dolls either teach girls that they
aspects of social life. This phase began
have to be pretty and present themselves to
around the turn of the 19th century until
men like Barbie, or that only they should be
about the latter part of the 20th century.
trained to care for babies. As they grow up,
This was the time when women were able
mothers constantly nag daughters about
to participate in different occupations and
how they look and how people perceive proved they were as capable as men. After
them and not really about their academic or women had institutionalized the respect for
athletic performance.În their teenage years, their rights, they next focused their work on
they are valued by how many boys they the analysis of the social structures that
attract.In the world of work,they are rarely oppressed them.
assigned management or leadership
positions and are expected to take on jobs
where they care for children and the sick, or
sell their products or services using their
feminine charms or bodies.
 In this phase of the liberation struggle, It was also at this time that Western
women were able to examine how women discovered that their own
oppressive the social systems were aggressive definition of what it meant to be
because these defined them as housewives women and what women should want was
and caregivers, objects of men's sexual oppressive to non-Western women. Women
desires and ownership, and as non- from Asia and Africa asserted that their own
productive citizens whose contribution was analysis of how their own definition of
limited to keeping the home functional. It womanhood was different but equal to that
was at this phase when women realized that of Western women. And so the voices of
they should not only want to have equal more women were emancipated and
rights as men but also that they wanted to different ways of being a woman were
be recognized as different and equal to celebrated and supported. Filipina feminists
men. They had different ways of ethical at this time explored how their traditional
reasoning but it should be recognized as cultures should be embraced for how they
equally valid and necessary to a society's celebrated the centrality of women's roles
articulation of the good. They had different as nurturers and healers, as much as they
ways of knowing, valuing, and governing, celebrated their role as warriors and
and these should be recognized as equally community leaders. There are numerous
valid and equally valuable in shaping our examples of women leaders such as
shared values and systems. This was a time Gabriela Silang, Gregoria de Jesus,and the
for analyzing how all our social systems countless babaylan who were the
oppressed women and how they should be precursors of the Filipina
reformed to serve women's ways and activists,development: workers, politicians,
develop women's capacity to build society. and educators of today.
Many development agencies focused on
setting up programs that gave women equal ● How We Can Work Toward
Emancipation
opportunities to earn an income, explore
their role in society, and take leadership.
 Today, the women's emancipation For instance, the right to education is
movement is an ongoing project with important because it prepares people to
women continuing the struggle for equality intelligently and freely participate in the life
while discovering various and creative ways of their community. Through education we
of being a woman. The aims of the become creative people who can participate
movement continue to evolve with more and in the task of building our shared world. But
more women exploring social realities and many women are denied the most basic
exposing how economic,communication, education and thus are deprived of the
governance, and cultural systems oppress knowledge about how their government
women. As before, feminists of all genders works, about their economic systems, and
explore how women can continue to push the goings on in the world around them. In
against the boundaries of some countries,women are kept from
oppression.Despite this, it is still clear that getting any kind of education because of
women are not fully equal in our shared certain cultural beliefs that take on the form
world. Thus, we must ask ourselves how to of religious dogma. This puts women at a
think about the good with a mind to realize great disadvantage because they are
gender equality and genuine liberation. deprived of the capacity to creatively
participate in their societies. It is very
There are many areas to consider important to ensure the right of women to
when thinking about doing the good using a education that allows them to become
woman's ethical perspective. The first,of creative persons.
course, is to protect the rights of women. As
women activists rightly remind us, women's The bodies of women are also
rights are human rights.This means that the violated all the time for various reasons.
first thing we must do with regard to the Some cultures believe that husbands can
liberation of women is to ensure that all their use their wives sexually without her
rights are preserved. The right to life, the consent. Other societies believe that women
right to the means of survival, the right to can be kidnapped and treated as sex slaves
education, the right to bodily integrity,the and indentured servants just because they
right to access health care-these are all very are unprotected. So many societies believe
basic rights. However, these rights are that rape is a weapon of war and that men
easily violated for women. can violate the bodies of women to sow fear
in a community. The right of women to their
bodily integrity and to their dignity as human
beings must be respected and protected.
But it seems that because they are women,
it is easy for many people to forget that
women's rights are basic human rights.
 Other than their basic human rights, Finally, it is important to engage in
there are rights that need special attention critical thinking with regard to women's
and protection. For instance,the right to their issues. Every society needs to explore and
reproductive health. Women who bear reflect on itself. Why are they so prone to do
children have a right to medical treatment violence against their women? What
that pertains to their health from pregnancy function does the oppression of women
to motherhood. This means access to fulfill? Why is it necessary? Usually, the
prenatal medicines and care, access to safe practices that propagate violence against
childbirth methods,and mother and child women are rooted in some practice that was
health care. It may also mean access to useful for a society. And so we must ask
birth control methods because having too
