The id operates on the pleasure principle

(Freud, 1920), that every unconscious wishful

impulse should be satisfied immediately,
regardless of the consequences. When the id
achieves its demands, we experience pleasure,
and when it is denied, we experience
‘unpleasure’ or tension.
For example, “I will skip school tomorrow
because I feel lazy today and I want to relax and
rest”.

EGO- is the component of personality that deals

Who is Sigmund Freud? with reality and helps ensure that the demands
of the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic,
Sigmund Freud, the safe, and socially acceptable.
father of psychoanalysis,
was a physiologist, medical
doctor, psychologist, and Rationalization: EGO is an imaginary picture of
influential thinker of the early how you ought to be, and represents career
•
twentieth century. Working aspirations, how to treat other people, and how
initially in close collaboration to behave as a member of society. Ego is
with Joseph Breuer, Freud sometimes referred as “The reality principle” or
elaborated the theory that the “Ideal self”. It’s what the person is aware of
the mind is a complex when they think about themselves and what
energy-system, the structural investigation of which they usually try to project toward others.
is the proper province of psychology. The ego develops to mediate between the
He articulated unrealistic id and the real external world. It is the
and refined the concepts decision-making component of personality.
of the unconscious, Ideally, the ego works by reason, whereas the id
infantile sexuality, and is chaotic and unreasonable.
repression, and he The ego considers social realities and norms,
proposed a tripartite etiquette, and rules in deciding how to behave.
account of the mind’s
structure—all as part of a For example, “I will go to school tomorrow
radically new conceptual because I could miss new topics in my subjects
and therapeutic frame of and it will affect my attendance, I have no choice
reference for the but to go since it is a part of my role as a
understanding of human student”.
psychological development and the treatment of
abnormal mental conditions. Notwithstanding the
multiple manifestations of psychoanalysis as it exists SUPEREGO-is the part of the personality that
today, it can in almost all fundamental respects be holds all the internalized morals and standards
traced directly back to Freud’s original work. that we acquire from our parents, family, and
society at large.
One of his famous concepts is the
Psychoanalytic theory which he discussed the Rationalization: SUPEREGO is sometimes
human personality theory, he divided it into the called the “Angel’s mind”. It is the moral
following term: component of the psyche, representing
ID- it is the most primitive part of the personality internalized societal values and standards. It
that is the source of all our most basic urges. The contrasts with the id’s desires, guiding behavior
id is entirely unconscious mind and serves as the towards moral righteousness and inducing guilt
source of all libidinal energy. when standards aren’t met. It reflects society’s
moral values to some degree, and a person is
sometimes aware of their own morality and
Rationalization: ID is sometimes referred to as
ethics, but the superego contains many codes,
“Myself first before others” or the “Devil’s mind”,
or prohibitions, that are issued mostly
it signifies selfishness personalities and being
unconsciously in the form of commands or
self-centered most of the time in his/her decision
“don’t” statements. It also persuades the ego to
making.
turn to moralistic goals rather than simply
The id engages in primary process thinking, realistic ones and strive for perfection.
which is primitive, illogical, irrational, and
For example, “I will go to school because it is
fantasy-oriented. This form of process thinking
the right thing to do, if I don’t go I may suffer
has no comprehension of objective reality, and is
consequences.
selfish and wishful in nature.
 PRINCIPLE OF MATERIAL COOPERATION
- when a person's actions unintentionally help
another person do something wrong.

Rationalization: Material cooperation simply

means that although we do not share the
intention of the wrongdoer, we are involved in
the matter or the actual doing of the action.
Thus, the distinction between formal and
material asks whether we intend, desire, or
What is Moral Discernment?
approve the wrong activity. If we do, we are
Moral discernment, in wrongdoers too. If not, then we should
this context, could be seen as consider the other issues.
the capacity to navigate and
Other kinds of material cooperation may be
resolve the moral dilemmas
too closely related to evil to be permissible.
inherent in these crises. It
Catholic teaching calls these actions
involves the ability to make
“proximate” material cooperation.
ethical choices, considering
social and cultural norms, personal values, and the For example, a nurse who works in an
well-being of oneself and others. In essence, moral abortion operating room, even if she does not
discernment within Erikson's framework is agree with what the doctor is doing, is too
intertwined with the development of a person's moral closely related to the evil to be permitted to
identity and the ability to make morally informed continue in her job.
decisions throughout the various stages of life.

PRINCIPLE OF LESSER EVIL

The Four Principles of - The principle that when faced with selecting
Moral from two immoral options, the one which is
Discernment/Judgment least immoral should be chosen.
includes the following
principles:
Rationalization: The lesser of two evils
• Principle of formal principle, also referred to as the lesser evil
cooperation principle and lesser-evilism, is the principle
• Principle of Material that when faced with selecting from two
cooperation immoral options, the least immoral one
• Principle of lesser evil should be chosen. The principle is sometimes
• Principle of double effect recalled in reference to binary political
choices in democratic voting under a two-
PRINCIPLE OF FORMAL COOPERATION party system.