why it is necessary to circumcise women.
many children may be dangerous for
How does it help to build those civilizations
women. În some cultures, women are
that do? Why do we like to keep women
deprived of this basic care because they are
from active participation in the governance
too poor and are not prioritized by their
of the state? Why is prostitution necessary?
government. It is also possible that they are
just not valued as much as men and do not What functions does it realize? We need to
receive equal support. Whatever the find this out and critically examine if these
reason, reproductive health must be practices serve anything but the
prioritized by a society. suppression of more than half of the world's
population.
Violence against women is another
special area of concern.Because of the Another thing to do is analyze social
status of women as a lower form of institutions and practices to expose the
humanity and because they are often seen violence they commit against women.Some
as property, women are subjected to all institutions seem benign but actually
kinds of psychological and physical propagate violence. For instance, the
abuse.Other than rape, they are prone to institutions that enshrine women's purity
physical beatings and psychological torture and honor may actually end up enslaving
from abusive spouses. Thus, there must be them by keeping them away from the public
a special focus on the analysis of the roots sphere. The adoration of women's bodies in
of this violence and legislation and social fine arts could actually reinforce the
reform to prevent it. There are laws continued objectification of women as
specifically addressed to prevent violence decoration or objects of desire. The
against women and there are organizations celebration of women's virtues for care,
that educate the public about the violence
patience,and gentleness could limit their
and counsel its victims. If society is made
self-realization and their choice of
aware of what acts are effectively violent
vocations. People need to critically examine
against women and women are counseled
the institutions, traditions, and ways of life
to realize the abuse that they do not have to
that could effectively limit the possibilities for
suffer, then the violence could end.
women. This means that we should
genuinely appreciate those that prove to be
empowering and reform those that work
against women's interests.
 Of course, this is difficult work. It Women should not be discriminated
seemed easier in the 20th century to judge against.Based on their contribution to
how societies treated their women based on human civilization and its continuing
standards that Western women set. For development, misogyny and chauvinism do
instance, Western feminists determined that not make sense. In most societies,women
all forms of unpaid domestic work and bear the brunt of child rearing and ore the
housewifery were a form of enslavement. first persons to introduce children into the
The choice of full-time motherhood was a ways of their civilization.In many
choice that only uneducated, enslaved societies,they raise their children while
women would make. Wearing the burqa is a
earning a livelihood.In modern and
form of enslavement that only traditional
traditional societies,women are depended
women are willing to do. However, women
on to run a household,especially in ensuring
from non-Western-dominated cultures have
the well-being of all from nutrition to
objected to this ethnocentric view of reality.
health.In most developing countries (which
Some women argue that the burqa is
liberating and deepens their spiritual means in most of the world),women
experience. There is agreement now that it manage family forms which produce most of
is possible for domestic work to be a the food for the poorest people. They also
creative life choice and the raising of preserve the world's biodiversity against the
children is not fundamentally enslavement if onslaught of monoculture factory farming by
it is recognized as creative work. If we are working on these small farms and keeping
sincere about our desire to critique our the traditional farming methods alive.In the
cultural practices and assess their liberating preservation of these methods,they are also
potential, then people must engage in the preserving low-corbon,sustainable food
critical engagement of societies in a way production and processing
that is not judgmental but dialogical. Human practices.Women are clearly as valuable as
beings must engage in a dialogue of equals men in the furthering of human life and
where modern and economically powerful civilization. It does not make sense that they
do not equate to more advanced and are treated as lesser humans.
liberated and traditional and non-Western
do not amount to enslaved and There are studies that demonstrate
impoverished. Women and men must come how women were actually the dominant
together and allow the meeting of their gender in early human history until about
horizons to show each other how their 1500BC. There was a time when human
practices have destructive and creative beings revered the earth as a mysterious
potentials for the liberation of women. bearer of life.Fertility was a creative force
that belonged to the womb of the earth. This
● The Roots of Women's
womb brought forth life,and the source of
Discrimination
food for all people was dependent on this
fertility Thus,in order to thrive,people
worshiped the source of this fertility which
was often depicted as a woman.
 As long as women were associated Women played a very prominent leadership
with the powers of fertility, they were role in pre-Hispanic Philippine society.Along
revered and thought of as the superior with the datu and the blacksmith, they were
sex.There were even cults where men important persons in society because only
would undergo painful genital mutilations so they could communicate with the spirits.
that they could become like The spirits were persons from the other
women.However, there was a turn in human realms of the earth who could help with a
history of about 1500 BC when penis bountiful harvest, cure sickness, or cause
worship replaced womb worship.The theory discomfort or death. They were able to bring
for this shift is that at this point, human good fortune or misfortune.
beings were developing agriculture and
were learning more about the fertilization of
eggs.In other words,they realized that the
male principle was essential to the
development of life.Unfortunately,men
began to believe that they were the active
source of life while women were the passive
receivers. Thus, the penis was revered as
powerful and somehow women were looked
down on and even oppressed.