- it occurs when someone intentionally helps For example, a registered voter is stuck
another person carry out of a sinful act. between whom he will vote as a governor,
there are only two choices in the ballot. The
other party have some issues of corruption
Rationalization: Formal cooperation means that
while the other one has issues of killing and
the person cooperating intends, desires, or
other human rights violations. The voter
approves the wrongdoer's conduct.
chose to vote the corrupt politician because
For example, if the nurse helps in the operation he is more of an advocate of human rights
because she wants the operation performed, if even though it is still not right. So, he chose
the servant transports the letters because he the lesser effect even though there are some
approves of the liaison, if the priest intends that consequences.
the sinner receive communion, or if the judge
applauds the couple's divorce — then, regardless PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT
of any other distinctions, the cooperator is also
wrong. We cannot formally cooperate in morally - This principle aims to provide specific
wrong activity, because we cannot intend wrong guidelines for determining when it is morally
conduct. permissible to perform an action in pursuit of
a good end in full knowledge that the action
For this reason, the Vatican held that no Catholic will also bring about bad results.
healthcare facility could ever formally cooperate
in providing sterilizations-that is, no facility could
perform sterilizations on the basis of an
institutional policy that welcomed and sanctioned
routine sterilizations.
 Rationalization: The principle of double effect is
an ethical concept in moral philosophy, often
applied in medical and bioethical contexts. It
asserts that an action with both good and bad
effects is morally permissible under certain Who is Lawrence Kohlberg?
conditions if the agent intends the good effect,
the bad effect is not the means to the good effect, Lawrence Kohlberg
the good effect outweighs the bad effect, and (October 25, 1927 –
there is a serious reason for allowing the bad January 19, 1987)
effect. This principle is particularly relevant in was born in
situations where an action may have both Bronxville, New York.
positive and negative consequences, and it aims He served as a
to provide a framework for evaluating the professor at the
morality of such actions by considering the University of Chicago
intention behind them and the proportionality of as well as Harvard
the outcomes. The principle of double effect is University. He is
commonly invoked in discussions around issues famous for his work in
like medical treatments, end-of-life decisions, moral development
and warfare ethics. and education.

For example, imagine a pregnant woman with a The three stages of moral development
life-threatening condition that requires immediate includes the following:
treatment. Administering a potentially life-saving
medication to the woman may unintentionally • Pre-conventional
result in the death of the unborn child. According • Conventional
to the principle of double effect, the action of • Post-conventional
administering the medication is morally •
permissible if the following conditions are met: LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL
the primary intention is to save the life of the At the preconventional level, morality is
mother, not to harm the unborn child; the death externally controlled. Rules imposed by
of the unborn child is not the means to achieve authority figures are conformed to avoid
the desired outcome; the good effect (saving the punishment or receive rewards. This
mother's life) outweighs the bad effect (loss of perspective involves the idea that what is right
the unborn child); and there is a serious and is what one can get away with or what is
proportionate reason for allowing the unintended personally satisfying.
consequence. The principle of double effect is
applied to assess the ethical permissibility of the
action in such complex situations where both
positive and negative consequences arise from a Rationalization: LEVEL 1 has two stages:
single act.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES IN MORAL orientation Behavior is determined by
DISCERNMENT: consequences. The individual will obey to
avoid punishment.
HEDONISM- the pleasure principle, egoistic in Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
nature. Behavior is determined again by
Rationalization: A man would choose to save consequences. The individual focuses on
himself in a burning building without having the receiving rewards or satisfying personal
conscience to help anyone on his way. needs.

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

UTILITARIANISM- one will choose for the benefit
of the majority rather than an individual. At the conventional level, conformity to social
rules remains important to the individual.
Rationalization: A man will always choose to save However, the emphasis shifts from self-
500 people in a sinking boat than 5 people in interest to relationships with other people and
another sinking boast. social systems. The individual strives to
support rules that are set forth by others such
as parents, peers, and the government in
order to win their approval or to maintain
social order.
Rationalization: LEVEL 2 has two stages:
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation
Behavior is determined by social approval. The
individual wants to maintain or win the affection
and approval of others by being a “good Who is Eric Eriksons?
person.”
Erik Erikson is
Stage 4: Law and order orientation best known for his
famous theory of
Social rules and laws determine behavior. The psychosocial
individual now takes into consideration a larger development and
perspective, that of societal laws. the concept of the
Moral decision making becomes more than identity crisis. His
consideration of close ties to others. The theories marked
individual believes that rules and laws maintain an important shift
social order that is worth preserving. in thinking on
personality;
instead of
focusing simply on
LEVEL 1: POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
early childhood events, his psychosocial
At the postconventional level, the individual theory looks at how social influences contribute
moves beyond the perspective of his or her own to our personalities throughout
society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract
principles and values that apply to all situations
and societies. The individual attempts to take
the perspective of all individuals.

Rationalization: LEVEL 3 has two stages:

Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Individual rights determine behavior. The
individual views laws and rules as flexible tools
for improving human purposes. That is, given
the right situation, there are exceptions to rules.
When laws are not consistent with individual
rights and the interests of the majority, they do
not bring about good for people and alternatives
should be considered.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
orientation
our entire lifespans.
According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage
of functioning. However, he claimed that some Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
individuals will never reach this level. At this
stage, the appropriate action is determined by The first stage of Erikson's theory of
one’s self-chosen ethical principles of psychosocial development occurs between
conscience. birth and 1 year of age and is the most
fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is
These principles are abstract and universal in utterly dependent, developing trust is based
application. This type of reasoning involves on the dependability and quality of the child's
taking the perspective of every person or group caregivers. At this point in development, the
that could potentially be affected by the child is utterly dependent upon adult
decision. caregivers for everything they need to survive
including food, love, warmth, safety, and
nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will come to
feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the
adults in their life.
 Children who struggle and who are shamed
for their accidents may be left without a sense
of personal control. Success during this stage
of psychosocial development leads to feelings
of autonomy, failure results in feelings of
Rationalization: If a child successfully develops
shame and doubt. Children who successfully
trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the
complete this stage feel secure and confident,
world. Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and
while those who do not are left with a sense of
emotional health. Dev Caregivers who are
inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
that achieving a balance between autonomy
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
and shame and doubt would lead to will, which
under their care. Failure to develop trust will
is the belief that children can act with intention,
result in fear and a belief that the world is
within reason and limits.
inconsistent and unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial
development, children develop a sense of trust Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
when caregivers provide reliability, care, and
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. The third stage of psychosocial development
takes place during the preschool years. At this
No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust point in psychosocial development, children
or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful begin to assert their power and control over
development was all about striking a balance the world through directing play and other
between the two opposing sides. When this social interactions.
happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson
described as an openness to experience Children who are successful at this stage feel
tempered by some wariness that danger may be capable and able to lead others. Those who
present. fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense
of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Rationalization:

The second stage of Erikson's theory of The major theme of the third stage of
psychosocial development takes place during psychosocial development is that children
early childhood and is focused on children need to begin asserting control and power
developing a greater sense of personal control. over the environment. Success in this stage
leads to a sense of purpose.
Children who try to exert too much power
Rationalization:
experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of
The Role of Independence guilt. When an ideal balance of individual
initiative and a willingness to work with others
At this point in development, children are just is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose
starting to gain a little independence. They are emerges.
starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer.
By allowing kids to make choices and gain Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
control, parents and caregivers can help children The fourth psychosocial stage takes place
develop a sense of autonomy. during the early school years from
Potty Training approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social
interactions, children begin to develop a sense
The essential theme of this stage is that children of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
need to develop a sense of personal control over Children need to cope with new social and
physical skills and a sense of independence. academic demands. Success leads to a sense
Potty training plays an important role in helping of competence, while failure results in feelings
children develop this sense of autonomy. Like of inferiority.
Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a
vital part of this process. Rationalization: Children who are encouraged
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different and commended by parents and teachers
than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that develop a feeling of competence and belief in
learning to control one's bodily functions leads to their skills. Those who receive little or no
a feeling of control and a sense of independence. encouragement from parents, teachers, or
Other important events include gaining more peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
control over food choices, toy preferences, and Successfully finding a balance at this stage of
clothing selection. psychosocial development leads to the
strength known as competence, in which
children develop a belief in their abilities to
handle the tasks set before them.
 Rationalization: each step builds on skills
learned in previous steps. Erikson believed
that a strong sense of personal identity was
important for developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion those with a poor sense of self tend to have
less committed relationships and are more
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during likely to struggler with emotional isolation,
the often-turbulent teenage years. This stage loneliness, and depression. Successful
plays an essential role in developing a sense of resolution of this stage results in the virtue
personal identity which will continue to influence known as love. It is marked by the ability to
behavior and development for the rest of a form lasting, meaningful relationships with
person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of other people.
self and personal identity. Success leads to an
ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads
to role confusion and a weak sense of self. Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things that will
outlast them, often by having children or
Rationalization: When psychologists talk about
creating a positive change that benefits other
identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs,
people. Success leads to feelings of
ideals, and values that help shape and guide a
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
person's behavior. Completing this stage
results in shallow involvement in the world.
successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson
described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations. While Erikson
Rationalization: During adulthood, we
believed that each stage of psychosocial
continue to build our lives, focusing on our
development was important, he placed a
career and family. Those who are successful
particular emphasis on the development of ego
during this phase will feel that they are
identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
contributing to the world by being active in
self that we develop through social interaction
their home and community. Those who fail to
and becomes a central focus during the identity
attain this skill will feel unproductive and
versus confusion stage of psychosocial
uninvolved in the world.
development.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly
handled successfully. Being proud of your
changes due to new experiences and information
accomplishments, watching your children
we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
grow into adults, and developing a sense of
As we have new experiences, we also take on
unity with your life partner are important
challenges that can help or hinder the
accomplishments of this stage.
development of identity.
Why is identity important?
Our personal identity gives each of us an Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
integrated and cohesive sense of self that
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old
endures through our lives. Our sense of personal
age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
identity is shaped by our experiences and
interactions with others, and it is this identity that At this point in development, people look back
helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as on the events of their lives and determine if
we age. they are happy with the life that they lived or if
they regret the things they did or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many others
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation because it addressed development
Young adults need to form intimate, loving throughout the entire lifespan, including old
relationships with other people. Success leads to age.
strong relationships, while failure results in Older adults need to look back on life and feel
loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage
period of early adulthood when people are leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure
exploring personal relationships. results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop
close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and secure.
 Rationalization: During the oral stage, the
infant's primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking
reflex is especially important. The mouth is
vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure
Rationalization: At this stage, people reflect on
from oral stimulation through gratifying
the events of their lives and take stock. Those
activities such as tasting and sucking.
who look back on a life they feel was well-lived
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon
will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of
caretakers (who are responsible for feeding
their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look
the child), the child also develops a sense of
back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful
trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
that their lives will end without accomplishing the
things they feel they should have. The primary conflict at this stage is the
weaning process--the child must become less
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs
will feel that their life has been wasted and may
at this stage, Freud believed the individual
experience many regrets. The person will be left
would have issues with dependency or
with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those
aggression. Oral fixation can result in
who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel
problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or
a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this
nail-biting.
phase means looking back with few regrets and
a general feeling of satisfaction. These
individuals will attain wisdom, even when The Anal Stage Age
confronting death.
Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

Rationalization: During the anal stage, Freud

believed that the primary focus of the libido
was on controlling bladder and bowel
movements. The major conflict at this stage is
toilet training—the child has to learn to control
their bodily needs. Developing this control
According to the
leads to a sense of accomplishment and
famous psychoanalyst
independence.
Sigmund Freud, children
go through a series of According to Freud, success at this stage is
psychosexual stages that dependent upon the way in which parents
lead to the development of approach toilet training. Parents who utilize
the adult personality. praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive
Freud's stages of human
outcomes and help children feel capable and
development, which consisted of five psychosexual
productive. Freud believed that positive
stages of development, described how personality
experiences during the toilet training stage
developed over the course of childhood.
serve as the basis for people to become
These includes the following stages: competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support
and encouragement that children need during
this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or
shame a child for accidents. According to
Freud, inappropriate parental responses can
result in negative outcomes. If parents take an
approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested
that an anal-expulsive personality could
develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents
are too strict or begin toilet training too early,
The Oral Stage Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year Erogenous stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
Zone: Mouth
 This energy is still present, but it is
sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
The Phallic Stage This stage is important in the development of
social and communication skills and self-
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years confidence. As with the other psychosexual
Erogenous Zone: Genitals stages, Freud believed that it was possible
for children to become fixated or "stuck" in
this phase. Fixation at this stage can result
in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling
Rationalization: Freud suggested that during the relationships as an adult.
phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on
the genitals.
The Genital Stage
At this age, children also begin to discover the
Age Range: Puberty to Death
differences between males and females. Freud
also believed that boys begin to view their Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual
fathers as a rival for the mother’s affection. Interests
The Oedipus complex describes these feelings
of wanting to possess the mother and the desire
to replace the father. However, the child also Rationalization:
fears that he will be punished by the father for
The onset of puberty causes the libido to
these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration
become active once again. During the final
anxiety.
stage of psychosexual development, the
The term Electra complex has been used to individual develops a strong sexual interest
describe a similar set of feelings experienced by in the opposite sex.
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls
This stage begins during puberty but last
instead experience penis envy. Eventually, the
throughout the rest of a person's life. Where
child begins to identify with the same-sex parent
in earlier stages the focus was solely on
as a means of vicariously possessing the other
individual needs, interest in the welfare of
parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that
others grows during this stage.
penis envy was never fully resolved and that all
women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed balance between the various life areas. If the
this theory, calling it both inaccurate and other stages have been completed
demeaning to women. Instead, Horney successfully, the individual should now be
proposed that men experience feelings of well-balanced, warm, and caring.
inferiority because they cannot give birth to
Unlike many of the earlier stages of
children, a concept she referred to as womb
development, Freud believed that the ego
envy.
and superego were fully formed and
functioning at this point. Younger children are
The Latent Period ruled by the id, which demands immediate
satisfaction of the most basic needs and
Age Range: 6 to Puberty wants. Teens in the genital stage of
development can balance their most basic
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
urges against the need to conform to the
demands of reality and social norms.

Rationalization:
During this stage, the superego continues to
develop while the id's energies are suppressed.
Children develop social skills, values, and
relationships with peers and adults outside of the
family. The development of the ego and
superego contributes to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children enter
school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests. The
latent period is a time of exploration in which the
sexual energy is repressed or dormant.
 Operant Conditioning
This focuses on using either reinforcement or
punishment to increase or decrease a
behavior. Through this process, an
association is formed between the behavior
and the consequences of that behavior.

Rationalization:
Imagine that a trainer is trying to teach a dog
to fetch a ball. When the dog successfully
chases and picks up the ball, the dog
Who is Ivan Pavlov?
receives praise as a reward. When the
Ivan Pavlov was a animal fails to retrieve the ball, the trainer
Russian physiologist withholds the praise. Eventually, the dog
best known in forms an association between the behavior
psychology for his of fetching the ball and receiving the desired
discovery of classical reward.
conditioning. During
For example, imagine that a schoolteacher
his studies on the
punishes a student for talking out of turn by
digestive systems of
not letting the student go outside for recess.
dogs, Pavlov noted that
As a result, the student forms an association
the animals salivated
between the behavior (talking out of turn)
naturally upon the presentation of food.
and the consequence (not being able to go
outside for recess). As a result, the
Classical Conditioning
problematic behavior decreases. Several
In his famous experiment, Ivan Pavlov noticed factors can influence how quickly a response
dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after is learned and the strength of the response.
the sound had repeatedly been paired with How often the response is reinforced, known
presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized that this as a schedule of reinforcement, can play an
was a learned response and set out to further important role in how quickly the behavior is
investigate the conditioning process. Classical learned and how strong the response
conditioning is a process that involves creating becomes.
an association between a naturally existing
The type of reinforcer used can also have an
stimulus and a previously neutral one.
impact on the response. For example, while
a variable-ratio schedule will result in a high
and steady rate of response, a variable-
Rationalization: The classical conditioning
interval schedule will lead to a slow and
process involves pairing a previously neutral
steady response rate.
stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an
unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food). This In addition to being used to train people and
unconditioned stimulus naturally and animals to engage in new behaviors, operant
automatically triggers salivating as a response to conditioning can also be used to help people
the food, which is known as the unconditioned eliminate unwanted ones. Using a system of
response. After associating the neutral stimulus rewards and punishments, people can learn
and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the to overcome bad habits that might have a
bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a negative impact on their health such as
response. The sound of the bell is now known as smoking or overeating.
the conditioned stimulus and salivating in
response to the bell is known as the conditioned
response. A dog doesn't need to be trained to
salivate when it sees food; this occurs naturally.
The food is the naturally occurring stimulus. If
you ring a bell every time you presented the dog
with food, an association would be formed
between the food and the bell. Eventually, the
bell alone, a.k.a. the conditioned stimulus would The main difference between classical and
come to evoke the salivation response. Classical operant conditioning is that classical
conditioning is much more than just a basic term conditioning involves associating an
used to describe a method of learning; it can also involuntary response and a stimulus, while
explain how many behaviors form that can operant conditioning is about associating a
impact your health. time you see a commercial, voluntary behavior and a consequence.
you crave a sweet treat.
 Rationalization:
STIMULUS-BOUND- Describes the
behavior that occurs as a response to
specific stimuli. To describe the behavior
that occurs in response to the presence of a
specific stimulus. This includes external and
internal factors of distractors.

Rationalization:
SUBCATEGORIES OF TEACHER
MOVEMENT/MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT OVERDWELLING- when the teacher is not
includes the following: aware of the time, he/she might overtime
discussing a single topic, this includes the
1. THRUST – proceeding without assessing
teacher’s inability to monitor his/her time.
2. DANGLING – hanging activity by giving
another
Rationalization:
3. TRUNCATION – leaves activity
OVERLAPPING- Overlapping is attending
4. FLIP-FLOP – returns to a left activity while to two or more events at the same time. For
currently doing an activity example, the teacher can give a student
5. STIMULUS-BOUND – distracted individual feedback at one station and, at
the same time, offer a quick word of
6. OVERDWELLING – overtime in one topic encouragement to students who are
working at another station.
7. OVERLAPPING – multitasking results
negatively

Rationalization:
THRUST is proceeding into another topic without
any assessment or evaluation if the students
really understood the topic. Assessment is not
being utilized, as well as about asking questions
to students about what they have learned. Who is Jean Piaget?
Proceeding without assessing is an incomplete Jean Piaget's
learning. theory of cognitive
development suggests
that children move
Rationalization: through four different
DANGLING is not letting learning satisfaction stages of learning. His
achieved holistically. Learning will be hanging in theory focuses not
this behavior if the teacher will give another only on understanding
activity without finalizing the previous or the how children acquire
present activity. knowledge, but also
on understanding the nature of intelligence.

Rationalization: The stages of cognitive development are the

following:
TRUNCATION is leaving an activity and being
able to return, the act of abruptly moving to Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years
another topic. This not a good practice for
Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7
teacher, especially to slow learners. It would be
a disadvantage for some students if this will be Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11
practiced in the delivery of instructions.
Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and
up
Rationalization:
FLIP-FLOP- this is about returning to a left
activity while currently doing an activity, it is
about jumping from previous topic to another and
vice-versa, this lacks clear directions and
sequence of an activity.
 Rationalization:
The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive
Development
Rationalization:
The foundations of language development
The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive may have been laid during the previous
Development stage, but the emergence of language is one
of the major hallmarks of the preoperational
During this earliest stage of cognitive
stage of development.
development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and 2 to 7 Years Major characteristics and
manipulating objects. A child's entire experience developmental changes during this
at the earliest period of this stage occurs through stage:
basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
-Begin to think symbolically and learn to
Birth to 2 Years Major characteristics and use words and pictures to represent
developmental changes during this stage: objects
-Know the world through movements and -Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
sensations things from the perspective of others
-Learn about the world through basic actions -Getting better with language and
such as sucking, grasping, looking, and thinking, but still tend to think in very
listening concrete terms
-Learn that things continue to exist even At this stage, kids learn through pretend play
when they cannot be seen (object but still struggle with logic and taking the
permanence) point of view of other people. They also often
struggle with understanding the idea of
-Realize that they are separate beings from
constancy. Children become much more
the people and objects around them
skilled at pretend play during this stage of
-Realize that their actions can cause things to development, yet they continue to think very
happen in the world around them. concretely about the world around them. For
example, a researcher might take a lump of
During the sensorimotor stage, children go clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
through a period of dramatic growth and give a child the choice between two pieces of
learning. As kids interact with their environment, clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled
they continually make new discoveries about into a compact ball while the other is
how the world works. The cognitive development smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because
that occurs during this period takes place over a the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational
relatively short time and involves a great deal of child will likely choose that piece, even
growth. Children not only learn how to perform though the two pieces are the same size.
physical actions such as crawling and walking;
they also learn a great deal about language from
the people with whom they interact.
Rationalization:
Piaget also broke this stage down into
substages. Early representational thought The Concrete Operational Stage of
emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor Cognitive Development
stage. Piaget believed that developing object
While children are still very concrete and
permanence or object constancy, the
literal in their thinking at this point in
understanding that objects continue to exist even
development, they become much more
when they cannot be seen, was an important
adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of
element at this point of development. By learning
the previous stage begins to disappear as
that objects are separate and distinct entities and
kids become better at thinking about how
that they have an existence of their own outside
other people might view a situation.
of individual perception, children are then able to
begin to attach names and words to objects.
Rationalization:
7 to 11 Years Major characteristics and
developmental changes during this stage: The Gestalt principles was developed by
German psychologists, the Gestalt
-Begin to think logically about concrete
principles, also known as the Gestalt laws of
events
perceptual organization, describe how we
-Begin to understand the concept of interpret the complex world around us. They
conservation; that the amount of liquid in a explain why a series of flashing lights appear
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, to be moving and why we can read a
skinny glass, for example sentence like this: notli ket his ort hat.

-Thinking becomes more logical and These are just a few real-life examples of
organized, but still very concrete the six Gestalt principles or laws, which are:

-Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning • Law of similarity

from specific information to a general • Law of pragnanz
principle • Law of proximity
• Law of continuity
While thinking becomes much more logical
• Law of closure
during the concrete operational state, it can also
be very rigid. Kids at this point in development • Law of common region
tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts. During this stage, children also
become less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel. Kids in
the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to
them and that not everyone else necessarily
shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

Rationalization:
The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive
Development
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an Rationalization:
increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract The law of similarity states that similar
ideas. At this point, adolescents and young things tend to appear grouped together.
adults become capable of seeing multiple Grouping can occur in both visual and
potential solutions to problems and think more auditory stimuli. In the image at the top of
scientifically about the world around them. this page

Age 12 and Up Major characteristics and For example, you probably see two separate
developmental changes during this time: groupings of colored circles as rows rather
than just a collection of dots.
-Begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred
to as the law of good figure or the law of
-Begins to think more about moral, simplicity. This law holds that when you're
philosophical, ethical, social, and political presented with a set of ambiguous or
issues that require theoretical and abstract complex objects, your brain will make them
reasoning appear as simple as possible.
-Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning For example, when presented with the
from a general principle to specific Olympic logo, you see overlapping circles
information rather than an assortment of curved,
connected lines.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and
situations is the key hallmark of the formal The word prägnanz is a German term
operational stage of cognitive development. meaning "good figure."

.
 Proponents: Atkinson and Shiffrin

Rationalization:
According to the Law of proximity, things that
are close together seem more related than
things that are spaced farther apart.
In the image at the top of the page, the circles
on the left appear to be part of one grouping
while those on the right appear to be part of
another. Because the objects are close to each
other, we group them together.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model is a theory of
Rationalization: human memory that was proposed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968.
The Law of continuity holds that points that are Essentially, both men used this model to show
connected by straight or curving lines are seen that the human memory could be broken down
in a way that follows the smoothest path. In other into three different memory stores:
words, elements in a line or curve seem more
related to one another than those positioned • Sensory Memory
randomly. • Short-Term Memory
• Long-Term Memory

Rationalization:
According to the Law of closure, we perceive Rationalization:
elements as belonging to the same group if they
seem to complete some entity. Our brains often Sensory Memory
ignore contradictory information and fill in gaps We take in enormous amounts of information
in information. In the image at the top of the through our senses but the vast majority of it
page, you probably see the shape of a diamond cannot be processed correctly due to the
because your brain fills in the missing gaps in limitations of our memory. Information not
order to create a meaningful image. attended to immediately is held in our sensory
memory which holds onto this knowledge for
a very short period of time.
Rationalization:
All of our senses have sensory memory
Law of Common Region the Gestalt law of systems, but the systems focused on by the
common region says that when elements are in Atkinson-Shiffrin model relate to sight and
the same closed region, we perceive them as sound known as iconic and echoic memory
belonging to the same group. respectively. Iconic memory lasts less than
Look at the last image at the top of the page. The half a second while echoic memory ceases
circles are right next to each other so that the dot after three or four seconds.
at the end of one circle is closer to the dot at the
end of the neighboring circle. But despite how Rationalization:
close those two dots are, we see the dots inside
the circles as belonging together. Creating a Short-Term Memory (STM)
clearly defined boundary can overpower other This relates to memories of information which
Gestalt laws such as the law of proximity. is retained by our senses long enough for it to
be used. An example of this is a telephone
number which needs to be remembered
before being dialed. The Peterson and
Peterson study of 1959 showed that Short-
Term Memory (STM) lasts for less than 30
seconds unless the information is attended to
within that timeframe. T
he 1956 Miller study stated that seven (plus
Information processing theory proposes that or minus two) pieces of information can be
cognitive processes happen in four distinct learned in that 30 second period. Yet this has
stages, each with its own purpose and been disputed since, with the belief that STM
functionality. varies depending on conditions.
 Bandura identified three basic models of
observational learning:

• A live model, which involves an actual

Rationalization:
individual demonstrating or acting out
Long-Term Memory (LTM) a behavior.
• A symbolic model, which involves
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model believed that STM real or fictional characters displaying
could be transferred to Long-Term Memory behaviors in books, films, television
(LTM) if the information was processed and
programs, or online media.
learned fast enough. LTM has a limitless capacity
• A verbal instructional model, which
and is capable of lasting a lifetime. This basically
involves descriptions and
means we never lose the ability to store new
explanations of a behavior.
information regardless of how long we live.
“Mental States Are Important to
Learning”
Bandura noted that external, environmental
reinforcement was not the only factor to
influence learning and behavior. And he
realized that reinforcement does not always
come from outside sources. Your own
mental state and motivation play an
important role in determining whether a
Proponent: Albert Bandura
behavior is learned or not.
Social learning theory, introduced by psychologist
He described intrinsic reinforcement as a
Albert Bandura, proposed that learning occurs
form of internal rewards, such as pride,
through
satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.
observation,
This emphasis on internal thoughts and
imitation, and
cognitions helps connect learning theories to
modeling and is
cognitive developmental theories. While
influenced by
many textbooks place social learning theory
factors such as
with behavioral theories, Bandura himself
attention,
describes his approach as a 'social cognitive
motivation,
theory.
attitudes, and
emotions. The Learning Does Not Necessarily Lead to
theory accounts for Change
the interaction of
environmental and So how do we determine when something
cognitive elements has been learned? In many cases, learning
that affect how can be seen immediately when the new
people learn. behavior is displayed. When you teach a
child to ride a bicycle, you can quickly
According to Bandura, people observe behavior determine if learning has occurred by having
either directly through social interactions with the child ride his or her bike unassisted. But
others or indirectly by observing behaviors sometimes we are able to learn things even
through media. Actions that are rewarded are though that learning might not be
more likely to be imitated, while those that are immediately obvious. While behaviorists
punished are avoided. believed that learning led to a permanent
change in behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn new
Rationalization: Core Concepts of Social information without demonstrating new
Learning Theory: behaviors.

“People Can Learn Through Observation”

One of the best-known experiments in the history
of psychology involved a doll named Bobo.
Bandura demonstrated that children learn and
imitate behaviors they have observed in other
people. The children in Bandura’s studies
observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo
doll. When the children were later allowed to play
in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate
the aggressive actions they had previously
observed.
 Rationalization:
The simplified compilation of the three laws of
learning is as follows:
The following steps are involved in the
observational learning and modeling process: LAW OF EFFECT.

Attention: In order to learn, you need to be • learning is strengthened when

paying attention. Anything that distracts your accompanied by a pleasant or
attention is going to have a negative effect on satisfying feeling.
observational learning. If the model is interesting • learning is weakened when
or there is a novel aspect of the situation, you are associated with an unpleasant
far more likely to dedicate your full attention to feeling.
learning. • learning takes places properly when
it results in satisfaction and the
Retention: The ability to store information is also
learner derives pleasure out of it.
an important part of the learning process.
• The classroom experiences should
Retention can be affected by a number of
be satisfactory and pleasant. The
factors, but the ability to pull up information later
teacher must enjoy his teaching
and act on it is vital to observational learning.
work.
Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to • Learning experiences and other
the model and retained the information, it is time activities must be meaningful and
to actually perform the behavior you observed. understandable in terms of the
Further practice of the learned behavior leads to personal life of the learners.
improvement and skill advancement. • School activities should be organized
in increasing difficulty order so that
Motivation: Finally, in order for observational
the students may progress without
learning to be successful, you have to be
any failure.
motivated to imitate the behavior that has been
modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play THE LAW OF EXERCISE
an important role in motivation. While
experiencing these motivators can be highly • This principle states that the S-R
effective, so can observing others experiencing connection is strengthened by use
some type of reinforcement or punishment. For and weakened with disuse.
example, if you see another student rewarded • It has two parts: law of use and law
with extra credit for being to class on time, you of disuse.
might start to show up a few minutes early each • Things most often repeated are best
day. remembered.
• Students do not learn complex tasks
in a single session.
• The instructor must repeat important
items of subject matter at reasonable
intervals.
LAW OF READINESS

• This principle states that motivation is

needed to develop an association or
Proponent: Edward Thorndike display changed behavior.
• Individuals learn best when they are
The learning theory of physically, mentally, and emotionally
Thorndike represents ready to learn, and they do not learn
the original S-R well if they see no reason for
framework of behavioral learning.
psychology: Learning is
the result of associations
forming between stimuli
and responses. Such
associations or “habits”
become strengthened or
weakened by the nature
and frequency of the S-R
pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and
error learning in which certain responses come to
dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that
learning could be adequately explained without
referring to any unobservable internal states.
 Rationalization:
Enactive Mode (0-1 year) In the enactive
mode, knowledge is stored primarily in the
form of motor responses. This mode is used
within the first year of life (corresponding with
Piaget’s sensorimotor stage). Thinking is
based entirely on physical actions, and
infants learn by doing, rather than by internal
representation (or thinking). It involves
encoding physical action-based information
Proponent: Jerome Bruner and storing it in our memory.
For example, in the form of movement as
muscle memory, a baby might remember the
American psychologist
action of shaking a rattle. And this is not just
and educator who
limited to children. Many adults can perform a
developed theories on
variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt,
perception, learning,
operating a lawn mower) that they would find
memory, and other
difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or
aspects of cognition in
symbolic (word) form. This mode continues
young children that had
later in many physical activities, such as
a strong influence on
learning to ride a bike.
the American
educational system and Iconic Mode (1-6 years) Information is stored
helped launch the field of cognitive psychology. He as sensory images (icons), usually visual
is famous for the “Discovery learning” and the “Three ones, like pictures in the mind.
modes of representation”.
For some, this is conscious; others say they
Modes of representation are how information or don’t experience it. This may explain why,
knowledge is stored and encoded in memory. when we are learning a new subject, it is often
Rather than neat age-related stages (like helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to
Piaget), the modes of representation are accompany the verbal information. Thinking
integrated and only loosely sequential as they is also based on using other mental images
“translate” into each other. (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch.

Bruner (1966) was concerned with how Symbolic Mode (7 years onwards) This
knowledge is represented and organized through develops last. In the symbolic stage,
different modes of thinking (or representation). knowledge is stored primarily as language,
mathematical symbols, or in other symbol
In his research on the cognitive development of systems.
children, Jerome Bruner proposed three
modes of representation: This mode is acquired around six to seven
years old (corresponding to Piaget’s concrete
• Enactive representation (action-based) operational stage). In the symbolic stage,
• Iconic representation (image-based) knowledge is stored primarily as words,
• Symbolic representation (language- mathematical symbols, or other symbol
based) systems, such as music. Symbols are flexible
in that they can be manipulated, ordered,
Bruner’s constructivist theory suggests it is
classified, etc. so the user isn’t constrained by
effective when faced with new material to follow
actions or images (which have a fixed relation
a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic
to that which they represent). According to
representation; this holds true even for adult
Bruner’s taxonomy, these differ from icons in
learners.
that symbols are “arbitrary.” For example, the
Bruner’s work also suggests that a learner even word “beauty” is an arbitrary designation for
of a very young age is capable of learning any the idea of beauty in that the word itself is no
material so long as the instruction is organized more inherently beautiful than any other
appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of word.
Piaget and other stage theorists.
 Rationalization:
The practical aspect of Schema Theory:
Schema theory emphasizes on the
importance of generic knowledge that will
help the formation of mental representations.
In the educational process, the task of
teachers would be to help students develop
new schemata and establish connections
Proponent: Frederic Bartlett between them –something that will eventually
improve their memory. Of course,
The schema theory background information and prior knowledge
was one of the leading are vitally important, as well. Schema theory
cognitivists learning can been applied in various areas, such as:
theories and was
introduced by Bartlett Mathematical problem solving
in 1932 and further A research showed that 3rd graders taught to
developed in the ’70s use schemata to solve mathematical
by Richard Anderson. problems performed better than their peers
Bartlett advanced this who were taught to solve them in four steps
concept to provide a (read – plan to solve – solve – check).
basis for a temporal
alternative to Motor learning
traditional spatial
Discrete motor skills are performed in a short
storage theories of memory, since schema theory
period of time and involve the use of our
describes the way knowledge is acquired, processed
senses to understand what is happening and
and cerebrally organized.
then of our bodies to take action. Since most
The Schema Theory Structure While exploring movements are unique, our ability to perform
the recall of Native American folktales, Bartlett a movement class is represented by three
noticed that many recalls were not accurate and things, according to Richard A Schmidt
involved the replacement of unfamiliar (1974):
information with facts already known. • a generalized motor program that
In order to categorize this class of memory captures the basic movement form.
errors, Bartlett suggested that human beings • a recall schema that provides info
apparently possess generic knowledge in the about specific situations and
form of unconscious mental structures intentions.
(schemata) and that these structures produce • a recognition schema that allows us to
schematized errors in recall when they interact realize a mistake we have made.
with incoming information. Reading comprehension
Thus, it is through schemata that old knowledge Schema theory is often used to assist the
influences new information. So, basically, learning of a second language, since it
schemata (plural of schema) are psychological usually requires reading many texts in the
concepts that were proposed as a form of mental target language. If we fail to create a sufficient
representation for selected chunks of complex number of schemata when reading a text,
knowledge, which are then stored in the long- then reading comprehension and
term memory. consequently mastering another language
The key elements of a Schema are: will become difficult.

• An individual can memorize and use a

schema without even realizing of doing
so.
• Once a schema is developed, it tends to
be stable over a long period of time.
• Human mind uses schemata to organize,
retrieve, and encode chunks of important
information.
• Schemata are accumulated over time
and through different experiences.
 Rationalization:
Wolfgang Kohler’s Experiment
Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist (1925)
advocated insight learning. In one of his
experiments, he caged a chimpanzee named
Sultan with a banana bunch hanging on the
ceiling and a long stick well beyond reach outside
the cage and a short stick inside the cage. Sultan
found the short stick, grabbed it, and tried to
Proponent: Wolfgang Kohler
reach the fruit with it. But the short stick was
Insight learning theory designed to be too short. Several unsuccessful
is proposed by attempts were made and Sultan dropped the idea
Wolfgang Kohler. and started playing. Then suddenly, Sultan
Insight learning is the jumped up, seized the short stick again, and used
sudden understanding this time to pull in the longer stick. He then used
of the relation the two sticks to reach the fruit by fitting the
between a problem longer and the shorter stick together. This action
and a solution. By displayed Sultan’s cognition.
learning through
In another problem, Kohler placed a banana
insight, the correct
bunch hanging from the roof out of the reach of
solution not only
Sultan. Sultan had to stack three boxes on top of
appears seemingly
one another that were kept inside in the cage in
out of nowhere but also repeated readily of
order to reach the bananas. Sultan tried to reach
subsequent presentations of that problem. Once
the bananas bunch by climbing on a box but
solved, the problem, no matter how many times
failed. After several unsuccessful attempts at
repeated, will no longer be a problem.
jumping and trying to reach the bananas, Sultan
appeared to survey the situation and solved the
In insight learning, the perceptual stimuli are problem with the correct solution, which was
restructured in different ways and rely on cognitive using the boxes as steps to reach the bananas.
processes. It is the “aha” or “I’ve got it” experience He brought the boxes, placed them on top of one
when we suddenly solve a problem. Occasionally another, climbed on them, and finally got to the
insight comes dramatically and makes the problem bananas. Sultan uses the useless boxes and
solution suddenly clear. sticks in a useful manner by the cognition of
Suppose you tried very hard to solve a math insight.
problem without success. In frustration, you leave Characteristics of Insight Learning
the problem assignment and decide to take a bath.
Then all of a sudden you understand the concepts Insight depends upon the arrangement of the
involved to solve the problem. It is in your bathtub problem situation. The insight will come easily if
that you have had an “aha” experience. The the required materials and tools are arranged in
situation has changed, and insight has occurred. a perfect order to perceive the relationship. For
Once this problem has been solved, you are able example, in Kohler’s experiment, Sultan could
to solve other similar problems. In human solve the problem because he could see the
experience, insight provides a sense of boxes or the sticks near him. Human beings scan
satisfaction. After solving a difficult problem or their surroundings and mentally manipulate and
discovering a solution for a conflict, we as humans rearrange objects in a purposeful arrangement in
feel happy. an attempt to find a solution. The solutions to
problems once solved with insight can be
repeated and reused easily. For example, once
Sultan used a stick for pulling in the bunch of
bananas, he will seek out a stick on the next
occasion when a similar problem is encountered.
Once a solution occurs with insight learning, it
can be applied to new solutions. For example,
Sultan did not show any trial and error attempts
when the same type of problem was encountered
he joined the two sticks and approached the
banana bunch once the cognitive relationship
was established. In insight learning, the whole
situation appears to take on a new form, altering
the perception of an individual giving
circumstances a meaningful and attractive look.