The reason for the oppression may be

to repress the cult of women worship,
Perhaps, some theorists claim,men were so
jealous of their newfound status as
dominant that they needed to suppress the
possibility of the return of womb worship,
Whatever the reason,it is clear that the
status of women as oppressed is the result
of historical developments, It is not a
necessity of nature that women are treated
as the second sex and men the superior
sex, There is no necessity based on human
nature or the eternal order of the gods that
men are the superior sex, It could be true
that men are thought to be superior
because generation upon generation of
certain societies have built institutions thot
favour men over women.

● The Babayian In Philipplne

History
The babaylan were women who the spirits Feminist ethics demands an
chose to communicate with them through opening of our perspectives about the
some process of Initiation. For whatever meaning of being human in a way that does
qualities they were chosen, the babaylan not discriminate against but celebrates the
were very important to the community different possibilities of womanhood. This is
because their welfare depended on these an essential task because the oppression of
women. If people were suffering from women necessarily means the oppression
physical, spiritual, or psychological of men as well.We often think that men
maladies, the babaylan would help. And if benefit from the oppression of women given
the fact that they get the more respected
they were suffering misfortune, the
jobs,the positions of power, the higher pay,
babaylan would guide them through it.
and the best care.However,men are in this
The babaylan were the priests, poets,
way the perpetrators of violence,defined as
counselors, and myth keepers. When the
the violent sex, and bear the responsibility
Spaniards came, the babaylan also led the
for always being defined to be strong and
people in resisting the invaders, They would non-feminine. Thus,men are immediately
lead revolts or gather communities to live associated in a certain way with violence,
according to their way of life away from the aggressiveness, and detachment from their
influence of the Spaniards.It is unfortunate emotional life. Any self-aware man will tell
that the Spaniards finally succeeded in you that that is not healthy for their
hunting down and killing the last babaylan emotional development.And so,everyone
leaders. The coming of these invaders must engage in the movement of women's
signaled the beginning of the lowering of the liberation as an act of social justice and as
status of women in Philippine communities. an act of liberation of all mankind as much
Henceforth, women were made to retreat as it is a liberation of womankind.
from the public sphere and Western,male
values were imposed on the
people.However,the babaylan were never
totally suppressed and up to this day, we
find them in various communities among our
different religions, And with the overthrow of
the Spaniards,we find a resurgence of
women in the public sphere as leaders,
healers, and culture keepers.

Conclusion: