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Hans-Joachim Adam · Mathias Adam

PLC Programming
In Instruction
List According
To IEC 61131-3
A Systematic And Action-Oriented
Introduction In Structured Programming
PLC Programming In Instruction List According
To IEC 61131-3
Hans-Joachim Adam • Mathias Adam

PLC Programming In
Instruction List According
To IEC 61131-3
A Systematic And Action-Oriented
Introduction In Structured Programming
Hans-Joachim Adam Mathias Adam
Bühl, Germany Bühl, Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-65253-4 ISBN 978-3-662-65254-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part
of Springer Nature 2022, 2015
Originally published by Elektorverlag, Aachen, 1997, 2000, 2003
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give
a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that
may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany
Preface to the Fourth Edition (german)

This book is the result of teaching practice at vocational and general schools, in-house
training and further education in a chemical company and the professional qualification of
engineers to teach information technology at vocational schools in Baden-Württemberg
(Germany).
The book is written as a textbook and exercise book. This means that you will be intro-
duced to new areas through explanation or examples. To consolidate your knowledge and
to check your learning and success, we recommend that you do the exercises. Sample
solutions are available for most exercises: Each exercise has a unique name under which
the solution can be found on the authors’1 website.
An integral part of this book is the PLC simulation software “PLC-lite”, which was
developed by the authors especially for this course. You can download it free of charge
from the authors’ website. This gives you the opportunity to intensively test a control sys-
tem that conforms to the standards, regardless of limitations with real systems. The scope
of commands, data types, structures, etc. has been selected in such a way that the special
features of programming in instruction lists according to IEC 61131-3 can be easily under-
stood using the exercises from this book. In addition, “PLC-lite” contains a large number
of processes as animated simulations. This allows you to test your programs in a practical
and safe manner and to study the behavior of the controlled processes (even under extreme
conditions or “errors”). Your PC is thus both a programming device and PLC automation
device as well as a “technical system”.
At the beginning we will deal in detail with basics and digital technology in the first
four chapters. This part serves primarily as preparation for PLC programming, which is
covered in the second part. You will learn important basics for PLC technology here. In
addition, digital technology is already PLC programming! In principle, nothing else is
done in the “function block diagram” language than connecting the logical symbols to
form the program. This looks very similar to creating a digital circuit.

1
www.adamis.de/plc/

v
vi Preface to the Fourth Edition (german)

In the second part of the book we cover PLC technology. You will now quickly see the
advantage of PLC programming: Changes don’t require cumbersome cable pulling, as was
necessary with digital circuitry. You simply write the new instruction and that’s it.
In this book, programming is learned with the most universal language, the instruction
list (IL). Compared to the often more popular graphical languages, it has the advantage of
an exact, easily comprehensible and clear structure. With the second edition, IEC 61131–3
is even more consistently oriented towards general programming languages.
With the book “SPS Programmierung mit IEC 61131” (“PLC Programming with IEC
61131”) Karl Heinz John and Michael Tiegelkamp have created a reference that provides
deep insights into the IEC 61131 standard. With this reference work, the fundamentals laid
in this book can be systematically expanded.
Because this book is a textbook (and not a reference book), it is advisable to work
through the book systematically. The subject matter and the exercises are arranged accord-
ing to didactic aspects in a very specific order, building on each other. Please do not skip
any of the exercises and only continue working when you have fully understood them, so
that any gaps do not become noticeable later in a negative way. The step-by-step procedure
guarantees the highest possible learning success.
To work through it, we recommend one of the following three methods:

The You work through everything in sequence, chronologically from the first page to
thorough the last. If you take the time and have the patience to work through the more than
method 150 exercises, you will gain solid knowledge in both digital technology and PLC
that goes far beyond simple basics. Especially if you have no prior knowledge of
digital technology, this is the recommended approach. You will then learn digital
technology first and then PLC technology
The Alternatively, you can also learn digital technology and PLC technology at the
parallel same time by alternating between a chapter on digital technology and the
method corresponding PLC chapter. We recommend this procedure if you already know
some digital technology, but are no longer completely sure. In this case, work
through the chapters in the following order: 1, 2, 5, 3, 6, 7, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
The If you are a digital technology “pro” and want to deal exclusively with PLC
advanced technology, you can simply start with the fifth chapter and then continue to the end
method of the book

Since the first edition of this book more than 13 years ago, the IEC 61131 standard has
gained enormously in importance. The currently valid second edition of the standard
brought numerous changes and additions, which have been taken into account in this
fourth edition of the book. The flowchart illustrations in this book have been redrawn in
accordance with DIN EN 60848.

Bühl, Germany Hans-Joachim Adam

Spring
2012 Mathias Adam
Preface to the Fifth, Expanded Edition

We have added another chapter to the book in which the control of a mountain railway is
programmed. Of particular interest here is the visualization of the mountain railway in the
newly designed PLC-lite simulation application. This allows you to run the cable car
“properly” and test your programs realistically and safely. By simulating operating errors
(interrupted or short-circuited sensor) you can test the stability of your solutions.
Furthermore, we have extended the subject index by a listing of the exercise tasks.

Bühl, Germany Hans-Joachim Adam

Spring
2015 Mathias Adam

vii
Contents

Part I Digital Technology

1
Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers and Codes 3
1.1 Decimal Number System �� 3
1.2 Bundling�� 4
1.3 The Decimal Position System�� 5
1.4 Roman Numerals �� 7
1.5 Egyptian Numbers �� 7
1.6 Binary System, Dual Number System �� 8
1.7 Computers Work with Dual Numbers�� 9
1.8 Conversion of Decimal Numbers into Dual Numbers �� 10
1.9 Other Number Bases, Hexadecimal Numbers (Base 16)�� 11
1.10 Hexadecimal Numbers and Dual Numbers�� 12
1.11 Binary Code �� 13
1.12 BCD Code�� 13
1.13 ASCII Code�� 14
1.14 Dual Code – Dual Number�� 15
1.15 Signals�� 15
2
Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra 17
2.1 Negation (NOT Function)�� 18
2.2 Identity (EQUAL Function)�� 18
2.3 Conjunction (AND Function)�� 18
2.4 Heating Control (Two-Point Control)�� 19
2.5 Negation of the Input �� 20
2.6 More Than Two Input Variables�� 20
2.7 AND Operation as Data Switch�� 21
2.8 Disjunction (OR Function)�� 22
2.9 OR Operation as Data Switch�� 23
2.10 NAND Function (Negation of the AND Function)�� 24
2.11 NOR Function (Negation of the OR Function)�� 24

ix
x Contents

2.12 Creating a Function from the Function Table�� 26

2.13 EXOR Function (Antivalence)�� 27
2.14 Disjunctive Normal Form (AND-Before-OR), Minterms �� 28
2.15 Brief Description of the Logic Diagram�� 28
2.16 Two-Way Connection�� 30
2.17 Creating the Function Equation with More Than Two Inputs �� 31
2.18 Cross Connection �� 31
2.19 Two- from Three-Sensors Logic�� 32
2.20 Transforming and Simplifying Functions�� 33
2.21 Boolean Algebra�� 35
2.22 Conjunctive Normal Form (OR-Before-AND)�� 36
3 Memory Elements 39
3.1 Flip-Flops and Static Memories�� 39
3.2 The RS Flip-Flop �� 40
3.3 Alarm Circuit 1�� 42
3.4 Defined Basic Position (Preferred Position)�� 43
3.5 Priority of the Input Signals�� 43
3.6 Motor Control�� 44
3.7 Flip-Flop with Negated Inputs �� 45
3.8 Clock-State Controlled Flip-Flops�� 46
3.9 Alarm Circuit 2�� 49
3.10 Filling and Emptying a Measuring Vessel �� 49
3.11 Alarm Circuit 3�� 51
4
Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters 53
4.1 Clock Edge Controlled Flip-Flops �� 53
4.2 RS Bistable Element with Dynamic Input �� 55
4.3 The JK-Flip-Flop �� 56
4.4 The T-Flip-Flop�� 57
4.5 Automatic Filling and Emptying of a Measuring Vessel �� 58
4.6 Counter�� 59
4.6.1 The Asynchronous Counter�� 60
4.6.2 The Asynchronous Down Counter�� 62
4.6.3 Modulo-n, Decimal- and BCD-Counters�� 62
4.6.4 Modulo-3 Counter�� 63
4.6.5 BCD Counter�� 63
4.6.6 Counter with Any Start and End Value �� 64
4.7 Multiple Filling and Emptying of a Vessel�� 65
4.8 Timer�� 65
Contents xi

Part II PLC Technology

5
Combinatorial Circuits with PLC 69
5.1 Directly Represented Variable�� 70
5.2 Basic Logical Links with PLCs �� 70
5.3 OR Operation �� 71
5.4 The Current Result�� 72
5.5 The PLC Simulation Application “PLC-Lite” �� 74
5.6 AND Operation�� 76
5.7 Negation of Inputs and Outputs �� 77
5.8 Boolean Algebra: De Morgan’s Rules �� 78
5.9 Boiler Heating (Two-Point Control)�� 79
5.10 Program Cycle of the PLC�� 80
5.11 Circuit Diagrams�� 81
5.12 Querying Output Variables�� 82
5.13 Flags and Brackets �� 84
5.14 Memory for Flags�� 84
5.15 Comments in the Instruction List�� 85
5.16 Intermediate Results in Brackets �� 86
5.17 EXOR Operation (Antivalence)�� 87
6 Logical Memory Circuits 89
6.1 Output with Self-Retaining�� 89
6.2 Setting and Resetting Outputs�� 90
6.3 Order of Execution and Priority�� 92
6.4 Storage of Inputs and Outputs�� 93
6.5 Process Images of the Inputs and Outputs �� 96
6.6 Level Control of a Vessel �� 99
6.7 Alarm Circuit 4�� 100
6.8 Signal Memories as Function Blocks�� 101
6.9 Use of Function Modules�� 102
6.10 Control for Filling and Emptying a Measuring Vessel�� 104
7 Timers with PLC 107
7.1 Timer for Pulses �� 107
7.2 Filling and Emptying with Time Control�� 110
7.3 Flashing Lights and Oscillating Circuits�� 111
7.4 Alarm Circuit 5�� 113
7.5 Using Multiple Timers: Chasers�� 114
7.6 Timer with Switch-On Delay�� 116
7.7 Start/Stop Oscillator with only One Timing Element�� 117
7.8 Note on the Display of Very Short Pulses�� 119
xii Contents

8 Counter with PLC 121

8.1 Data Types�� 121
8.2 Type Conversions�� 125
8.3 Three Different Counter Types�� 127
8.3.1 Up Counter�� 127
8.3.2 Down Counter �� 130
8.3.3 Combined Up/Down Counter�� 130
8.4 Determine Numbers �� 132
8.5 Multi-Digit Decimal Counter (BCD)�� 132
8.6 Multiple Filling and Emptying�� 133
8.7 Generator for Counting Pulses�� 134
8.8 Time measuring�� 135
8.9 Quantity Measuring �� 136
8.10 Reaction Tester�� 136
9 Function Blocks 137
9.1 The Function Block (FB) Outputs Values�� 137
9.2 Creating a Function Block (FB)�� 138
9.3 Program Organization Units (POUs) �� 139
9.4 Including a Function Block in a Project at a Later Stage�� 141
9.5 The Function Block Reads in Values �� 142
9.6 Function Block: FB_Tank�� 143
10 Jumps,
Loops and Repetitions 147
10.1 The Running Dot�� 147
10.2 Conditional Jump �� 148
10.3 Set Initial Value�� 149
10.4 Running Light�� 150
10.5 Comparisons�� 150
10.6 Unconditional Jump �� 152
10.7 Filling Several Measuring Vessels �� 154
10.8 Multiple Selection�� 154
10.9 Random Numbers�� 157
11 Functions 159
11.1 Use of Functions�� 159
11.2 Difference Between Function and Function Block�� 161
11.3 Dice Game �� 162
11.4 BCD Converter�� 162
11.5 Parameter Transfer to the Function�� 163
12 Sequence Controls 165
12.1 Basic Principle of Sequence Control Using the Example of Pushbuttons165
12.2 The Sequence Chain�� 167
Contents xiii

12.3 Set Initial State�� 168

12.4 Sequence Step and Step-On Condition�� 169
12.5 Graphical Representation of Sequence Controls �� 169
12.6 Pressure Switch�� 171
12.7 Control of Actions�� 173
12.8 Programming the Timing Elements in a Sequence Control System�� 177
12.9 In Conclusion �� 178
13 Repeat Tasks 179
13.1 Review Tasks for Chap. 2�� 179
13.2 Review Tasks for Chap. 5�� 181
13.3 Review Tasks for Chap. 6�� 182
13.4 Review of Chap. 7�� 183
13.5 Review Exercises for Chap. 8�� 183
13.6 Review of Chap. 9�� 184
13.7 Review of Chap. 10�� 184
13.8 Review of Chap. 11�� 186
13.9 Review of Chap. 12�� 187
13.10 Mixed Tasks �� 188
14
Example: Control of a Mountain Railway 195
14.1 Control of a Cable Car �� 195
14.2 Cable Car: Main Programme �� 198
14.3 Edge Detection�� 201
14.4 Cable Car (Bergbahn): Control Function Block�� 203
14.5 Mountain Railway with Stop Request from the Cabin�� 209
14.6 Cable Car with Stop Request from the Middle Station�� 210
14.7 Treatment of Operational Faults�� 212
15 Structure and Programming of a PLC 215
16
Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite 219
16.1 Program Organisation Units (POU)�� 223
16.2 Elements of the Instruction List Language (IL)�� 226
16.3 Keywords �� 227
17 Terms English – German 229

References 233

Index 235
About the Authors

Hans-Joachim Adam (Graduate engineer) studied electrical engineering at the

University of Karlsruhe. Since 1978, he has been teaching mathematics, electrical engi-
neering, and information technology at the Technical High School in Bühl. At the State
Seminar for Didactics and Teacher Training (vocational schools) in Karlsruhe, he is head
of the information technology department. He is active in teacher training at the
Oberschulamt Karlsruhe and the Kultusministerium Baden-Württemberg as well as in in-
house training at various industrial companies.
Mathias Adam (Graduate engineer) studied electrical engineering and information tech-
nology at the University of Karlsruhe and works as a freelance consulting engineer. His
work focuses on machine vision and embedded Linux.

xv
Part I
Digital Technology

In the first part of the book we cover digital technology. This section serves as preparation
for PLC programming, which is covered in Part II.
You will learn important basics for PLC technology. In addition, digital technology is
already PLC programming! In the language “function block diagram” (which is not used
in this book, however), basically nothing else is done than connecting the digital symbols
to the circuit (and thus to the program).
Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers
and Codes 1

Abstract

For most people today, the decimal number system commonly used in counting seems
to be inherently given. It is seldom regarded as a pure invention of man. However, once
the problems of counting and number systems are considered, the structure and neces-
sity of number systems other than decimal become understandable. In Sects. 1.1, 1.2,
1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9 and 1.10 you will learn something about numbers and
digits, what “counting” means and according to which laws numbers are constructed.
The problem of coding (encoding) is ancient and – like counting – a basic element of
human communication. The representation of dual numbers is a dual code; a pure
binary code. In Sects. 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14 and 1.15, learn the difference between dual
numbers on the one hand and digital information and codes on the other.

1.1 Decimal Number System

All number systems are built up according to the same regularity. It is always a matter of
expressing a very specific number (= “quantity”) by a symbol, the “number”.
Consider Fig. 1.1: In the example, sets of points are drawn. For each set (= number),
there is a different number sign (numeral) that stands for that number. For zero piece there
is numeral “0”, for one piece there is numeral “1” etc. You can easily see that one cannot
represent all arbitrary numbers in this way, because the infinitely many numbers would
also require infinitely many sets of different characters.
Without special measures, one would therefore have to have as many different symbols
as possible quantities, i.e. an infinite number! This is, of course, completely impossible.
That is why the same symbols are used repeatedly. These basic symbols are the numerals.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 3

Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_1
4 1 Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers and Codes

Fig. 1.1 Sets of points: Quantity: Digit

Numbers stand as symbols or
numerals for the number
of points

For larger quantities than nine pieces, new numerals are no longer used, but these num-
bers are formed by a composition of the familiar symbols 0 … 9. In the German and
English language, however, there are even more number words: Zehn (ten, 10), Elf
(eleven, 11) and Zwölf (twelve, 12). Only after that the new number words are formed by
compositions of the basic number words: Thirteen (three – ten), Fourteen (four – ten) etc.

Exercise 1.1

Put together the number of different number words for different foreign languages you
know! Check how the numbers between “10” and “20” are formed in different
languages!

1.2 Bundling

If the set is larger than the supply of introduced number symbols, one must bundle. In all
languages, the larger numbers are composed of the finitely many number words of a basic
supply. In the tens or decimal system, one must always form bundles of ten each. The
resulting number (quantity) of “bundles of ten” is again expressed by one of the number
symbols. In Fig. 1.2 a quantity of 24 points is bundled.
The complete bundles of ten are named with the number of bundles, adding the syllable
“-ty” to identify them as bundles of ten. (e.g., forty, sixty). Exceptions apply to twenty
(instead of twoty), thirty (instead of threety) and fifty (instead of fivety). The number in the
example from Fig. 1.2 is therefore called “Twenty-four”.

Fig. 1.2 Bundle quantity of

24 pieces Two complete bundles of ten

And four single pieces

1.3 The Decimal Position System 5

Fig. 1.3 Bundle for

two-hundred-thirty-seven
Single pieces
Bundles of ten
Bundles of hundreds

By bundling, one achieves that the complete bundles are created and the remaining
numbers are always nine or smaller when bundling by tens. As a practical application, you
can imagine that ten eggs are packed in an egg box. Ten of these boxes are packed in a
carton, of which ten are again packed on a pallet. So the eggs, boxes, cartons or pallets are
divided into bundles of 10. A box contains 10 eggs, a carton 100, a pallet again ten times
as many, that is 1000 eggs. You can now divide any number of eggs among the pallets,
cartons, boxes and remaining individual pieces. A maximum of nine of each container is
required. In Fig. 1.3 you can see an example of bundling: For 237 eggs you need 2 cartons,
3 boxes and 7 eggs remain single.

Exercise 1.2

Bundle the number of strokes in the field “0” to bundles of ten in Fig. 1.4. For each
complete bundle that you cross out in the right-hand field “0”, write down a marker
(flag) in the field “1” to the left as a mnemonic. If the field “1” contains more than ten
strokes, the strokes in this field must also be bundled with bundles of ten! Draw for each
10 strokes in the field “1” in the left field “2” again one stroke. (This counting rule must
be continued until there are no more than 9 flags in any field). Write down the number
of remaining flags under the respective field.

1.3 The Decimal Position System

Each digit of a number corresponds to a certain quantity, which is calculated from the digit
multiplied by the place value. The difference between the place values is always the factor
10, which is why such a number system is called “decadic” or “decimal”.

Fig. 1.4 Bundle fields for

Exercise 1.2
6 1 Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers and Codes

Fig. 1.5 Decimal number

Single position
Tens position
Hundreds position

Our “numbers” represent the number of singles, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. bun-
dles! Because there are at most nine elements in each case, the ten different number words
“zero” to “nine” are sufficient to represent all numbers. The number two hundred and
thirty-seven is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Table 1.1 lists the values of the individual positions in the decimal system. To simplify
the notation, we only note the respective numbers for the numbers, but not the factors 1,
10, 100, etc. (see Fig. 1.5). This procedure allows a compact representation of the num-
bers, but has some consequences:

Order The agreed order of the digits must be strictly adhered to. If you put the digits in a
different order, the value of the number changes. Therefore, both the digit itself and the
position of this digit within the number determines its numerical value. The number “one
hundred twenty three” is written in digits as “123”. If you swap the order of the digits, the
numerical value changes significantly. This is different from the Roman and Egyptian
numbers! (see Sects. 1.4 and 1.5) Unfortunately, in the German language the order of the
number words for the tens and ones digits are swapped: “ein-hundert-drei-und-zwanzig”
instead of “einhundert-zwanzig-drei”. Because we have become accustomed to this from
an early age, we do not notice it. In other languages it is often different, for example in
English: “one-hundred-twenty-three”.

Numeral The respective number signs for the numbers may only be single digits. This is
the case with the “normal”, decimal number system and therefore does not cause us any
problems so far. With other systems, e.g. with hexadecimal numbers (Sect. 1.10), new
number signs must be “invented” for this reason.

Table 1.1 Decimal system

… Position 5 Position 4 Position 3 Position 2 Position 1 Position 0
Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones
… 100,000 10,000 1000 100 10 1
… 105 104 103 102 101 100
1.5 Egyptian Numbers 7

Zero The numeral 0 is of special importance, without which a correct position representa-
tion is not possible. If no dashes remain in a field, this position must be occupied by the
zero. Neither with the Roman nor with the Egyptian numbers is the zero necessary!

Exercise 1.3

In Fig. 1.4 of Exercise 1.2, write above each box the value that each of the dashes in that
box represents. Write down the total number not only in numbers, but also in words!

1.4 Roman Numerals

As an example of a non-decimal number system, we would like to cite the Roman numeral
symbols. Here the number symbols I, V, X, L, C, D and M mean the values 1, 5, 10, 50,
100, 500 and 1000. Larger numbers are expressed by repeating the symbols, subtracting or
adding the values.
The number four is represented by IV (−1 + 5), six by VI (5 + 1), the number nine
by IX (−1 + 10), 1998 by MCMXCVIII (1000–100 + 1000–10 + 100 + 5 + 1 + 1 + 1) and
2012 by MMXII (1000 + 1000 + 10 + 1 + 1).
We will not go into this number system in detail here. For further information we refer
to the relevant literature.

1.5 Egyptian Numbers

The ancient Egyptian number system seems remarkable to us. The ancient Egyptians had
a number system (Fig. 1.6), which is similar to our decimal system at first sight, because
the basic digits differ by powers of ten. Each basic digit has its own symbol. The order in

Fig. 1.6 Egyptian number Basic character

system (hieroglyphs)

Bundle

One hundred

Lotus flower

Curved finger

Tadpole
8 1 Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers and Codes

Fig. 1.7 Example of an

Egyptian hieroglyph

Fig. 1.8 For Exercise 1.4 a

which the various symbols are displayed is therefore irrelevant. The numerical value is not
bound to the position. The symbols would therefore not need to be sorted as in Fig. 1.7,
but could be arranged arbitrarily in the order.

Exercise 1.4

What is the value of the hieroglyphs in Fig. 1.8?

1.6 Binary System, Dual Number System

Bundling, as in the decimal system, can be done with any basic number. In earlier times,
the division into 12 pieces (‘dozen’) and 12 dozen (‘gros’) was common. The smallest
basic number with which bundling is possible is two. This system of twos or dual system
is based on a bundle of twos. Figure 1.9 shows how dual numbers are produced by splitting
them into bundles of two. The dual numbers are also called binary numbers.
The values of the individual positions in the dual system are summarized in Table 1.2.
The dual number 101011 is the number 43 in the decimal system (Fig. 1.10). This num-
ber representation is somewhat unwieldy for us humans because the numbers quickly
become very long. For machines, however, there are great advantages.

Fig. 1.9 Example of bundling

21 pieces as a two-
piece bundle
1.7 Computers Work with Dual Numbers 9

Table 1.2 Dual system

Position 5 Position 4 Position 3 Position 2 Position 1 Position 0
32 16 8 4 2 1
25 24 23 22 21 20
… Position 11 Position 10 Position 9 Position 8 Position 7 Position 6
… 2048 1024 512 256 128 64
… 211 210 29 28 27 26

Single-position
Two- position
Four-position
8-position
16-position
32-position

Fig. 1.10 Decimal number and dual number: for example 43dec and101011dual

Fig. 1.11 Bundling of two for

Exercise 1.5

Carry out a bundling of two in Fig. 1.11. For every two flags, a flag must be entered in
the field to the left.

Exercise 1.6

Convert the dual numbers to decimals:

a. 011= b. 10101010 = c. 111 = d. 10010010 =

e. 100 = f. 01010101 = g. 10000 = h. 10100 =
i. 110 = j. 10000000 = k. 1111 = l. 10000101 =

1.7 Computers Work with Dual Numbers

Computers do not know numbers, only voltages (volts) and currents (amperes). One could
assign the numbers to certain voltage values, e.g. 1 volt each. The number ‘two’ would
then correspond to 2 volts, the number ‘thirteen’ to 13 volts, and so on. Technically,
10 1 Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers and Codes

however, it is not possible to use voltages that are too large, nor is it possible to represent
the voltages sufficiently accurately in arbitrarily small steps. Computers based on such an
‘analogue’ number system do not achieve very great accuracy. Even a decimal system
would still require ten different voltage values for each decimal place, which would not be
technically easy to handle either.
To avoid such problems, one must use number systems that make do with fewer differ-
ent number symbols. The system with the smallest number of different symbols is the
two-symbol system or dual system. The two different symbols 0 and 1 can then simply be
expressed by “voltage present” or “voltage absent”.

1.8 Conversion of Decimal Numbers into Dual Numbers

Decimal numbers can be converted into dual numbers by bundling of two. However, one
can also determine the power-of-two values contained in the decimal number (starting
with the highest), determine the remainder value and here again determine the highest
power-of-two contained.

Example 1.1 (Convert Decimal Number to Dual Number)

The decimal number 21 is to be converted into a dual number: The highest power of
two contained is 16 = 1 * 24. In the remainder 21–16 = 5, the highest power of two is
4 = 1 * 22. Now the remainder is: 5–4 = 1 = 1 * 20. The two powers of two 23 and 21 do
not occur, i.e. we have the values 0 * 23 and 0 * 21. So the dual number is: 1*24 + 0*23
+ 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20 Only the digits are written: 21dec = 10101dual. ◄

Exercise 1.7

Calculate the corresponding dual numbers for the following numbers of the deci-
mal system:

a. 3= b. 9= c. 15 = d. 20 =
e. 31 = f. 45 = g. 99 = h. 189 =
i. 200 = j. 266 = k. 278 = l. 311 =
m. 499 = n. 556 =
1.9 Other Number Bases, Hexadecimal Numbers (Base 16) 11

1.9 Other Number Bases, Hexadecimal Numbers (Base 16)

Except for bundling with 10 or 2, bundling can be on any basis. An example may be the
packing of 12 eggs in a box. The number 12 is also called 1 dozen. If again 12 dozen are
packed in one carton each, then 12 * 12 = 144 pieces are obtained. This number is a gross.
This can be continued like this: 12 cartons on a pallet, 12 pallets in a truck, etc. In this case
12 is the number base.
In computer technology, one likes to use the base 16, i.e. 24. This base is called hexa-
decimal or sedecimal base. Because the base 2 is contained in the power of 4, there is a
particularly simple connection between the dual system and the hexadecimal system,
which makes the conversion of a number from one system to the other very simple. We
will look at this in more detail in Sect. 1.10.
The number signs of the hexadecimal system for the values starting from ‘Ten’ must be
one-digit, so that an unambiguous assignment to the positions is possible. The decimal
number ‘26’ is in hexadecimal form: 1*16 + 10*1. Since only the coefficients (here ‘1’
and ‘10’) are written in the position system, the number ‘110’ would result, which is not
correct (110hex = 1*162 + 1*16 + 0 = 272dec). The number ‘ten’ must be written in one digit
as ‘A’, so that the correct HEX-number is called for 26dec = 1Ahex.

Since the hexadecimal system requires 16 different (one-digit!) number signs, the
first letters of the alphabet are used from ‘Ten’ to ‘Fifteen’.

The number signs (digits) in the hexadecimal system are listed in Table 1.3. The (decimal)
valences of the digits of a HEX number are given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.3 HEX digits

HEX digit: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Table 1.4 Hexadecimal system or sedecimal system

… Position 5 Position 4 Position 3 Position 2 Position 1 Position 0
… 10,048,576 65,536 4096 256 16 1
… 165 164 163 162 161 160
12 1 Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers and Codes

Example 1.2 (HEX Number and Decimal Number)

The number 333hex means:

3 * 16 2 3 * 161 3 * 16 0 819dez. ◄

Exercise 1.8

Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal numbers:

a. 110 = b. CD = c. 1234 = d. EF6A =

e. 3456 = f. 10F2 = g. 109 = h. AE29 =
i. 87E4 = j. 6E5B = k. AFFE =

Exercise 1.9

Convert the following decimal numbers to hexadecimal numbers:

a. 9= b. 45 = c. 99 = d. 580 =
e. 910 = f. 3030 = g. 6550 = h. 8750 =
i. 11111 = j. 60000 =

1.10 Hexadecimal Numbers and Dual Numbers

Dual numbers (binary numbers) can be converted particularly easily into hexadecimal
numbers, because in the base 16 the base 2 occurs as power 24. For every 4 binary digits,
one hexadecimal digit is therefore obtained.

Example 1.3 (Binary Numbers (Dual Numbers) and Hexadecimal Number)

In Fig. 1.12 we see an example of converting the HEX number 9D3F to the dual number
1001110100111111. ◄

Fig. 1.12 Binary number and Binary number:

hexadecimal number

HEX number:
1.12 BCD Code 13

Exercise 1.10

Convert the binary numbers from Exercise 1.6 into hexadecimal numbers. Then convert
the HEX numbers into decimal numbers and check the result with your earlier solution.

1.11 Binary Code

The decimal number 837 as a dual number is a pure binary code, the valences of the indi-
vidual digits correspond to the powers of two: 837dec = 1101000101dual. For further exam-
ples, see Exercise 1.6.

1.12 BCD Code

The coding of decimal numbers into dual numbers can be carried out more clearly if no
pure binary code is used according to the powers of 2, but the decimal digits are coded
digit by digit. This results in the BCD code. The abbreviation stands for Binary Coded
Decimals.

Example 1.4 (Relationship Between Decimal Number, Dual Number and BCD Number)

The number 837dec = 1101000101dual looks like this as a BCD number: 100000110111BCD.

Decimal number: 8 3 7
BCD-coded number: 1000 0011 0111 BCD
◄

In contrast to the pure binary code representation with 10 digits, however, 12 digits are
now necessary! The disadvantage that BCD numbers are longer than the corresponding
pure binary ones is compensated by the better readability for humans. BCD representation
is also more convenient for applications that need to display counter readings on a numeric
display. However, for the computer it often means more complicated arithmetic opera-
tions – but we don’t mind that.

Exercise 1.11

Convert the numbers from the previous exercises into hexadecimal numbers and into
BCD-coded dual numbers!
14 1 Basics: Number Systems, Dual Numbers and Codes

Table 1.5 Examples for the ASCII code

Characters Bit sequence Dec Hex Characters Bit sequence Dec Hex
A 0100 0001 65 41 0 0011 0000 48 30
B 42 1 31
C 0100 0011 2 0011 0010
a 97 8 38
b 0110 0010 9 57
c 63 ( 0010 1000
. 46 ) 29

1.13 ASCII Code

The notation with only two different characters, “0” and “1”, is also suitable for an encod-
ing of arbitrary characters, letters and even actions (=commands). The position of the
characters ‘0’ or ‘1’ gives then of course no statement about the (numerical) value, because
they are not numbers!
An important code used to represent typewriter characters in binary form is the ASCII
code. The abbreviation stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
This American Standard Code for Information Interchange is a code that consists of 7
digits, is therefore a 7-bit code. Therefore, 27, i.e. 128 characters can be represented. It is
possible to encode all letters, digits and some special characters with this code.
When setting up the 0,1 bit sequences representing the character, the assignment of the
bit sequences is in principle arbitrary and has nothing to do with the numbers formed from
the same bit sequences.
To remember the respective binary representation of the ASCII characters, it is usual to
read the code like a numerical code, i.e. to assign the valences of the powers of two to the
individual digits, i.e. to interpret the (arbitrary) bit sequence as a “number”. Therefore, the
representation for “A” (0100 0001) can be read as like a dual number 41hex = 65dec. You say:
the code for A is 41hex or 65dec, although this is actually wrong. You now know that the
characters of the ASCII code are not numbers but symbols, codes!

Exercise 1.12

Add the missing values in the ASCII Table 1.5.

1.15 Signals 15

1.14 Dual Code – Dual Number

A dual number is not the same as a dual code! Pay close attention to the difference between
the two:

Dualcode In a dual code, such as the ASCII code, no specific numerical value is repre-
sented. The two different characters “0” and “1” are used, but they do not result in a value.
The order of the characters in the code is “arbitrary”. By agreement in a standard, the
meaning of the individual code characters is fixed.

Dual Number For a dual number, the two number signs “0” and “1” are used. Each digit
is to be multiplied by the respective valence of the power of 2; this gives the value of the
dual number.

1.15 Signals

Scientifically, a signal is the physical representation of a message. The signal transmits

information from a transmitter to a receiver. The transmitter can be, for example, a ther-
mocouple or a level transmitter. These signal transmitters are also called “sensors”. The
receiver is the computer or PLC automation device.
The signals enable an exchange of information. This is true for nature as well as for our
technical world. Signals and signal transmission have always existed. Information
exchange can take place over short distances through speech or gestures. Over longer dis-
tances, one uses smoke signals, drums, light signals, electrical impulses, etc.
Today, a computer that processes information, i.e. actually signals, can only deal with
electrical signals. However, very few signals are originally in electrical form. In order for
the computer to work with them, they must first be converted into electrical quantities such
as voltage or current.
The electrical signals with which a computer works today have a binary character: they
assume only two different states, namely ‘current’ or ‘no current’; ‘voltage’ or ‘no volt-
age’; ‘0’ or ‘1’; ‘low’ or ‘high’, because such binary signals are particularly easy to realize
technically. These binary signals can be generated, for example, by limit signal generators.
The signals could then be: maximum level reached or not reached.
Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra
2

Abstract

In the previous chapter we described how the digital signals can be used to represent
dual numbers or binary codes. The digital signals assume exactly two different states,
which can be assigned either to the number set (0,1) of the dual numbers or to the
binary states (0,1) of the codes.
But also logic gets along with two different states: a statement can be true, thus be
correct (true), or it can not be true, thus be incorrect (false). The two logical states ‘true’
and ‘false’ can therefore also be expressed, like the dual numbers, by binary signals.
Because of this fact, binary numbers and logic signals are often confused.
In Sects. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11 you will learn about
logical functions. You will see how the signals from sensors can be evaluated and
linked. First of all, we will look at sensors that only give two different signals (e.g.
‘On’/‘Off’, ‘Open’/‘Closed’, ‘Underrange’/‘Overrange’).
In Sects. 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18 and 2.19 you will learn some pos-
sibilities how a logical function can be realized by logical circuit elements. This proce-
dure is called “circuit synthesis”. The behaviour of the process can be recorded in a
logic table. From this table the combination of logical circuit elements can be derived.
In most cases, however, this does not directly result in the simplest circuit, i.e. the cir-
cuit with the smallest possible number of switching elements. You will get a small
insight into the methods of circuit simplification in Sects. 2.20, 2.21 and 2.22.
From the basic functions: Negation, AND- and OR-operation all logical operations
can be composed. Some of these composite functions are very important in technology
and are therefore used like basic functions.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 17

Fig. 2.1 Negation

2.1 Negation (NOT Function)

Function equation : X a oder X a

This function always outputs the opposite of the input variable (Fig. 2.1). The output vari-
able X always has the opposite value to the input variable a. As an example, you could
imagine the sentence ‘It is raining, then it is not dry’. The input variable ‘rain’ gives ‘dry’
as the output variable, but negated. The function equation marks the negation with an
overstrike of the variable identifier. Say it like this: ‘X is equal to a not’, so the overstrike
is spoken as an appended ‘not’.

2.2 Identity (EQUAL Function)

Function equation : X = a

The output variable X has the same value as the input variable a (Fig. 2.2). At first, this
seems to be senseless; however, it often happens that two negations occur one after the
other for technical reasons, which then “cancel” each other out and thus represent the
equal function altogether. Sometimes you need an amplifier for a too weak logical signal.
If this amplifier is done as an equal-function, the logical signal is not changed but only
amplified.

Exercise 2.1 (EQUAL21)1

Form the equal function from two non-functions!

2.3 Conjunction (AND Function)

Function equation : X a b

The output variable is ‘1’ if all input variables are ‘1’ (Fig. 2.3). The AND operation states
that an event only occurs if all conditions are fulfilled at the same time. Linguistically, you
can express it like this, “If it rains AND I go outside, I’ll take the umbrella.”

1
If you have a digital trainer (construction kit) available, you can perform the tasks with it. Instead
of a hardware kit, you can also use a simulation program for the PC. For many exercises, you can
find suggested solutions on the authors’ website under the name given in brackets after the exer-
cise number.
2.4 Heating Control (Two-Point Control) 19

Fig. 2.2 Identity

Fig. 2.3 Conjunction

In the function table for “AND” there is only one ‘1’ at the output. Note: The symbol
“∧” for “AND” can be read as a simplified ‘A’.

Exercise 2.2 (AND21)

Check the basic AND operation with the digital trainer. Make the assignments for the
state of the lamp: 0 = ‘off’ and 1 = ‘on’.

2.4 Heating Control (Two-Point Control)

To keep the room temperature even, you can proceed as follows: switch off the heating
whenever it is warm enough, and switch it on again when the temperature falls below the
desired level. This is called two-point control. This control is very easy to realize; there-
fore it is used very often. A bimetal switch can be used as a sensor and actuator, which
opens a contact when a maximum value is exceeded and closes the contact again when the
temperature falls below a minimum value, thus switching on the heating. In this way, the
temperature can be kept almost constant.
The two states of the sensor (switch open/closed) served me here however first only for
the description of the principle. In reality, of course, the sensors must generate signals that
correspond to the conditions for ‘1’ or ‘0’. So when used in a logic circuit, the sensor
always gives a logic signal.

Exercise 2.3 (HEAT21).2

A reaction vessel is to be kept at a constant temperature with the heating switched on

via a contact thermometer as a limit signal generator. Develop the function table, the
logic diagram and the function equation. Check the result with the digital trainer.

2
The drawing associated with this exercise (Fig. 2.4) is not complete. It is part of your “homework”
to complete the drawing for this and many other exercises. (For solutions, see the authors’ website).
20 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Functional table Logic diagram

Functional equation:

Fig. 2.4 For Exercise 2.3

Use the following assignments:

S = 1: ON Heating main switch switched on
t = 1: TIC temperature not reached
Y = 1: Hzg heating up

Exercise 2.4 (MIXER21)

Let a LED indicate a “Process Ok” signal (x = 1) when a stirrer is running (a = 1) and
the level is reached (b = 1). See Fig. 2.4 for function table and logic diagram.

2.5 Negation of the Input

Function equation : y a b

Exercise 2.5 (ALARM21)

Create a function table, logic diagram and function equation for the following problem:
An alarm (Y = 1) is to be triggered when a stirrer is switched on (a = 1) and the fill level
has not yet been reached! (b = 1: level reached). In this task, the “opposite” is applied
to input b as in the previous Exercise 2.4.
To solve, you can first set up the function table (see Fig. 2.5). Also add a column
with ‘b not’ ( b ); then you can form the result column for y quite easily. In the result
column, ‘zero’ appears three times and ‘one’ only once. Thus, the problem can be
solved with an AND term. Test your result with the digital trainer!

2.6 More Than Two Input Variables

Function equation : X a b c
2.7 AND Operation as Data Switch 21

Fig. 2.5 for Exercise 2.5

Fig. 2.6 Three inputs

Fig. 2.7 Function table with

three variables

If only two input variables a and b occur, there are a total of four different combinations.
You can combine these four combinations with a third input c (Fig. 2.6). If you first select
this input as ‘0’ and then as ‘1’, you will get four combinations each (Fig. 2.7).
With three variables, you get eight different possible combinations, twice as many as
with two inputs. The function table therefore consists of eight lines. With each additional
variable, the number of combinations is doubled again.

2.7 AND Operation as Data Switch

With the help of the AND operation you can realize a “data switch”. That means you get
the possibility to switch on and off another logical signal with a logical signal. Among
other things, a sensible application for this is the switching of a periodic signal (flashing
signal). The second signal can then be used to switch a light emitting diode to “flashing
light” or to “off”.
Now how do you build such a switch? Look at the function table for the AND element
and compare the output x with the input b (Fig. 2.8). First concentrate on the two lines
where a = 0. The output x is always ‘zero’, the input b is thus “blocked” (Fig. 2.9).
Now look at the two lines with a = 1. Can you see that in this case it is always x = b; the
input b is in a sense ‘connected through’ directly to the output x? In the other case, the
output x is always ‘0’.

The AND element can serve as a switch for digital signals: The “switch” is the
input a, the signal to be switched is applied to b. When switched off, the output is “0”.
22 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Fig. 2.8 AND operation as

data switch

Fig. 2.9 Circuit diagram

“Data switch”

Fig. 2.10 “Flasher”: the

generator signal G can be
switched on and off at input a

Fig. 2.11 Example of signal

curve for a turn signal
according to the circuit in
Fig. 2.10

Example 2.1 (Switch Flashing Signal)

In order to switch a LED as a flashing signal, one needs a generator for the periodic
signal and an on/off signal which is applied to the input a of the AND element. The
circuit is shown in Fig. 2.10. The light emitting diode is connected to the output x. The
time course of the individual signals can thus be shown: The signal from the generator
reaches output x only as long as the signal a = 1. Figure 2.11 shows an exemplary
course of the output signal: The pulses from the generator “get through” as long as the
input a = 1. ◄

Exercise 2.6 (FLASH21)

Use the digital trainer to build a circuit where you can use a switch to turn the flashing
signal on and off.

2.8 Disjunction (OR Function)

Function equation : X a b

This function links two (or more) input variables. The output variable is always 1 if one or
more input variables are 1. An event should therefore already occur if at least one of the
2.9 OR Operation as Data Switch 23

Fig. 2.12 Disjunction

Fig. 2.13 Function table for

OR with three inputs

conditions is fulfilled. Linguistically, this corresponds to the sentence: “If it rains OR

snows, I take the umbrella.” (Fig. 2.12).

In the function table for “OR” there is only one ‘0’ at the output. In the function
table for “OR”, everything is one at the output except in one line.

You could also express the relationship between outputs and inputs the other way
round: The output x is ‘zero’ if both inputs a and b are ‘zero’. But beware, if you see it this
way, you might confuse the two links AND and OR. To avoid this danger of confusion, it
is usual to consider only those cases in which the output x is equal to ‘one’.

More Than Two Input Variables

Function equation : Y a b c

Consider Fig. 2.13. As always with the OR function, there is only a single zero in the
result column.

2.9 OR Operation as Data Switch

Now look at the function table for the OR operation to see how the output is controlled by
the variable a. Again, concentrate on the two lines with a = 0 or a = 1! In the “not switched”
state the output is ‘1’. The OR element can serve as a switch for digital signals. In the
switched off state the output is ‘1’ (Fig. 2.14).
24 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Fig. 2.14 Data switch implemented with OR operation

Fig. 2.15 NAND

Exercise 2.7 (FLASH22)

Now build a flashing circuit with on/off switching capability using an OR element.
Draw the time curve of the signals. Compare the signals with those from Sect. 2.7. Use
the function tables to show the different effects on the output signal x when the AND or
OR operation is used as a data switch.

2.10 NAND Function (Negation of the AND Function)

Function equation : X a b

If you invert the output of an AND operation by a negator, you get the NOT-AND = NAND
operation (Fig. 2.15).

Exercise 2.8 (NAND21)

Form a NAND function from an AND and a NOT function using the digital trainer and
check the function table.

2.11 NOR Function (Negation of the OR Function)

Function equation : X a b

If you invert the output of an OR operation by a negator, you get the NOT-OR = NOR
operation (Fig. 2.16).

Exercise 2.9 (NOR21)

Form a NOR function from an OR and a NOT function with the digital trainer and
check the function table.
2.11 NOR Function (Negation of the OR Function) 25

Fig. 2.16 NOR

Exercise 2.10 (LOGIC21)

For each of the following function tables, create the logic diagram and the function
equation, or add the missing parts. Check the result each time with the aid of the digital
trainer!

Function tables, logic diagrams and function equations for Exercise 2.10:

Function 1 Function 2

Function table 1: Logic Plan: Function table 2: Logic Plan:

Functlon equation: Functional equation:

Function 3 Function 4

Function Table 3: Logic Plan: Function Table 4: Logic Plan:

Functional equation: Functional equation:

Function 5 Function 6

Function Table 5: Logic Plan: Function table 6: Logic Plan:

Functional equation: Functional equation:

26 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Function 7 Function 8

Function Table 7: Logic Plan: Function Table 8: Logic Plan:

Functional equation: Functional equation:

Exercise 2.11 (LOGIC22)

Compare the result from Exercise 2.5 with the function table 2 from Exercise 2.10.
Formulate similar examples of use for other functions from Exercise 2.10!

2.12 Creating a Function from the Function Table

In the previous exercises with the AND or OR elements, only one ‘one’ or only one ‘zero’
occurred in the output column. If more than one ‘one’ occurs in the result, then the func-
tion cannot be realized by a simple AND or OR circuit, but only by a combination of both.
Now how can we determine this combination circuit? This question leads us to the notion
of minterms or maxterms. In practice, the application of these terms is quite simple: You
only need to decompose the total function into partial functions (namely the min- or max-
terms), which are then combined.
Functions describe the relationship between output value and input value(s). In general,
this relationship can be described symbolically by equations. The output value is usually
written to the left of the equals sign, and the input values and their relationship are written
to the right of the equals sign. For logical functions, the rules are described by “Boolean
algebra”. Here, only a very specific number of values and their combination can occur.
Therefore, in the case of logical functions, the relationship between outputs and inputs can
also be represented in the form of function tables.

Example 2.2 (Agitator with Switch-On Protection)

An agitator may only be switched on (X = 1) when the level is reached (a = 1) and the
inlet valve is closed (b = 0) or the level is not reached and the valve is open.
In this task, you get a ‘1’ twice in the output column for X. In order to obtain only
one ‘1’ (and thus to be able to apply the AND operation), you decompose the function
X into the “subfunctions” X1 and X2, each of which contains only one ‘1’ and can con-
sequently be realized by AND operations of the two inputs. If necessary, one or both
inputs must be negated. You have already practiced creating these functions for two
inputs in detail in Exercise 2.10.
To obtain the complete function for X, the partial functions must be combined with
an OR function in a second step (Fig. 2.17). ◄
2.13 EXOR Function (Antivalence) 27

Fig. 2.17 Function table for the agitator circuit

Fig. 2.18 Solution for Example 2.2

Fig. 2.19 EXOR

For Example 2.2, the functional Eqs. (2.1), (2.2) and (2.3) are obtained in sequence, and
the result is shown in Fig. 2.18.

X1 a b (2.1)

X2 a b (2.2)

X X1 X 2 a b a b (2.3)

If there is more than one ‘1’ in the result column of the function table, so many
partial functions are formed that each contains only one ‘1’. The partial functions are
linked with OR.

2.13 EXOR Function (Antivalence)

Function equation : X a b a b a b

The function created in Example 2.2 is also known as EXOR. The name stands for
Exclusive OR. It has its own switch character (Fig. 2.19). Note that with this function,
unlike the “ordinary” OR, the output is ‘one’ only if either one or the other input is ‘one’.
28 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Fig. 2.20 Logic diagram

EXOR: display variants

2.14 Disjunctive Normal Form (AND-Before-OR), Minterms

Normally the function table is always created first. We have already seen how you can
develop the circuit from this in the example ‘MIXER’. We got the EXOR or antivalence
circuit (Figs. 2.18 and 2.20).
We had obtained the equation of the function by looking at the lines in which the result
X = 1. These equations are called “minterms”. They are created by ANDing the input val-
ues; if an input value is ‘0’, the corresponding variable must be negated:

X1 a b (2.4)
X2 a b (2.5)

These two partial equations are then linked with OR. So we get an equation in the form
AND-before-OR:

X X1 X 2 (2.6)
X a b a b (2.7)

2.15 Brief Description of the Logic Diagram

For a clearer representation, the symbols of the individual switching elements can be
drawn adjacent to each other. The negations can also be displayed directly at the input. The
two circuits in Fig. 2.20 show both types of representation.

Exercise 2.12 (LOGIC23)

For each of the following functions 9 to 14, create the function table, the logic diagram
and the function equation, or complete the missing parts. Check the result each time
with the aid of the digital trainer!
2.15 Brief Description of the Logic Diagram 29

Function 9 for exercise 2.12

Function Table 9: Logic Plan:

Functional equation:

Function 10 for exercise 2.12

Function Table 10: Logic Plan:

Functional equation:

Function 11 for exercise 2.12

Function Table 11: Logic Plan:

Functional equation:

Function 12 for exercise 2.12

Function Table 12: Logic Plan:

Functional equation:
30 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Function 13 for exercise 2.12

Function table 13: Logic Plan:

Functional equation:

Function 14 for exercise 2.12

Function table 14: Logic Plan:

Functional equation:

2.16 Two-Way Connection

You are certainly familiar with the application of a two-way connection: In a corridor, the
light should be operable from two switches. Such a changeover circuit can be imple-
mented with two two-way switches, each of which emits the logical signals “0” or “1”. By
changing the signal at one of the switches, the lamp is switched on or off.

Exercise 2.13 (SWITCH21)

Implement an alternating circuit with the aid of function elements. Create the function
table, the logic diagram and the function equation. For realisation, assume that the lamp
is off when both switches are in the ‘0’ position. First complete the function table in
Fig. 2.21.

Parts of the circuit:

Switch a,
Switch b,
Lamp Y
2.18 Cross Connection 31

Fig. 2.21 Two-way connec-

tion for Exercise 2.13

Fig. 2.22 Circuit and function

table for Exercise 2.14

Functional equation:

2.17 Creating the Function Equation with More Than Two Inputs

The procedure described in Sect. 2.12 for generating the function equation also works in
the same way for function tables containing more than two input variables. Each partial
function contains only one single line with a ‘1’. The result is the OR-operation of these
minterms.

Exercise 2.14 (MINTERM21)

For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.22, first create the function table and then use the mint-
erms to create the function equation.

2.18 Cross Connection

If two switching points are not sufficient for light switching, then a two-way circuit can be
extended with one or more “intermediate” cross over switches to a cross circuit so that a
lamp can be switched from three and more points. If only one switch is toggled, the lamp
is switched. If two switches are toggled at the same time, the state of the lamp does
not change.

Exercise 2.15 (SWITCH22)

Implement a cross-circuit for three switches using function elements. Create the func-
tion table, the logic diagram and the function equation (Fig. 2.23).
Start again with the default: all switches in position ‘0’ means lamp off. Starting
from this line, add further lines to the function table by searching for lines where only
32 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Functional equation:

Fig. 2.23 Function table and circuit for Exercise 2.15

one switch state changes. Then the lamp state must also change. In this way, you can
gradually fill in all the lines of the function table.

Parts of the circuit:

Switch A,
Switch B,
Switch C,
Lamp Y

2.19 Two- from Three-Sensors Logic

Very sensitive equipment may only be switched off in extreme emergencies, for example
if an accident could occur. In other cases, safe monitoring must take place in any case, so
that even faults in the monitoring equipment cannot have a negative influence. For both
cases, the safety requirement can be met by using three different sensors for the same
measured value. For example, if the exceeding of a critical temperature is to be monitored,
three different thermometers would detect this value.
This safety circuit, in which a measured value or limit value is detected three times, is
called a “two-out-of-three-sensors-logic”. If at least two of these measuring systems sig-
nal that the limit value has been exceeded, there is a high probability that there is no faulty
measurement. The safety device should become effective. This can be done, for example,
by switching off the system. If only one of the sensors signals that the limit value has been
exceeded, a faulty measurement could be present. This case should only be indicated by a
warning device. In this way, false alarms can be avoided.
This type of safety circuit is particularly important for monitoring processes that are to
run continuously and may only be switched off in extreme emergencies.
2.20 Transforming and Simplifying Functions 33

Fig. 2.24 Safety circuit (two- from three-wire circuit): function table and circuit for Exercise 2.16

Exercise 2.16 (ALARM22)

Only if at least two of the three measuring systems indicate that the limit value has been
exceeded, the safety shutdown and alarm should be triggered. If only one of the mea-
suring systems indicates that the limit value has been exceeded, this “only” triggers
the alarm.
Develop the function tables, logic diagrams, and functional equations for the safety
shutdown and alarm (Fig. 2.24).
In the function table for the alarm Y there are many ‘1’s and only one single row with
a ‘0’. The standard procedure with the minterms as you have learned it so far works of
course, but requires a huge effort, namely 7 AND-members with 3 inputs each and one
OR-member with 7(!!) inputs.
If you don’t want to drive this, you can consider by which simple function Y can be
represented. Then only one switching element with 3 inputs is needed! Later we will
learn a more entertaining method for this and similar cases. (If you are impatient, you
can skip ahead to Sect. 2.22 for more information on ‘Maxterms’ and ‘Conjunctive
Normal Form’).
Check the results found with the digital trainer. In addition, have a third output indi-
cate when all three measuring systems report that the limit has been exceeded.

2.20 Transforming and Simplifying Functions

To realize a certain function, different circuits are always possible. These circuits which
result in the same function table are called “identical circuits”.
In the previous chapter, you determined the following functional equation in Exercise
2.10, table of Functions 4:
X1 a b (2.8)

This function is identical to:

X3 a b (2.9)
34 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Fig. 2.25 Checking the equality of

two functions using a table

Fig. 2.26 Function table for

Exercise 2.17

You can easily check this using the function table. Write in one column the results for X1,
in a second column the results for X2 = a ∨ b and in the third column for X3 (Fig. 2.25). You
now only need to check that the two columns X1 and X3 are the same. (The table in Fig. 2.25
still has the column entered for X 2 a b X3 clarity). Because the two columns X1 and
X3 are equal, you can conclude that the functions X1 a b and X3 a b are also equal!

To check the equality of two functions, you can compare the output columns in
the respective function tables.

Exercise 2.17 (LOGIC24)

Check the equality of the two functions Y1 (2.10) and Y2 (2.11) by first determining the
function tables in Fig. 2.26 and then comparing the corresponding columns:

Y1 a b c a b c a b c a b c (2.10)

Y2 a b a c b c (2.11)

Draw the logic diagram of the simplified function and plug it on the digital trainer!
Check the results found with the digital trainer.
2.21 Boolean Algebra 35

2.21 Boolean Algebra

The rules by which logical values can be calculated are described in Boolean algebra.
These rules of logic were established by George Boole (1815–1864). Because Boolean
algebra can be implemented in technology by means of switches, it is also called ‘switch-
ing algebra’. The values that are linked together by the Boolean functions are called vari-
ables. Logic operations can be represented by tables, formulas (equations) or graphical
symbols.
Knowledge of the rules of Boolean algebra enables you to “convert” more complicated
functions into simpler ones. Similar to “normal” algebra, there are calculation rules for
term conversion, so that the term Y1 can be mathematically converted into the term Y2 from
the example.
Using rules of Boolean algebra, you can transform Eq. (2.12) into Eq. (2.13). You are
to perform the equality of these two terms in Exercise 2.18 by comparing tables.

x a b a b (2.12)

a b a b y (2.13)

Because the “inner” parentheses must be calculated first, the representation of function x
(Fig. 2.27) is called the AND-before-OR (the disjunctive) form, and function y is called the
OR-before-AND (the conjunctive) form. We have already considered the former in Sect.
2.14. The conjunctive form is discussed in the following Sect. 2.22.

Exercise 2.18 (LOGIC25)

Complete the columns for x and y in the function table from Fig. 2.27. Then determine
the equality. Draw the logic diagram of the simplified function and plug it on the digital
trainer! Check the results found with the digital trainer.

Fig. 2.27 Function table for Exercise 2.18 and for (2.12), (2.13)
36 2 Logical Functions and Boolean Algebra

Fig. 2.28 Function table for

creating Eq. (2.14)

Example 2.3 (Term Transformation)

Here is a second example of term transformation: Given the function table from
Fig. 2.28. Using the procedure you learned at the beginning of this chapter, evaluate the
terms in the table to arrive at the function:

x a b a b a b (2.14)

However, you already know that this function table represents the OR function, that
is, it is expressed by x = a ∨ b. Therefore, it must be true:

x a b a b a b a b (2.15)

We would like to refrain from presenting the transformation of the terms in detail here;
however, the transformation is possible by means of Boolean algebra. We limit ourselves
here to proving the equality by comparing the two function tables, which you can certainly
do on your own.

Exercise 2.19 (LOGIC26)

Prove the correctness of Eq. (2.16) by setting up and comparing the function tables:

Yneu S R Yalt S R Yalt (2.16)

This is a preliminary exercise for “memory devices”, which are examined in more
detail in Sect. 3.2.

2.22 Conjunctive Normal Form (OR-Before-AND)

In Sect. 2.14 we saw that there is a “disjunctive normal form”. There is also a “conjunctive
normal form”. This is created when you only look at the rows in the function table with a
‘0’ in the result. To uniquely get a ‘0’, the input variables must be ORed. Only if both are
‘0’, the result is also ‘0’. These terms are called ‘maxterms’. Thus, in Exercise 2.16, Y
represents a maxterm.
2.22 Conjunctive Normal Form (OR-Before-AND) 37

Fig. 2.29 EXOR: representation

in disjunctive normal form
(AND-before-OR) by means of
function table

Fig. 2.30 EXOR: representa-

tion in conjunctive normal
form (OR-before-AND) by
means of function table

The terms must be combined with AND to the total result. For the example in Fig. 2.28
the term x = a ∨ b, results directly because there is only one ‘0’ in the result column.
In this procedure, variables are thus first linked by OR, then the results are linked by
AND. This is now called the OR-before-AND operation. The AND-before-OR can always
be transformed into the OR-before-AND operation and vice versa.
Unfortunately, because we are not learning Boolean algebra in this course, we cannot
use the switching algebra rules to prove the equality of the terms. However, you can prove
the equality of the two terms by comparing the function tables.
To demonstrate the design procedure using the maxterms, we take the already familiar
function of the EXOR element (Fig. 2.17). At that time we generated the disjunctive nor-
mal form, where the subfunctions Y1 and Y2 each contained only a single ‘1’ (Fig. 2.29).
Now here, in the table Fig. 2.30, we have created the functions Y3 and Y4 so that they
each contain only a single ‘0’.
Look in Exercise 2.10, there you had created the functions in the function tables 5 and 8:

Y3 a b (2.17)
Y4 a b (2.18)

Y is ‘1’ whenever both Y3 and Y4 are ‘1’. Therefore, for Y:

Y Y3 Y4 (2.19)
Y a b a b (2.20)

You see, first the variables a and b in the brackets are linked with OR; only then the linkage
results are linked with AND: the execution order is ‘OR before AND’! You have already
proved the equality with the term (2.7) in Exercise 2.18.
Memory Elements
3

Abstract

What do you do if only very brief signals occur in a process or in a plant, or if the effect
of a brief keystroke is to last over a longer period of time? Of course: logical signals,
e.g. alarm signals, must be able to be stored!
Storing means that a circuit continuously delivers the logic signal at its output, even
if the triggering pulse has already ended, i.e. the pulse must “write” a logic signal into
a memory. In this chapter you will learn how such memory elements are constructed.

3.1 Flip-Flops and Static Memories

In contrast to the previous circuits, the same input signals will no longer always produce
the same output signals. Depending on the history, the same input signals can produce dif-
ferent output signals. At first this sounds absurd and arbitrary! But of course the circuit
does not work according to a random principle.
Since the past history must be taken into account, values from the past must be stored.
So there must be switching elements which have a “memory”, a storage possibility. Here
are two examples: A short press on a start button switches on a system, which should of
course continue to run even if the button has been released and the input signals are again
present as before. Or in counting tasks, the counting impulse (which is the same each time)
must cause the circuit to display a number that is 1 higher; the numbers, i.e. the outputs of
the circuit, are different each time, despite the same input impulses. The new number to be
displayed depends on the previously stored past.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 39

Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_3
40 3 Memory Elements

Save Binary Signals

For the storage of a binary digit (bit), a memory location is required which either holds the
information logically ‘0’ (low, L-level) or logically ‘1’ (high, H-level). Because digital
technology does not know any intermediate states, such memory locations must switch
back and forth between the two permitted states as “lightning-like” as possible when
switching. In DIN 40900, this memory is referred to as a bistable element. The terms
bistable flip-flop and flip-flop (FF) are also commonly used.1
If plant sections are to be switched by pushbuttons, the button presses must be stored.
A button press only lasts for a short time. Therefore, because the effect should last longer
than the keystroke, you must store the signal. As seen, flip-flops can store signals. Thus,
you can use a pushbutton to generate a set signal to set a flip-flop. The set flip-flop triggers
the corresponding action: a valve is opened, a motor is running, or a lamp is on. To switch
off the action, either another pushbutton switch or logic is provided that generates a
reset signal.
We will learn about different types of binary memories. The differences lie in the dif-
ferent ways in which or at what time the information is stored.

3.2 The RS Flip-Flop

Consider Fig. 3.1. With this flip-flop, storing is done like this: a ‘1’ signal at the R input
resets the output, i.e. to ‘0’; a ‘1’ at the S input sets the output to ‘1’. After setting or reset-
ting, ‘0’ must be applied to both inputs again. As long as both input signals a and b remain
at ‘0’, the output signal Y does not change; the flip-flop outputs ‘0’ or ‘1’, depending on
which signal was previously stored. So this is the memory position.

Attention:
It is not allowed to give both inputs ‘1’ signal at the same time.
In this case the output may be undefined.

Fig. 3.1 RS bistable element

(No change)
(Set)
(Reset)
(Forbidden)

1
“Flip-Flop” is the American name. It is onomatopoeic and could be translated as “click-clack”
in German.
3.2 The RS Flip-Flop 41

Fig. 3.2 RS bistable element:

function table with transi-
tion states

Fig. 3.3 RS bistable element:

feedback with delay

An RS flip-flop can be constructed with two NOR links. We can derive this with the
following considerations: Because the new state for the output depends on the previous
one, we introduce the state Yold as the previous state and the Ynew new subsequent state
in a function table in Fig. 3.2. In addition, we also entered R ∧ Yold the column.
With Exercise 2.16 we have already somewhat prepared the problem shown here. If the
forbidden cases are not considered, then ‘1’ is always Ynew when S = 1 or is. R Yold 1.
Therefore, for all permissible cases:

Ynew S R Yold (3.1)

This term can be transformed as in Exercise 2.16 to:

Ynew S R Yold (3.2)

Ynew S R Y
old (3.3)

Now the question arises, how to get the ‘old’ state. Somehow the value of the output
must be stored temporarily until it has been processed and the ‘new’ value has become
stable. The simplest way to do this is to provide a delay (Fig. 3.3). The delay time τ must
be long enough. Then the circuit already has the new value for Y at the input and the old
value at the output for the time τ.
42 3 Memory Elements

Fig. 3.4 RS bistable element: a b

structure with standard
components (a) as Fig. 3.3
without “feedback” (b)
alternative representation

If one assumes that in practice the delay present in the gates anyway because of the
signal propagation times is large enough, then the separate delay element can simply be
omitted and replaced by direct “feedback” of the output to the input, as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Exercise 3.1 (RSFF31)2

Use the digital trainer to construct an RS-FF circuit from two NOR links and test the
function. On which elements are the R and S inputs? Show that the outputs of the NOR
gates are always opposite if a and b are not both ‘1’.

3.3 Alarm Circuit 1

An alarm circuit is used to monitor a process. The process emits an “alarm signal” in
the event of a fault. The operating personnel must confirm the registration of the
alarm by means of an acknowledgement signal. Because even a short alarm signal
must not be overlooked, it must be stored. The acknowledgement signal resets
the memory.

Exercise 3.2 (ALARM31)

Build the alarm circuit 1 (Fig. 3.5). The (momentary) signal ‘Fault’ should switch on
the horn, which is switched off again by the acknowledgement signal.

Fig. 3.5 Alarm circuit 1 for

Exercise 3.2

2
Some of the tasks from this chapter will be performed later using the PLC. However, we recom-
mend that you work on the tasks here and test them with a digital training device or simulation
program if possible, even if you are eager to finally start programming PLCs. First, it’s a preliminary
exercise for programming because you can study the problems, procedures, and possible solutions
using the more descriptive digital technology. And secondly, the graphical programming language
“function block language” is practically identical to the digital technical representation.
3.5 Priority of the Input Signals 43

Fig. 3.6 Preferred position Preferred situation Set at power up:

when switching on on power up:

3.4 Defined Basic Position (Preferred Position)

Memory elements usually have an undefined state after the operating voltage is switched
on, i.e. it is not possible to say whether the memory has a ‘1’ or a ‘0’ at the output after
switching on. Often it is indifferent, but in many cases this can lead to malfunctions or
even danger in practical applications.
To avoid this, special circuit measures can be taken to ensure that the memory element
assumes a defined initial position after switching on (Fig. 3.6). This defined initial position
is indicated in the symbol. In DIN EN 60617 (or DIN 40900), the initial basic position 0
is specified as I = 0. “I” stands for “Initial”.

3.5 Priority of the Input Signals

The set and reset inputs of RS bistable elements must not be assigned a ‘1’ signal at the
same time, otherwise an undefined (forbidden) state will occur.
You can certainly think of many examples in practice where it is not guaranteed that the
set and reset signals occur nicely one after the other. But what can you do if it cannot be
ruled out that overlaps occur in the system? Yes, that’s right, you have to create uniqueness
by interlocking the signals. One of the two signals must be given priority, i.e. this priority
signal blocks the other, lower priority signal.

RS Bistable Element with Set Priority

An AND circuit can be connected in front of the R input as a data switch (gate) (Fig. 3.7).
Resetting is then only possible if no set signal, i.e. ‘0’ signal, is present at input a. If a and
b both carry a ‘1’ signal at the same time, the reset signal at input b is interrupted and
therefore ineffective. This means that only the set condition is fulfilled and the RS flip-flop
is set (see Sect. 2.7).

Exercise 3.3 (RSFF32)

Build a set-priority RS bistable link from NOR gates and check the function.
44 3 Memory Elements

(Set)
(Reset)
(Priority)

Fig. 3.7 Setting priority

RS Bistable Element with Reset Priority.

(Set)
(Reset)
0 (Priority)

Fig. 3.8 Motor control: circuit and table for Exercise 3.4

Exercise 3.4 (RSFF33)

Add the logic diagram for an RS bistable element with priority of the reset signal in
Fig. 3.8. Build the circuit with the digital trainer and check the function.

Exercise 3.5 (RSFF34)

Draw the logic diagram of an RS bistable element with priority of the first signal, i.e.
the signal that is applied first.

3.6 Motor Control

For a motor, the two states “forward” or “clockwise” and “reverse” or “counterclockwise”
must often be taken into account. There are therefore two different actions to be per-
formed; you must therefore plan an RS flip-flop in your circuit for each of these states.
Design the respective control logic for both setting and resetting the flip-flop, i.e. you
formulate the conditions that are to lead to the setting or resetting of the flip-flops of the
corresponding state. These conditions can be: a ‘1’ signal from a pushbutton or signals
from the process.

Exercise 3.6 (LIFT31)

An elevator is to be controlled by briefly pressing pushbuttons UP and DOWN (Fig. 3.9).

For this purpose, the motor is switched on in the direction of rotation clockwise and
3.7 Flip-Flop with Negated Inputs 45

Right-hand rotation

Left-hand rotation

Setting conditions for right-hand rotation:

Setting conditions for left-hand rotation:
Reset conditions:
Actions:

Fig. 3.9 Circuit and table for Exercise 3.6

Fig. 3.10 RS bistable element

with negated inputs (No change)
(Set)
(Reset)
(Forbidden)

anticlockwise. Switching off (immediate stop) is done by briefly pressing a third but-
ton. It must not be possible to switch on a direction of rotation if the opposite direction
is set, i.e. the direction of rotation can only be reversed after switching off, i.e. when the
lift has stopped. First formulate in words,

• how many memory elements (flip-flops) you need,

• by which signals the flip-flops are set,
• which signals reset the flip-flops,
• which actions must be performed when flip-flops are set.

Exercise 3.7 (LIFT32)

Extension of the previous task: In addition to the off switch, the drive must be switched
off and restarting blocked as long as the lubricating oil pressure detected by a pressure
switch is not present or the emergency stop switch is actuated. For this purpose, you can
also refer to the solution of Exercise 3.4.

3.7 Flip-Flop with Negated Inputs

For technical reasons, the setting and resetting of the flip-flops is often not performed with
‘1’ level, but with ‘0’ level (Fig. 3.10). Compared to the ‘normal’ flip-flop, the R and S inputs
are negated. Thus, ‘0’ is reset or set with the low level. This type is called “ RS -Flip-Flop”.
46 3 Memory Elements

Right-hand rotation

Left-hand rotation

Fig. 3.11 Motor control: circuit and table for Exercise 3.8

Fig. 3.12 Write lock for

Example 3.1

Write lock

Save
Set
Reset

Exercise 3.8 (LIFT33)

This slightly changes the solution of the previous task. To cancel the negations at the
inputs, you can use NAND or NOR elements. Complete the logic diagram for the motor
control, now using RS -flip-flops (Fig. 3.11)!

3.8 Clock-State Controlled Flip-Flops

Write Lock
It is often desired that the flip-flop may only be set or reset if a third signal is present. In
Fig. 3.12, this signal is present at the input C1. You can specify in the circuit design that
the set or reset signals may only take effect when a ‘0’ is present at this control input. This
control signal is also called “clock signal”. Setting or resetting is only possible if this clock
has a certain logical state, for example is in state ‘0’.
3.8 Clock-State Controlled Flip-Flops 47

Fig. 3.13 RS bistable element

(flip-flop) with write lock for
Exercise 3.9

Example 3.1 (Write Lock)

A motor is to be switched on or off by one pushbutton each, but only if an enable signal
‘0’ is given to the control input by a main switch. In case of a ‘1’ at the control input,
the old state should be maintained (Fig. 3.12).
Solution:
The memory contents can only be overwritten if a ‘0’ signal is present at the control
input C1, i.e. Set and reset inputs of the memory are effective. If the control input car-
ries ‘1’ signal, the memory contents cannot be changed (write protection). To set up the
write inhibit, use a data switch (“gate circuit”) in each of the supply lines to the S or R
input, consisting of an AND element (see Sect. 2.7). ◄

Exercise 3.9 (RSFF35)

Complete the circuit according to Fig. 3.13 so that you obtain the logic diagram for an
RS flip-flop with controlled input (write block). A ‘1’ at the control input c is to block
the flip-flop.

Exercise 3.10 (RSFF36)

Design a RS flip-flop with write inhibit and additional set priority!

Flip-Flop with only One Data Input (Clock Input) and Write Inhibit

Exercise 3.11 (RSFF37)

You operate a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.14. In the simulator, you provide a switch for
input a (data input) and a pushbutton for C (write inhibit). Complete the time diagram
from Fig. 3.15 by drawing in the curve for signal Y and explain in your own words how
the circuit works!

Fig. 3.14 This circuit of a

flip-flop has only a single
data input a
48 3 Memory Elements

Fig. 3.15 RS bistable element

with write lock for
Exercise 3.11

Read Lock

With the write inhibit just discussed, you prevent the flip-flop state from changing as long
as control input C is blocked. The flip-flop is thus completely inactive during this time.
Now, however, you want the new state to be accepted, but not to take effect at the output
until later. The time at which the output indicates the new state is to be determined by a
control signal. To solve this problem, you can simply interrupt the output signal of the
toggle element with a data switch. The data switch can be implemented in a familiar way
using an AND element. The flip-flop can be set or reset, but the change is not passed on as
long as the data switch is blocked at its output.

Example 3.2 (Read Lock)

A stirrer is to be switched on and off by two buttons. As soon as a stop button is pressed
(‘0’ signal), the motor run should be interrupted. Even while the stop button is pressed,
the on/off buttons (as “preselection switches”) should remain effective. ◄

Exercise 3.12 (RSFF38)

Implement an RS bistable element with disable input. Complete the logic diagram and
the function table in Fig. 3.16! If the inhibit input carries a ‘1’ signal, it should be pos-
sible to tap the memory contents at output Z of the circuit. If the inhibit input carries a
‘0’ signal, the stored information is not available at the output of the circuit (read
protection).

Exercise 3.13 (RSFF39)

Combine the two circuits “write lock” (Exercise 3.9) and “read lock” (Exercise 3.12)!
Try out when, depending on the control signal c, the flip-flop and the output Z change.

Fig. 3.16 RS bistable element with read lock for Exercise 3.12
3.10 Filling and Emptying a Measuring Vessel 49

Acknowledgement
Fault

Fig. 3.17 Alarm circuit for Exercise 3.14

Fig. 3.18 Time diagram for Fault

Exercise 3.14

3.9 Alarm Circuit 2

Exercise 3.14 (ALARM32)

Analyse the function of the alarm circuit 2 Fig. 3.17. The alarm circuit is already much
more refined than circuit 1 of Sect. 3.3. Understanding (analysing) the function of this
circuit requires some concentration.
Investigate when which flip-flop is set or reset! When does the lamp L light up and
when does the horn H sound?
First assume a basic state: both flip-flops are reset (Y1 = 0 and Y2 = 0), no signal is
present (Fault = 0 and Acknowledge = 0). You can proceed in a particularly clear and
systematic manner if you represent these time sequences in the diagram according to
Fig. 3.18. To the right, enter the time segments, e.g. one segment per second.
Now let the signals come one after the other, first the disturbance Fault. Observe
which of the flip-flops is set. Then give the acknowledgement signal Ack. Which flip-
flops are set, which are reset?
Finally, try out how the circuit behaves if the fault lasts until the acknowledgement
is received, or if it recedes beforehand.

3.10 Filling and Emptying a Measuring Vessel

This is a basic task of chemical process engineering: The components for the reaction are
measured via one or more measuring vessels. The substances are then drained into the
reaction vessel, where they are mixed, stirred, heated, etc., whatever the process requires.
50 3 Memory Elements

Fig. 3.19 Measuring vessel

Exercise 3.15 (TANK31)

The measuring vessel in Fig. 3.19 is to be controlled in such a way that, after the “Fill”
button has been pressed, water flows in via solenoid valve V1 until the “FULL” state is
signalled by limit switch LIS2.
When a pulse is given via the “Drain” button, the vessel is emptied via valve V3 until
LIS1 signals “EMPTY”. (Note: The signal of the signal transmitters LIS1 and LIS2 is
‘1’ when the transmitter is immersed in the liquid).
First consider how many memory elements (flip-flops) you need, by which signals
the flip-flops are set, which signals reset the flip-flops and which actions must be exe-
cuted when the flip-flops are set. Then complete the given logic diagram in Fig. 3.20
and plug the circuit onto the digital trainer.
Check whether the following conditions are met. Correct your circuit if
necessary!

• Do not empty during the filling process, even if the corresponding button is
pressed.
• When emptying, it is not possible to fill.

Fill on (fullen)

Drain on (empty)

Fig. 3.20 Filling and emptying the tank. Circuit diagram for Exercise 3.15
3.11 Alarm Circuit 3 51

Acknowledgement
Fault

Fig. 3.21 Alarm with flashing signal for Exercise 3.17

Fault

Fig. 3.22 Time diagram for Exercise 3.17

Exercise 3.16 (TANK32)

Now extend task 3.15 so that the vessel is automatically emptied as soon as it is full. To
do this, you can use the signal LIS2 to set or reset flip-flops.

3.11 Alarm Circuit 3

Exercise 3.17 (ALARM33)

The circuit in Fig. 3.21 works like alarm circuit 2 (Fig. 3.17) of Sect. 3.9, but a flashing
signal is also generated.
Analyze the function of the alarm circuit from Fig. 3.21 with the aid of the time
diagram according to Fig. 3.22. Complete the time diagram!
Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters
4

Abstract

To summarize what we have learned so far about flip-flops: an electronic memory ele-
ment with two stable states is called a flip-flop. By suitable control, the flip-flop can be
steered into the respective other state. In this way, binary (digital) information can
be stored.
In the previous chapter we described the flip-flops where the output was changed
immediately after changing the R or S inputs. These are the non clock-controlled flip-
flops (bistable elements).
In this chapter you will learn how a memory chip must be constructed if it can only
be controlled at a very specific point in time. Among other things, these devices form
the basis for circuits that can count individual, short-term events (“pulses”).

4.1 Clock Edge Controlled Flip-Flops

It is often desirable not to switch the input information at the S or R input directly through
to the output of the flip-flop, but in dependence on a third signal, the clock. During the
inhibit phase of the clock, the flip-flop does not react. Only as long as the “active” clock
state persists does the flip-flop respond immediately. Several toggles can also occur during
the active phase of the clock. An example of this is the state controls (Sect. 3.8), particu-
larly the write inhibit.
However, this clock state control is not sufficient in all applications. Sometimes it does
not make sense to allow several switchovers during the active clock phase. One would like
to have exactly one fixed time at which the changeover takes place. In this case, it is pos-
sible to achieve a very precise coincidence of the times of the various changeovers

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 53

Fig. 4.1 Write lock combined Write lock Read lock

with read lock

Fig. 4.2 Memory with

clock input

(synchronisation). Or unwanted disturbances can be suppressed in this way. The exact

point in time can be the changeover of the clock signal, i.e. the transition of the clock from
‘1’ to ‘0’ or from ‘0’ to ‘1’.
The set and reset inputs are then only used to prepare the storage. The store itself is only
performed on a clock change when the clock goes either from ‘1’ to ‘0’ (falling clock
edge, negative clock edge) or from ‘0’ to ‘1’ (rising clock edge, positive clock edge). We
consider these clock edge-controlled flip-flops in the following section.
The edge-controlled flip-flops are built up from state-controlled flip-flops. We will
study how this works in Example 4.1.

Example 4.1 (Write Lock Combined with Read Lock)

We combine the write inhibit with the read inhibit. To do this, consider the circuit in
Fig. 4.1. When the clock is ‘1’, the flip-flop can be read out, i.e. the flip-flop state Y’ is
present at output Y. During this time, the write inhibit prevents the flip-flop contents
from changing, and the state is stable. If the clock is at ‘0’ level, the flip-flop cannot be
read; however, now the flip-flop can be set or reset. At the exact moment the clock tran-
sitions from ‘0’ to ‘1’ (i.e., on a rising edge), the read inhibit opens and the flip-flop
contents are transferred to the output. We have thus achieved edge control.
But wait! Here we were a bit too fast: Check which state the output Y has during the
‘0’-phase of the clock! Correct, during this time there is always a ‘0’ at the output,
independent of the state Y’ of the flip-flop!
The solution to this problem:
The signal Y’ must not be sent directly to the output, but must be buffered. The cir-
cuit shown in Fig. 4.2, which we have already discussed in Sect. 3.8, is suitable for this
purpose. ◄

Exercise 4.1 (RSFF41)

Connect the two subcircuits Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 to form a flip-flop circuit with
dynamic input!
4.2 RS Bistable Element with Dynamic Input 55

Fig. 4.3 RS bistable element Pre-storage Main storage

with dynamic input: Structure
from basic components

4.2 RS Bistable Element with Dynamic Input

If you have solved Exercise 4.1 correctly, you will recognize the circuit in Fig. 4.3.
Various flip operations can be understood by looking at Fig. 4.4: During the ‘0’ phase
of clock C, the write inhibit of the first flip-flop (pre-memory) is open and it is set or reset
depending on the state of a and b; the input signals are initially stored in the pre-memory
(Y*). During the ‘1’ phase of the clock, the write inhibit locks the pre-memory and the
changes to the inputs have no effect. But now the write lock is open for the second flip-
flop, the main memory, so that it takes over the state of the pre-memory (Y). This takeover
happens exactly at the moment of the transition of the clock from ‘0’ to ‘1’ (rising edge).
In the ‘0’ phase of the clock, the write inhibit locks the main memory: the output signal
is retained. Because the pre-memory cannot change during the ‘1’ phase of clock C and
the main memory does not change during the ‘0’ phase, changes to the output only take
effect at the exact moment of the rising edge of the clock signal.
The information stored in the pre-memory is therefore transferred to the actual memory
exactly when a rising edge of the clock signal occurs. Output Y therefore changes at a
precisely predeterminable time! This process is called “triggering”. (trigger on a rifle or
shutter release on a camera). In the circuit symbol, the trigger property is represented by
the small triangle at the input. In Fig. 4.4 you can clearly see that output Y* “follows” the
pre-memory output exactly at the time of the active rising edge, i.e. it is changed at exact
points in time.

Fig. 4.4 Time diagram for the

toggle circuit Fig. 4.3
56 4 Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters

Fig. 4.5 RS bistable element In front of

After Edge
triggered with the rising edge: Edge

circuit diagram and func- No change

tion table

Forbidden

Fig. 4.6 RS bistable element

In front of
falling edge triggered: circuit Edge
After Edge

diagram and function table No change

Forbidden

Exercise 4.2 (RSFF42)

Build a dynamic RS flip-flop with the digital trainer using two RS flip-flops and test the
function (Figs. 4.3 and 4.5).

If the clock signal is inverted, the flip-flop reacts to the transition from ‘1’ to ‘0’, i.e. to
the falling edge of the clock signal (Fig. 4.6).

Exercise 4.3 (RSFF43)

Using basic building blocks (AND elements and RS flip-flops), draw the logic diagram
of a dynamic RS flip-flop with falling edge control.

4.3 The JK-Flip-Flop

The following applies to the circuit just discussed: At the time of the active edge, it must
be ensured that the set and reset inputs (a and b) do not carry a ‘1’ signal at the same time.
This restriction can be lifted by additional circuits, which we do not want to go through here.
The JK-flip-flop is a dynamic RS bistable element which does not assume an undefined
state due to an additional circuit (Fig. 4.7). The combination ‘1’, ‘1’ at the preparation
inputs is therefore no longer prohibited. The state J and K both equal to ‘1’, lets here the
output toggle at each active edge. The toggle shown here switches on the rising (positive)
edge of the clock signal. The J input corresponds to the set input, the K input to the reset
input. The letters J and K have no relation to the function of the flip-flop, they were chosen
arbitrarily.
4.4 The T-Flip-Flop 57

Fig. 4.7 JK bistable element In front of

After Edge
edge-triggered: Circuit Edge

diagram and function table No change

Exercise 4.4 (JKFF41)

A negation sign before the clock input of the symbol means switching with the falling
(negative) edge.
Draw the symbol of a JK bistable element with falling edge control and create the
function table. Check the function of a JK bistable element with the digital trainer.

4.4 The T-Flip-Flop

The JK flip-flop can be wired to flip on each active edge. If you ask yourself now, what
such a circuit is good for, we can only put you off until later, when we discuss counter
circuits further down. Because of the application to counters this property is even so
important, that there is a special circuit for it, which works exactly like the JK-flip-flop
with J and K equal to ‘1’, but does not have the two inputs at all, but has only a single
clock-input.
With the T-Flip-Flop, the output variable changes with each active edge of clock pulse
C. (“T” from the english word “toggle”).

Exercise 4.5 (TFF41)

Complete the function table in Fig. 4.8! Draw the symbol for a falling edge-controlled
T- Flip-Flop. Connect a JK Flip-Flop to the digital trainer as a T bistable element and
test the function.

Fig. 4.8 T Flip-Flop for

Exercise 4.5
58 4 Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters

The T-flip-flop is easier to handle for some special use cases because it has no unneces-
sary functions, and it is cheaper because it needs less connection feet. But as it is with
specialists: they are often too one-sided. The JK flip-flop is more versatile, and is often
given additional R and S inputs to allow the flip-flop to be set and reset independently of
the clock.1

4.5 Automatic Filling and Emptying of a Measuring Vessel

As an example, let us fill and empty the measuring vessel in Fig. 4.9. In the circuit shown
in Fig. 4.10, a T-flip-flop is set with the start button. Valve V1 for filling the measuring
vessel in Fig. 4.9 is opened and remains open until the upper limit switch LIS2 gives a
signal. Then valve V1 closes and valve V3 opens. The measuring vessel runs empty until
the signal from the lower limit switch LIS1 is logically 0. The sequence stops until a press
on the start button restarts the cycle. With each press of the button, the quantity of the
measuring vessel is therefore dispensed exactly once.

Exercise 4.6 (TANK41)

Build the circuit from Fig. 4.10 and test its function! What change in the circuit and in
the operation results if an “ordinary” RS flip-flop is used instead of the T-flip-flop?
What is the advantage of using the T-flip-flop in conjunction with the start button?

Fig. 4.9 Measuring vessel

1
Kits for training usually have these types built in. They are usually designed so that you can just
leave the inputs you don’t need open (i.e., unconnected).
4.6 Counter 59

V1 Open
(fill)

V3 Open
(drain)

Fig. 4.10 Circuit for Exercise 4.6

4.6 Counter

The T-flip-flop discussed in the previous section is suitable for setting up digital counters.
Let us now examine this in a little more detail: In digital counters, each bit has a valence
in a power of two, according to the definition of dual numbers. We have already seen this
at the very beginning of this course in Sect. 1.6.
Table 4.1 shows the numbers 0–15 in decimal form, 0–F in hexadecimal form and
0000–1111 in dual form. The dual numbers are 4 bits wide. A digital counter must have
one output for each bit of the number to be displayed. In addition, a clock input is required
whose pulses increment the counter one value at a time. The outputs must pass through the
states in sequence, as shown in the table. Each clock pulse toggles the outputs (i.e. the
positions for 23, 22, 21 and 20) as required for the number in the line below.
Plotting this as a line graph against time gives Fig. 4.11. Focus first on the top two lines
showing the signal waveforms for the clock and the 20 signal. At the end of each clock
there is a “falling edge” of the clock signal; i.e. the clock goes from ‘1’ to ‘0’.
At this exact time, the signal for 20 must change state. So note that on each falling edge
of the clock, the 20 signal toggles.
Now also look at the line for the 21 signal and compare it with the 20 signal. The 21
signal flips on each falling edge of the 20 signal. This behaviour corresponds exactly to the
transfer of a full bundle of two to the next higher digit described in Sect. 1.6.
60 4 Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters

Table 4.1 Decimal, Dec HEX Dual

HEX and dual numbers 23 22 21 20
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
2 2 0 0 1 0
3 3 0 0 1 1
4 4 0 1 0 0
5 5 0 1 0 1
6 6 0 1 1 0
7 7 0 1 1 1
8 8 1 0 0 0
9 9 1 0 0 1
10 A 1 0 1 0
11 B 1 0 1 1
12 C 1 1 0 0
13 D 1 1 0 1
14 E 1 1 1 0
15 F 1 1 1 1

So it goes on: at each falling edge the “following” signal toggles. So to build a counter,
flip-flops are needed, which flip every time the clock has an active (here falling) edge. Aha,
we see that here the JK-flip-flop or the T-flip-flop will be applied.

4.6.1 The Asynchronous Counter

Switching elements which flip at each active edge and can therefore be used in counting
circuits are the T flip-flop and the JK flip-flop with J = K = 1. These flip-flops change the
output level at each active edge of the input clock.
For the described counter application the falling edge must be the active clock edge. If
you connect four T-toggle elements in series as shown in Fig. 4.12, you will obtain a 4-bit
binary counter.

Fig. 4.11 Timing diagram for 4-bit counter

4.6 Counter 61

Clock input

Fig. 4.12 Asynchronous 4-bit counter with T-toggle elements

Clock input

Fig. 4.13 Asynchronous 4-bit counter with T-toggle elements, alternative representation

Exercise 4.7 (COUNT41)

Describe the operation of the counter circuit Fig. 4.12. In particular, describe the
switching of the flip-flops when all four outputs indicate ‘1’ and another clock pulse
arrives.

The falling clock edge causes the first flip-flop to toggle, it is set. A rising edge is there-
fore produced at the output. This rising edge of the output 20 has no effect on the following
flip-flop. Only the next falling(!) clock edge causes the first flip-flop to flip back. This reset
affects the second flip-flop (21) as a falling edge, so it now flips afterwards as well. You can
see that the individual flip-flops switch one after the other and not all at the same time, i.e.
they do not work synchronously. This counter is therefore called an “asynchronous
counter”.
In the drawing Fig. 4.12 it is unattractive, that the least significant output is drawn at the
left and the most significant output at the right. In the positional notation of the dual num-
bers, however, it is just the other way round: the most significant digit is in the first posi-
tion, i.e. on the left, and the respective lower ones follow after the right. If we represent the
asynchronous counter as in Fig. 4.13, the order is correct again.

Exercise 4.8 (COUNT42)

Build a dual counter in expansion level 4 (i.e. 4-level, 4-bit) with the digital trainer. Use
JK flip-flops that you switch as a T-flip-flop.
62 4 Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters

Fig. 4.14 Asynchronous 4-bit

down counter

Clock input

Fig. 4.15 Asynchronous 4-bit

down counter, alternative
circuitry

Clock input

Fig. 4.16 Electronic dice

Counter 1 to 6

4.6.2 The Asynchronous Down Counter

A down counter is obtained by either using rising-edge triggered toggle elements

(Fig. 4.14), or by triggering the next higher position with the respective negated outputs in
the case of falling-edge triggered toggle elements (Fig. 4.15).
Most of the toggle elements available in practice have additional R and S inputs, which
can be used to set or reset the flip-flop independently of the clock signal.

Exercise 4.9 (COUNT43)

Draw the line diagram for the signal waveforms for a down counter. Use the table of
numbers in Sect. 4.6 to help you. Use the digital trainer to build a down counter and
test it.

4.6.3 Modulo-n, Decimal- and BCD-Counters

Perhaps you can already think of some applications where you can apply your newly
acquired knowledge of counters. However, before we look at applications, we would like
to present you with some more theory.
Imagine you want to build an electronic dice. It is to output the numbers 1–6. In the
circuit Fig. 4.16, G is a generator which supplies a high-frequency (“fast”) clock signal.
This reaches the counter via the gate circuit (AND element) as long as the key is pressed.
The clock is sufficiently fast that the number of cycles until the key is released is unpre-
dictable; the counter shows a “random” number.
4.6 Counter 63

Fig. 4.17 Circuit for

Exercise 4.10

Clock input

4.6.4 Modulo-3 Counter

But before we build a 1–6 counter, we start with something simpler, a counter modulo 3
with the counting sequence 0,1,2,0,1,2…, It must display the binary numbers 00, 01 and
10 one after the other. The fourth number 11, which can be displayed with two bits, must
not appear, but must be immediately reset to 00 in its place. This can be achieved by imme-
diately resetting the flip-flops via the R inputs when this “wrong” number appears. Thus,
in practice, the undesired number appears only for such a short time that it is not noticed.
The reset signal must appear at the bit sequence 11dual = 3dez. Since the flip-flops are usually
reset with a ‘0’ at the R input, the reset signal can be generated with a NAND element.

Exercise 4.10 (COUNT44)

Complete the circuit diagram in Fig. 4.17 to a counter modulo 3, i.e. it has the counting
sequence 0, 1, 2, 0 … and build it with the digital trainer!

Exercise 4.11 (COUNT45)

Build a counter modulo 6 (0 … 5) with the digital trainer!

4.6.5 BCD Counter

In Sect. 1.12 we have already introduced you to BCD numbers. Digital counter circuits
that display decimal numbers in BCD format “directly” need a modulo-10 counter for
each of the decimal places. Three flip-flops are not enough for this. With four flip-flops,
that is four bits, a counter can count from 0 to 15 (= 16 values). But to display the BCD
numbers, you only need the numbers 0–9. A counter, which should only display the deci-
mal places 0–9, must switch back to “0” after displaying the digit “9”, not to the next
digit “A”.
64 4 Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters

Clock input

Fig. 4.18 Circuit for Exercise 4.12

Fig. 4.19 Circuit for 1 … 6

counter for Exercise 4.13

Clock input

Exercise 4.12 (COUNT46)

Complete the circuit diagram according to Fig. 4.18 to a counter modulo 10 (0 … 9)

and build it up with the digital trainer! Justify why instead of the NAND element with
4 inputs one with only 2 inputs is sufficient!

4.6.6 Counter with Any Start and End Value

The counter circuits considered so far always started from the number 0. But for the dice
mentioned at the beginning, the counter must start at the number 1dez = 001dual and count
up to the number 6dez = 110dual. You can realize this by not simply resetting all flip-flops to
0 when the “wrong” number 7dez = 111dual is reached, but by using the R and S inputs to
reset/set the flip-flops so that the desired number is displayed 1dez = 001dual after the
clock edge.

Exercise 4.13 (COUNT47)

Modify the circuit of the previous Exercise 4.12 so that the counting sequence 1 … 6 is
created! Add a gate circuit to the clock input in Fig. 4.19 so that you obtain an elec-
tronic “dice”!
4.8 Timer 65

Fig. 4.20 Process model for

Exercises 4.14 and 4.16

4.7 Multiple Filling and Emptying of a Vessel

If a vessel is to be filled several times in succession, each filling of the vessel can generate
a pulse which is registered by the counter. The counter reading reached indicates the num-
ber of fillings.

Exercise 4.14 (TANK42)

Describe the function and operation of the circuit in Fig. 4.21 that controls the process
in Fig. 4.20. Build the circuit and test its function.
Expand the circuit so that the filling process is not only two, but three times in suc-
cession (Fig. 4.21).

4.8 Timer

Each counter circuit requires a certain time until the entire counting cycle has been run
through once, i.e. the counter end value has been reached. You can calculate this time by
multiplying the counter reading by the duration of a clock pulse. With a cycle of f = 1 Hz,
i.e. one pulse per second, it takes 180 s (= 3 min) until the counter has reached the level
10110100dual, correspondingly 180dez. So you need 8 flip-flops for a 3 min counter with a
66 4 Dynamic Memory Elements and Counters

V1 Open (fill)

V3 Open (drain)

Fig. 4.21 Circuit for Exercise 4.14

clock duration of 1 s. If you reduce the clock duration, you need more flip-flops, but the
accuracy with which you can set times increases by the same amount.

Exercise 4.15

How many flip-flops do you need to build a counter for a count time of 3 min if the
clock pulses have a duration of 0.5 s? How many are required for a clock duration
of 0.1 s?

Exercise 4.16 (MIXER41)

After pressing a start button, the stirrer M should run for 4 s (Fig. 4.20). Draw the cor-
responding logic diagram and build the circuit with the digital trainer.
Part II
PLC Technology

Abstract

In the case of logic switching elements, it was clear without any special mention that
the output (more precisely, the output signal) depends on the inputs (the input signals).
The relationship, i.e. the function of the circuit, is clearly defined. You get control when
you connect several switching elements together. The signals at the inputs cause the
signals that can be tapped at the outputs. The function of the overall circuit is deter-
mined by which switching elements are connected to each other and how. The function
can be changed at any time by inserting or removing switching elements or changing
the connections. In a PLC, as in digital circuits, we also have inputs and outputs. The
dependence of the output signals on the input signals is not determined by the wiring,
but it is determined by a “program” which signals are to be linked together. This pro-
gram can be written like an ordinary text with the PC. The advantage of this technique
is the standardization of the controls. Because only a few universal types of control
devices are required, they can be produced in large quantities. Only the buyer decides
by programming which of the “inner building blocks” are to be used and how they are
to be “wired”.
For the practical application, one can initially assume that an “infinite number” of
individual modules are available. The “wiring” is done by the program. Another advan-
tage is that the function can be changed at any time by changing the program. A screw-
driver or soldering iron is not required for this.
We will first practice programming using the “Instruction List”. In this instruction
list (IL), the individual links are described by short texts. Each line of the IL contains
one instruction. Each instruction consists of an operator and an operand. The operator

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 69

Fig. 5.1 Binary inputs and

outputs: direct addressing

PLC

Inputs Outputs

determines the type of link (e.g. OR link), the operand determines the input/output
terminal whose signal is to be linked.

5.1 Directly Represented Variable

In the program you must be able to address the inputs and outputs of the PLC. The IEC
standard prescribes very specific identifiers when the addresses of the hardware are to be
addressed. Some examples can be found in Fig. 5.1. The identifier for the direct addresses
starts with the percent sign ‘%’, followed by the letters ‘IX’ for an input bit or by the letters
‘QX’ (to quit) for an output bit. This is followed by the number of the terminal.

Examples

%IX0.1 or %QX0.0.

Other designations are used for other input or output types. But of it later. At first we only
care about single logical input/output bits. By the way, you can leave out the ‘X’ for these
types for simplification. It is also irrelevant whether the identifiers are written with upper
or lower case letters.

Valid Identifiers Are Therefore

%IX1.4, %I4.0, %Q1.1, %qx2.0, %i0.1, %iX1.2, %q3.4, etc.

Directly represented variables begin with the % character, directly represented inputs
begin with %IX, and directly represented outputs begin with %QX.

5.2 Basic Logical Links with PLCs

Of course, a PLC is “underpowered” if it only has to implement a single link. But we have
to start with simple exercises, therefore we will first create only the already known
basic links.
5.3 OR Operation 71

If you are looking for an overview of the links possible with the PLC, you will find it in
this book in Chap. 16.

5.3 OR Operation

Example 5.1 (Lamp Circuit with OR Operation)

A lamp should be switched on when the infrared detector has responded or a button is
pressed.
Clearly, the OR operation (Fig. 5.2) must be used here! In the digital technology part
(Sect. 2.8) you have already learned how to translate this task into a function table. ◄

To have the PLC perform this function, you must do two steps:

• first, connect the infrared detector and the pushbutton to the input terminals of the PLC
and connect the lamp to an output terminal of the PLC; and
• secondly, write the instruction list so that the PLC works as an OR element.

So on the one hand you have to connect the process to the PLC control device and on the
other hand you have to write the control program.
The symbolic variables a, b and x are assigned to the real signals, and these in turn are
connected to the input/output terminals of the PLC. This can be clearly displayed in an
“assignment list”.

Assignment of the inputs/outputs:

Inputs:
Variable a (infrared detector) %IX0.0
Variable b (pushbutton) %IX0.1
Exit:
Variable x (lamp) %QX0.0

These assignments are written in the instruction list before the actual program lines.
The assignment list (“terminal diagram”) is introduced in the program header with the
keyword ‘VAR’ and concluded with the keyword ‘END_VAR’. You can choose any names
for the variables in the assignment list (as long as they contain only letters, digits and the
underscore (_) and do not begin with a digit). After the keyword ‘AT’ you enter the direct

Fig. 5.2 OR link

72 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

PLC address. After this you put a colon followed by the variable type. Initially, we only
use individual bits; the type designation for this is ‘BOOL’.
The symbolic identifiers (variable names), their type and terminal address are defined
in the program header. For PLC practice, this means that you have a kind of “wiring dia-
gram” (assignment list) integrated in the program.

VAR
a AT %IX0.0: BOOL
b AT %IX0.1: BOOL
x AT %QX0.0: BOOL
END_VAR

After the header the actual program lines are written. At the beginning of a link, the
value of the first variable is loaded. The operator for this is called LD (to load). In the
example, the next value is to be linked with the just loaded “OR”. The operator OR is pro-
vided for this purpose. The result of this link can then be assigned to the output with the
ST operator (to store).

LD a
OR b
ST x

The LD operator loads the first operand from the input. At the same time a new instruc-
tion sequence is started.
The OR operation is created by the OR operator. The value loaded from input ‘a’ is
linked with the value present at input ‘b’.
The assignment of the logic result to the output is done with the ST operator.

5.4 The Current Result

Have a little patience before you create the first program! You should be very clear about
how the PLC works: the LD operator loads the first operand ‘a’ into a very specific mem-
ory location, the so-called “current result” (CR).

The Current Result CR is a memory location that contains one operand.

5.4 The Current Result 73

The next operator OR links the value of the “current result” with its operand b and over-
writes the memory location “current result” with the result of this operation. Aha, is the
name of this memory location clear now?
After each arithmetic operation the memory location CR is overwritten with the result.
The last instruction in this program, the ST instruction, does not change the “current
result”, but copies the value to the memory location x specified in the operand. Note that
after the ST instruction is executed, the current result retains its value and can be used
further.

In Summary

• With ‘LD’ the current result CR is set completely new, independent of the previous
value. A new sequence starts.
• The ‘OR’ operator changes the current result; the new value of the AE depends on both
the previous value of the CR and the operand specified after the operator.
• ‘ST’ does not change the CR, it can be reused in subsequent operations.

However, the program is not yet finished. In the instruction list according to IEC
61131-3 some formalities still have to be observed.
The program starts with the keyword PROGRAM <ProgramName> and ends with
END_PROGRAM.
There is only one instruction in each line of the instruction list. It begins with the opera-
tor for the function to be executed and an operand that indicates what the operator refers
to. In most cases, the operand is the identifier for an input or output. By the way, the case
does not matter in the whole text of the statement list and can be mixed arbitrarily.

Example 5.2 (Complete Program Code: OR51)

PROGRAM OR51
VAR
a AT %IX0.0: BOOL
b AT %IX0.1: BOOL
x AT %QX0.0: BOOL
END_VAR
LD a
OR b
ST x
END_PROGRAM ◄
74 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

5.5 The PLC Simulation Application “PLC-Lite”

There is one last hurdle to overcome before you can start programming. On the website1
of the authors to this book, the application PLC-lite is available, with the help of which
you can do all the exercises.

Installing and Starting PLC-Lite

For more information on installation and use, please refer to the app documentation. In
this section, we give you a brief introduction to its use in connection with the exercises in
this book.
After starting the app, the application window opens with the controls for controlling
the simulated PLC and the editor window where you can type in the instruction list. You
open the models for processes and input/output elements with the “Visualization” menu.

Operation of PLC-Lite
In the main window (Fig. 5.3), click on the “Visualization” button (or “Processes” in older
versions of PLC-lite) and first select “Standard I/O”. You can use this menu to open the
associated display elements and process models in later exercises.

Fig. 5.3 PLC-lite

1
www.adamis.de/plc/.
5.5 The PLC Simulation Application “PLC-Lite” 75

To set the input values for the PLC, click on the green buttons with the mouse. The
lower, red “light emitting diodes” (LEDs) show you the output value. A “lit” LED means
a logical ‘1’. The inputs act as buttons when you click the mouse. If you drag the mouse
away from the button while holding down the left mouse button, it remains ‘latched’. The
input then remains permanently switched on until you click on the input again. Thus you
have a “switch” at the input.

Exercise 5.1 (OR51)2

Realize an OR operation with the PLC. Create the instruction list with the PLC-lite app
and test the program. The test is positive if the function table for the OR operation is
fulfilled for all switch positions.

The simulation is started with “Run”. The button then changes its status to “Running”;
clicking on it again stops the simulation. “Reset” completely resets the simulation includ-
ing all process models.
After clicking the Run button, the system checks the statement list. If errors are detected,
a corresponding message is displayed. Correct the errors. The simulation will not start
until there are no more errors in the statement list.

Further Possibilities of Simulation

A useful function is the single step mode. A click on ‘Step’ executes the next instruction
in the instruction list and then waits. A click on ‘Cycle’ works through all instructions
once and stops at the beginning of the instruction list.
The instruction that will be executed in the next step is highlighted in the editor. In the
simultaneously opening window ‘Watch expressions’ the current values of the variables
and the current result (CR) are displayed. Here are two columns for the values: First look
at the column ‘Value’ only. We will explain the meaning of ‘Direct Value’ in Sect. 6.4.
Finally, save the file first, then save the project as well. This ‘two-step’ approach is
important for later, when a project will have more than one instruction list. Note therefore:
‘Save file’ saves the current statement list. The project as a whole must be saved separately
with ‘Save Project’.

2
For many exercises, you can find suggested solutions on the authors’ website under the name given
in parentheses after the exercise number.
76 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

If you get “stuck” somewhere, you can also find the solutions to the exercises at
www.adamis.de/plc/.

5.6 AND Operation

Whew!! That was a nice bit of work for such a simple function! But don’t worry, you can
take advantage of the programming right away when you tackle the next example:

Example 5.3 (Darkroom Lighting)

In a photo lab room, the yellow light may only be turned on when the door is locked
and the windows are darkened. ◄

In Part I (Fig. 2.3) you have already learned how to translate this task into a function
table. You get the AND operation (Fig. 5.4).
Again, you must first connect the input terminals of the PLC to the door or darkening
contacts and the lamp to an output terminal of the PLC, and secondly write the instruction
list to make the PLC work as an AND gate.
In our example, a door contact is to emit the logical signal ‘1’ when the door is closed.
When the window darkening is effective, the window contact emits signal ‘1’. The lamp
with the yellow light is switched on when it receives signal ‘1’. The symbolic variables a,
b and x are again assigned to the real signals. This results in the assignment list:

Assignment of the inputs/outputs:

Inputs:
Variable a (door contact) %IX0.0
Variable b (window contact) %IX0.1
Exit:
Variable x (yellow light) %QX0.0

Just as in Example 5.1 with the OR operation, the value of the first variable is loaded
(LD). The second variable must be “AND”-linked with the just loaded one. The operator
‘AND’ is provided for this purpose. The resulting current result is again assigned to the
output with the ST operator.

Fig. 5.4 AND operation

5.7 Negation of Inputs and Outputs 77

The AND operator is used for the AND operation.

Can you see that this results in practically the same program as in the previous Exercise
5.1? You only need to change the OR operator into the AND operator! No screwing or sol-
dering of cables, no changing of components …

Exercise 5.2 (AND51)

Realize the circuit for the photo lab by an AND operation! Create the instruction list,
then program the PLC and test the program. The test is positive if the function table of
the AND operation is fulfilled for all switch positions.

5.7 Negation of Inputs and Outputs

The logical values of the inputs and outputs can be negated before further processing
(Fig. 5.5). This allows negators as well as NAND and NOR links to be implemented. The
negation of the operand is generated by the modifier “N” (not). The modifier is appended
to the operator. Thus we get the modified operators: LDN, ANDN, ORN, STN.

Example 5.4 (Showroom Monitoring)

With the help of a capacitive encoder, a sales room monitoring is to be carried out. The
encoder gives a logical ‘0’ if there is a customer in the room. In this case, an optical
signal is to light up. ◄

Assignment of the inputs/outputs:

Entrance:
Variable a (capacitive encoder) %IX0.0
Exit:
Variable x (signal lamp) %QX0.0

As a solution for the example simply results in a negation. Depending on whether you
negate the input or the output, you get different programs: in the first case the LD operator
is modified, in the second the ST operator.

Fig. 5.5 Negation of input

resp. output
78 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

Example 5.5
PROGRAM NOT1 PROGRAM NOT2
VAR VAR
a AT %IX0.0: BOOL a AT %IX0.0: BOOL
x AT %QX0.0: BOOL x AT %QX0.0: BOOL
END_VAR END_VAR
LDN a LD a
ST x STN x
END_PROGRAM END_PROGRAM
◄

In this case it does not matter whether the LD operator (input) is modified with negation
or the ST operator (output).
In addition to the LD and ST operators, the AND and OR operators may also be modified
with N. Thus NAND and NOR links can be realized. Exercise 5.3 can be solved with a
NAND link. The negation is at the output; you must modify the ST operator to the STN
operator.

Exercise 5.3 (MIXER51)

A valve must not be open (x = 0) when the stirrer (a = 1) and the heater (b = 1) are
switched on. Write the program as an instruction list and draw the function chart.

5.8 Boolean Algebra: De Morgan’s Rules

Let us now examine what difference results when the LD, AND or OR operator (i.e. the
input) or the ST operator (i.e. the output) is modified with negation. You should now have
a look at Sect. 2.20! The relation given there is called “de Morgan’s rule”. It specifies how
to “bring forward” the negation from the output to the inputs. Of course the operation
changes: AND becomes OR and vice versa! Compare the logical switching functions with
the PLC program codes and the switching symbols!

Exercise 5.4 (NAND51)

Implement and test a NAND logic in the two variants from Table 5.1 on the left.

Exercise 5.5 (NOR51)

Test also the (real) NOR-logic and its realization as AND-logic with negated inputs!
5.9 Boiler Heating (Two-Point Control) 79

Table 5.1 de Morgan’s rules

NAND NOR

a∧b a∨b a∨b a ∧b

LD a LDN a LD a LDN a
AND b ORN b OR b ANDN b
STN x ST x STN x ST x

5.9 Boiler Heating (Two-Point Control)

A reaction vessel is to be kept at a constant temperature via a contact thermometer as a

limit signal transmitter as long as the heating is switched on. The temperature controller
TIC emits the signal ‘1’ as soon as the set temperature (e.g. 50 °C) is reached or exceeded.
It should be possible to switch the heating on and off with a switch. This “main switch”
emits signal ‘1’ when it is closed (Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.6 Boiler heating in the “Boiler” process

80 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

Fig. 5.7 Circuit for

Exercise 5.6

Exercise 5.6 (BOILER51)

Implement and test the heating control with PLC according to the circuit Fig. 5.7.

Assignment of the inputs/outputs:

Inputs:
Switch Sw1 %IX0.0
Thermometer TIC %IX0.5
Exit:
Heating Heat %QX0.5

Use the “Boiler” process to simulate (Fig. 5.6). The switch for switching on and off is
located on the far right of the field with the controls.
In the process, you will find “manual buttons” next to the valves V3 and V4 as well
as next to the heater, with which you can switch these elements directly, without being
influenced by the program. By actuating the heater, you can also cause a fault due to
overheating, for example.
Do not be disturbed by the rapid switching on and off of the heating when the tem-
perature is exceeded. We will later learn ways to “calm down” the control. Also try out
what happens when you overheat the boiler by clicking on the “Heating” manual button.

Exercise 5.7 (BOILER52)

The stirrer should run as long as the start button (left on the control panel, green button)
is pressed.

Exercise 5.8 (BOILER53)

The previous Exercise 5.7 is to be supplemented as follows: If the level LIS3 has not
yet been reached and the start button for the stirrer is pressed, the warning lamp should
light up. Draw the logic diagram for this task!

For more exercises, see Sect. 13.2.

5.10 Program Cycle of the PLC

Now that you are a little familiar with PLC programming, let’s take a look at how the PLC
controller works. If you think back to Exercise 5.8, you can easily see that the instruction
to query the start button must be executed not just once, but repeatedly, because the pro-
gram is supposed to respond to the button press at all times.
5.11 Circuit Diagrams 81

Fig. 5.8 Cyclic processing of Starting the PLC

the control program Operating system is loading
with a PLC

Control program

1.Instruction
2.Instruction
3.Instruction

Last Instruction

In fact, this is also the case with PLC controllers: the instructions from the instruction
list are not processed only once, but repeatedly “in a circle”. After the last instruction has
been processed, the process starts again from the first one. Each run is called a “cycle”.
This is graphically represented in Fig. 5.8 by the arrows in the connecting lines.

The PLC program starts with the first command at startup and processes all com-
mand lines one after the other until the last command. After that, the cycle always
starts again with the first command.

Often the next cycle is not started immediately after the end but the cycles are started
by a timer in certain time intervals. You can set this time in PLC-lite.
This cyclic mode of operation ensures that the inputs are regularly polled again and
again and that any changes made in the meantime are registered.

5.11 Circuit Diagrams

Electricians understand the circuit diagram immediately. You may be a “non-electrician”,

but you can certainly understand how the electrical circuit in Fig. 5.9 works: current can
flow downwards from the upper “busbar” via wires or closed switches, as in a watercourse.
Open switches interrupt the current flow. That’s not so difficult, is it?
82 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

Fig. 5.9 Circuit diagram and Circuit diagram Function plan

function chart

With this approach, it is no longer a problem to recognize that the current can always
flow through two switches connected in parallel when at least one of the two switches is
closed. So it is an OR-circuit. This is the case with the two contacts that are to be con-
nected directly to the PLC inputs %IX0.0 or %IX0.1.
Current can only flow via the switch to be connected to %IX0.2 if output %QX0.0 is
active. This is therefore an AND circuit: output %QX0.1 is ‘1’ if output %QX0.0 and
input %IX0.2 are both ‘1’.
This electrical circuit is shown in Fig. 5.9 as a functional diagram.

5.12 Querying Output Variables

Frequently, the control of other variables depends on the status at one or more outputs. The
PLC must therefore be able to query an output and process its logical state. This is possible
without any problems.

But Note: the output is still an output, you cannot use it in the plant “like an input” and
feed signals into the PLC via it, but you can only read out the last value stored to this out-
put in the program. In the heating control example, you could still switch on a pilot lamp
while the heating is running. In program Example 5.6 you can see the program extension.
Note how the output “Heat” is queried with the LD command.
5.12 Querying Output Variables 83

Fig. 5.10 Circuit for

Exercise 5.11

Example 5.6 (Boiler: Control Lamp)

PROGRAM NOT3
VAR
...
Heat AT %QX0.5: BOOL
On_LED AT %QX0.0: BOOL
END_VAR
...
LD
ST On_LED
...
END_PROGRAM ◄

Exercise 5.9 (BOILER54)

Complete the program from Exercise 5.8 with the control lamp as described in
Example 5.6!

Exercise 5.10 (POWER51)

For the circuit in Fig. 5.9, assign the variables correctly, create the instruction list and
implement the circuit with PLC-lite.

Exercise 5.11 (POWER52)

Program the circuit according to Fig. 5.10. Compare the result with the following
Example 5.7 and Eq. (5.3)!
84 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

5.13 Flags and Brackets

Example 5.7

Exercise 5.11 can be solved by the following program part:

LD %IX0.0
OR %IX0.1
AND %IX0.2
ST %QX0.0 ◄

The OR statement for inputs %IX0.0 and %IX0.1 is executed first, and the result is writ-
ten to the CR, which is then linked to %IX0.2. As the last final result, the CR is written
to output %QX0.0.
As a mathematical function equation, this relationship can be stated like this, where we
introduce x as an intermediate result of the OR operation in order to be able to represent
the two steps separately:
x ab (5.1)
y xc (5.2)

or, x from the first equation inserted:

y a b c (5.3)

If you don’t use x as an intermediate result, but put the corresponding term directly into the
equation for y, you can “save” an output. And yet a memory location is required:
The parenthesis in the formula means that the expression for a and b in the parenthesis
is evaluated first, and this result (stored in the CR in this particular case) is associated with
the value c.3

5.14 Memory for Flags

Sometimes one does not want to lose the intermediate result x of Eq. (5.2). Then it is not
enough to use CR for storage. We have to use additional memory space. First, we apply a
common procedure in the PLC to get us memory space.

3
In the instruction list of the PLC, such a bracket expression can be programmed directly. But that
comes a little later in Exercise 5.12.
5.15 Comments in the Instruction List 85

One could assign the intermediate result x to an output. But it can also be done without
wasting the usually rare output terminals. Consider Example 5.8: We use a special mem-
ory location for intermediate storage, a memory-flag x AT %MX0.0: BOOL, which can
hold the intermediate result x. By using a memory location (flag), the value is temporarily
stored, “remembered”.
The result of the expression for x in the parenthesis is (a ⋁ b) assigned to a “flag” x
with the ST operator and can be retrieved at any time by querying this flag. You can give
flags symbolic names in the variable list.

Example 5.8

PROGRAM Memory
VAR
a AT %IX0.0: BOOL
b AT %IX0.1: BOOL
c AT %IX0.2: BOOL
x AT %MX0.0: BOOL (* flag *)
y AT %QX0.0: BOOL
END_VAR
LD a
OR b
ST x (* save to flag *)
LD x (* read from flag *)
AND c
ST y
END_PROGRAM ◄

5.15 Comments in the Instruction List

In the instruction list (Example 5.8) you will find texts framed by the strings “(*” and
“*)”. These texts are comments and serve to document the program. You can significantly
increase the readability and comprehensibility of the program by using clever comments.
These comments are intended as information only for yourself, so that you can still under-
stand the program run (even after some time!). The comments have no influence on the
actual program run of the PLC!

Flags are given symbolic names. The memory location is addressed directly
with %MXa.b.
86 5 Combinatorial Circuits with PLC

• Flags are nothing more than memory locations for a value that you can recall at any time.
• Flags have in common with outputs that you can assign a value to them and read it out
again at any time. Unlike these, however, they have no connection to the outside.
• Because absolute memory space is practically never important for flags, you can confi-
dently leave the allocation of memory space to the operating system. In the variable list,
specify only the symbolic name and the type “BOOL” without assigning a special mem-
ory location. Instead of x AT %MX0.0: BOOL, just write x: BOOL. The actual
memory location is automatically determined by the PLC system.

5.16 Intermediate Results in Brackets

The programming of the brackets is initially very pleasant for those who are mathemati-
cally experienced, because it looks similar to the familiar rules from mathematics. An
example can be found in the following Exercise 5.12 (program 3).
By modifying the operators with the ‘(‘modifier and the’)’ operator, the expression
can be written as Instruction List.
The modifier ( after the AND and OR operators creates the AND( and OR( operators,
which begin a parenthesized expression.
The operator ) “Close parenthesis” closes the expression and causes it to be processed.
In PLC practice, however, the representation with the brackets quickly becomes con-
fusing. In many cases, the intermediate result is already available at an output and can be
used directly from there by querying the output. In general, intermediate results will be
assigned to flags. At first, programming with flags seems more effortful than using brack-
ets: the program gets more lines, and the way of thinking is unfamiliar if you are familiar
with arithmetic algebra. However, the use of flags often leads to clearer programs, espe-
cially for larger projects.

Exercise 5.12 (MEMO51)

Draw the function block diagram for each of the three instruction lists. Complete the IL
to form complete programs and implement the circuits with the PLC! Make sure that
all three programs deliver the same result.

1) LD a 2) LD a 3) LD c
OR b OR b AND( a
ST mem AND c OR b
LD c ST x )
AND mem ST x
ST x
5.17 EXOR Operation (Antivalence) 87

Fig. 5.11 EXOR

Justify why parentheses are not required in the second variant by tracing the assign-
ments to the “current result”. (cf. Exercise 5.11)

5.17 EXOR Operation (Antivalence)

Example 5.9 (Agitator)

An agitator may only be switched on (x = 1) when the level is reached (a = 1) and the
inlet valve is closed (b = 0); or when the level is not reached (a = 0) and the inlet valve
is open (b = 1). ◄

You have already dealt with this example for the application of an EXOR element in the
digital part in Sect. 2.13 and in the minterms (Sect. 2.14): There we worked out the func-
tion plan in detail, so in Fig. 5.11 we only repeat the result.
This EXOR operation is included in IEC 61131-3 and is performed by the XOR opera-
tor. The XOR operator can be modified with N and ( to XORN and XOR(.

Assignment of inputs/outputs (allocation list):

Inputs: Variable a (switch 1) %IX0.6
Variable b (switch 2) %IX0.7
Output: Variable x (Output x) %QX0.6

Exercise 5.13 (EXOR51)

Realize the EXOR link with PLC-lite!

Logical Memory Circuits
6

Abstract

In this chapter you will learn how to use the memories in a PLC. You have already
learned about one memory: the flag. In the PLC, a flag is a memory location for a logi-
cal value. In the PLC, however, outputs can also be addressed as memory locations. You
can assign a value directly to the flags as well as to the outputs in order to reuse it after-
wards. You can also set flags to ‘1’ or ‘0’ by a set or reset pulse, similar to flip-flops. In
this context, we will have to illuminate special features in the program flow of the PLC,
which will then lead us to the function blocks for the RS and SR flip-flops.
In addition to the purpose of recording intermediate results, signals must be stored
in order to “record” one-time processes or brief pulses even after they have ended. An
application example are circuits in which pushbuttons are used.

6.1 Output with Self-Retaining

Often, processes in systems are triggered by pushbuttons and not by switches. The push-
buttons only make contact as long as they are pressed; when they are released, the signal
is no longer present. Two pushbuttons are usually installed: one for switching on and a
second pushbutton for switching off. After releasing the ON button, the output must
remain at ‘1’ until the OFF button is used to reset the output to ‘0’. To do this, you need
some kind of memory for the button press, because the effect must remain active beyond
the duration of the button press. We had seen that this memory behavior can be realized by
means of flip-flops.
In electrical engineering, this behaviour can also be achieved by means of an auxiliary
contact on a relay. In the circuit diagram for circuit diagram A (Fig. 6.1) you will find a

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 89

Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_6
90 6 Logical Memory Circuits

Fig. 6.1 Self-holding: circuit Circuit diagram A Circuit diagram B

for Exercise 6.1

switching contact with the designation %QX0.0. The relay also has the same designation.
This means that this switching contact is “actuated” by the relay: when the relay is ener-
gised, this contact is closed.
However, this then causes a closed current path for the relay, even if the pushbutton
%IX0.1 in parallel with the auxiliary contact is released again, i.e. opened. You can see
the memory effect: the relay “holds itself” until the circuit is interrupted by (briefly) open-
ing the pushbutton %IX0.0 in series; then the relay drops out and the auxiliary contact
%QX0.0 is opened again.

Exercise 6.1 (POWER61)

Draw the function diagrams for circuit diagrams A and B (Fig. 6.1) respectively,
create the instruction list and test the circuits with the PLC. Especially check the
behaviour when the two switches %IX0.0 and %IX0.1 are pressed
simultaneously.
Note: Note the illustration of the two types of switch: normally open (NO) and nor-
mally closed (NC). With the normally open contact, the contact is open in the idle state;
actuation closes the contact. In the case of the NC contact, the contact that is closed in
the idle state is opened by the actuation. However, this actuation is not important for the
PLC, rather the signal emitted by the switch is decisive for the programming, and this
is always a ‘1’ when the contact is closed and a ‘0’ when it is open, regardless of
whether it is actuated or not!

6.2 Setting and Resetting Outputs

Example 6.1 (Self-Retaining: Start and Stop Agitator with Pushbutton)

An agitator is to be switched on with a start button and switched off with a stop
button. ◄
6.2 Setting and Resetting Outputs 91

The important thing about this example is that the actions are to be carried out with pushbut-
tons that jump back to their initial position after being released. You could implement this
task with the circuit from Exercise 6.1. In the solution to this example, the agitator at output
x is switched on (set) by the start button at b and switched off (reset) by the stop button at a:

Example 6.2 (Self-Retaining)

Program POWER61
var
a AT %IX0.0: bool
b AT %IX0.1: bool
x AT %QX0.0: bool
end_var
LD b
OR x
AND a
ST x
end_program ◄

The circuit works, but admittedly the whole thing is probably too complicated and
above all too confusing. Because such a function is needed more often, it is clear that there
are special instructions in the PLC for setting outputs to ‘1’ and resetting them to ‘0’. In
the instruction list, use the operator ‘S’ to set and the operator ‘R’ to reset an output
or a flag.

Exercise 6.2 (RS61)

Complete the following instructions (Example 6.3) to a complete program and test it
with the PLC. The variable a is to be connected to the input %IX0.7, b to %IX0.6
and x to the output %QX0.0.

Example 6.3 (For Exercise 6.2)

LD a
S x
LD b
R x ◄

This program functions as a self-Retaining circuit! Pressing the pushbutton a at

%IX0.7 sets the output x at %QX0.0 to ‘1’. This state is maintained even if the pushbut-
ton is released. Only pressing pushbutton b at %IX0.6 clears the output again and resets
it to ‘0’. Note that in each case the action is only executed if the respective variable a or b
92 6 Logical Memory Circuits

Fig. 6.2 PLC-lite: Logic Analyzer with time diagram for Exercise 6.2

has the value ‘1’. If the variable has the value ‘0’, no action is executed and the output
retains the previous value.

Note
With the help of the Logic Analyzer from PLC-lite you can observe the time sequence of
the signals. Open the Logic Analyzer. Then click on “Start” and operate the buttons. You
will now get a recording of the logic levels. In addition, you can follow the processes in
detail by using the single step mode. In Fig. 6.2 you can see thin and thicker lines in the
time diagram. You can understand the differences a little later, with the knowledge gained
in Sect. 6.5.

Exercise 6.3

Now observe the behaviour of the output in the program from Exercise 6.2 when both
pushbuttons are pressed simultaneously! In the simulation, you can “clamp” the
pushbuttons individually by moving down from the pushbutton while holding
down the mouse button.

6.3 Order of Execution and Priority

From Exercise 6.3 you can see that output x at %QX0.0 always remains reset as long as
pushbutton b is pressed, even if pushbutton a is also pressed. Now swap the order of the
instructions in Example 6.3 so that the S instruction is the last instruction. You will get
Example 6.4:
6.4 Storage of Inputs and Outputs 93

Example 6.4

LD b
R x
LD a
S x ◄

Now you will see that in Example 6.4 the set command has priority and the output
always remains set when both buttons are pressed continuously. We had already achieved
such a behaviour with the digital circuits by connecting the signals with switching ele-
ments accordingly. Please scroll back to Sect. 3.5.
In the PLC, this arises from the order of the instructions in the instruction list. In the
case of multiple assignments to an output within an instruction list, the last assignment
“wins”. It is therefore of utmost importance in which order the instructions are listed in the
instruction list.

The instructions are executed in order (from top to bottom). In case of multiple
assignments, the last one takes precedence.

But wait! Please have another look at Sect. 5.10 (Fig. 5.8), which describes how the
PLC works: The instructions from the instruction list are not processed only once, but
again and again “in a circle” from the first to the last instruction and then starting again
with the first. And thus the first instruction is always executed again after the last one. So
how can the order of the set and reset instructions matter at all, after all they are simply
executed alternately in the end? – We will look at this in the following section:

6.4 Storage of Inputs and Outputs

This behavior: “The last instruction wins” is very useful in both Examples 6.3 and 6.4. It
is achieved by the PLC only ever transferring the new values to the output at the end of the
cycle, thus giving the output a unique, constant value. The intermediate changes during the
cycle remain internal only and do not go to the outside.1

1
Likewise, input values are read in only once at the beginning of each cycle and then remain avail-
able unchanged until the end of the statement list.
94 6 Logical Memory Circuits

Fig. 6.3 Switching to direct

and indirect access with
PLC-lite

Let us now consider this in more detail: Consider what would happen if the set or reset
instructions took effect immediately and directly at the exit, rather than at the end of
the cycle?
Exactly! The output would be switched on and off in rapid succession. This would
result in a “blinking circuit” with the cycle frequency. You could also say: the output
“flutters”.
The first instruction resets the output when the button at %IX0.7 is pressed. Immediately
afterwards, the output is switched on again when the button at %IX0.6 is also pressed.
The best way to study this behavior is to test the program Example 6.2 with the logic ana-
lyzer and with the simulator in single step mode (Step).
You have the possibility in PLC-lite via the menu View – PLC-Setup to deactivate the
buffering of the terminals, so that the respective values appear directly at the output and
not only when the program has run through the cycle to the end. Figure 6.3 shows on the
left the default setting for the inputs/outputs: indirect access, with buffering. Toggle:
Check the box to set the byte to direct address access. In the following Sect. 6.5, these
intermediate memories with the names “process images” are explained in detail.
In Fig. 6.4 the program from Exercise 6.2 is executed in single step mode. PLC-lite
marks the line that will be executed next by clicking the “Step” button. In the example, you
can see that the execution in “Step” mode is carried out up to line 12. Both input buttons
are latched to the value ‘1’. The output variable x has the value ‘1’ because the previous
set command has just been executed. The x value at the output of the PLC (Direct Value)
is still ‘0’ because we have not selected direct input/output (this is the normal setting). If
we now continue the steps, then executing line 13 will reset the output. After executing
line 14, this value comes to the output. Despite setting and resetting at the same time,
resetting “wins”.
Now switch to direct access of the inputs/outputs in PLC-Setup by setting the check-
mark. If you now step through to line 12, you will see that the set command has a direct
effect on the output and the LED lights up. By executing the reset command in line 13, the
output is immediately reset. The LED therefore flashes very briefly during operation. In
Fig. 6.5 you can see two completely stepped cycles in the Logic Analyzer. In the third
cycle, the set command from line 11 has just been executed.
6.4 Storage of Inputs and Outputs 95

Fig. 6.4 Monitoring variables with PLC-lite in step mode and inputs and outputs in “normal” mode

Exercise 6.4

Now run the program from Exercise 6.2 again, now in single step mode and with Logic
Analyzer. Observe the behaviour of output x depending on the setting of the inputs
“direct input/output” (switched on or off). Also test extensively the case where both
inputs have the value ‘1’ at the same time. Now you can also interpret the time diagram
of the Logic Analyzer in Fig. 6.2!

In a PLC, the values of the variables within a program cycle must be distinguished from
the respective peripheral values, which are read from the process by means of the sensors
or which are transferred to the process by means of the actuators. Depending on the appli-
cation, it may make sense to evaluate the peripheral values directly and immediately in the
program or to link them indirectly to the variables in the program by means of the inter-
mediate memories. In addition to the standardized %i and %q, some PLC systems offer
additional address ranges or special instructions for this purpose, via which the input/
output terminals can be accessed directly.
96 6 Logical Memory Circuits

Fig. 6.5 PLC-lite in step mode with Logic Analyzer and inputs and outputs in direct mode

6.5 Process Images of the Inputs and Outputs

The logic results that are assigned to the outputs do not appear immediately at the output
terminals, but are first stored temporarily in the “process image of the outputs” (PIO or
PIQ register, german: PAA). The PIO is only transferred to the output terminals after the
last instruction of the instruction list. This ensures uniform, synchronous operation of all
outputs.
If, for example, the same output is addressed several times with different values during
the cycle, “fluttering” of the output is avoided by using the PIO as a buffer. The assignment
to the variable belonging to the output can then be made several times within the cycle; the
memory location in the PIO changes its value each time, but only the last assignment in
the cycle is actually transferred to the output.
6.5 Process Images of the Inputs and Outputs 97

Therefore, in the above Example 6.3, the reset “wins”. The program is said to behave
R-dominantly. Example 6.4 is primarily setting, S-dominant.
However, the inputs are also not read in directly in the program. Here, the values are
read into the “process image of the inputs” (PII register, german: PAE) at the start of the
cycle. In order to have clear conditions during a cycle, even if an input is queried several
times during a program cycle, the input values of all input terminals are only ever read into
the “Process image of inputs” (PII) immediately before the start of each program cycle.
During the program run, the input values are always read from the PII. Changes made to
the inputs in the meantime do not take effect immediately, but only in the next program
cycle, after they have been transferred to the PII. This means that the same input can be
queried several times in one cycle, and it always has the same value.
As a disadvantage, it should be noted that this means that the shortest, reliably recog-
nizable input pulse must have the length of the cycle duration. Shorter pulses can simply
be “swallowed” if they do not last until the next takeover point.
It is often common to refer to the inputs and outputs as “peripherals”, as opposed to the
variables in the instruction list and process images.
The operation of the PLC is shown in Fig. 6.6. Compared to Fig. 5.8, the process image
registers are now also drawn in. This storage of the inputs and outputs in the PII or PIO is
carried out by most PLCs. Depending on the automation device, different procedures are
implemented to address the inputs or outputs either via intermediate memories or directly
as peripheral connections. The latter can be done by allocating certain memory or address
areas, by appropriate configuration, by using special commands, etc.
If the PLC does not provide any process images or if they cannot be used in the specific
case, we can also take care of the storage ourselves by first applying the set/reset to flags
and only transferring the (last) flag state to the output at the end of the cycle. With the help
of the flags, we construct our own PIO, so to speak! Correspondingly, we can also use flags
to construct a replacement for a PII. You will investigate this in the next task:

Exercise 6.5 (RS62)

Test the two different circuits from Fig. 6.7 with the PLC. Also compare especially the
behaviour of the two solutions when both pushbuttons are pressed simultaneously!
Observe the assignments to the flags by means of the logic analyzer and in step mode
and compare them with the assignments to the outputs! Give reasons for the designa-
tions: priority resetting and priority setting. How can you recognize the respective
property in the function block diagram or in the instruction list?

This example shows how the problems of the sequential, cyclic behavior of a PLC can
be avoided with a direct assignment even without PII/PIO: by assigning the “intermedi-
ate results” to the flag Memo1 or Memo2. Through this indirect assignment, the last
executed instruction “wins”; in one case the reset, in the other the set.
98 6 Logical Memory Circuits

Starting the PLC

Operating system is loading

Flags, timer, counters,

input and output images

PII: Create process input image INPUTS

Control program

1.Instruction
2.Instruction
3.Instruction MEMORY

Last Instruction

POI: Transfer process output image OUTPUTS

Fig. 6.6 Input image PII and output image PIO (for Exercise 6.5)

Fig. 6.7 Circuits for Resetting Priority

Exercise 6.5

Setting Priority
6.6 Level Control of a Vessel 99

Exercise 6.6

Which of the two circuits in Exercise 6.1 mentioned above is primarily resetting, and
which is primarily setting?

6.6 Level Control of a Vessel

The fill level of the vessel in Fig. 6.8 is to be kept between a minimum and a maximum
value with the help of a PLC. A button opens valve V3. The container is emptied via valve
V3 as long as the button remains pressed.
The control system ensures the required fill level by interrogating the sensors (limit value
transmitters) LIS1 and LIS2. The inlet valve V1 is opened as soon as the level drops below
the level of LIS1. The valve is only closed again when the level has reached the limit switch
LIS2. The signals of the limit switches LIS are ‘1’ when they are immersed in liquid.

Assignment list:
LIS1 Lower limit switch %IX0.1
LIS2 Upper limit switch %IX0.2
V1 Inlet valve %QX0.1
V3 Bottom valve %QX0.3
Sw1 Discharge switch %IX0.7

Example 6.5 (Level)

The level control can be realized with the following program part:
LDN LIS1 (* tank empty *)
S V1 (* then fill (saving!) *)
LD LIS2 (* tank full *)
R V1 (* then end fill *)

Exercise 6.7 (TANK61)

Create the logic diagram according to the instruction list given in Example 6.5 and
program the PLC for the “level control” task. Test the control on the process engineer-

Fig. 6.8 Vessel with sensors

for level monitoring
100 6 Logical Memory Circuits

ing model (process “Niveau” or “level”). For emptying, you can press the manual
pushbutton at V3. Check whether operating states can occur in which the conditions
for setting and resetting occur simultaneously. In this case, the valve V1 could “chat-
ter”. Specify which malfunctions in the encoders can lead to impermissible operat-
ing states!
Expansion:
With two separate pushbuttons the draining is to be switched on (set) and off
(reset) via V3.

6.7 Alarm Circuit 4

An alarm circuit is intended to alert the operating personnel of a plant to dangerous or

special operating conditions. In most cases, manual intervention in the process sequence
is required. The alarm is triggered by a signal emitted by the process, usually by a horn or/
and a light signal. The “acknowledgement signal”, which the plant operator emits by
pressing a button, is intended to confirm the alarm. The acknowledgement usually switches
off the horn and switches on or over the light signal.
In this application, one-time or short pulses must be detected. Therefore they must be
stored. Whether this storage is programmed as priority setting or priority resetting depends
on the respective application. If a fault is signalled, the fault signal should be retained as
long as the fault has not ended, even if the acknowledgement button is pressed or even
blocked in the pressed position. The fault signal must therefore be programmed with prior-
ity setting, and thus only after the reset! Accordingly, the acknowledgement signal must be
implemented as primarily resetting.

Exercise 6.8 (ALARM61)2

Figure 6.9 shows a very simple alarm circuit. The signal S “Fault” is to switch on a horn
H (horn), which can only be switched off again by an acknowledgement key “Quitt”.
Create the instruction list in such a way that, if a fault exists, the horn remains in func-
tion despite the acknowledgement key being pressed. The fault signal becomes effec-
tive at bit %ix1.1, i.e. in byte 1. In the simulation program, you can open the
“Standard I/O” process a second time and switch the byte number by clicking with the
mouse on the small digit at the bottom.
Assignment list:
Receipt %IX0.6
Fault %IX1.0

2
The drawing associated with this exercise (Fig. 6.9) is not complete. It is part of your “homework”
to complete the drawing for this and many other exercises.
6.8 Signal Memories as Function Blocks 101

Fig. 6.9 Circuit for

Acknowledgement
Exercise 6.8
Fault

Exercise 6.9 (ALARM62)

A horn is to be switched on by pushbuttons from three different switching points. An

acknowledgement button is to switch the horn off again at each of these switching
points. Create the circuit with PLC.

Exercise 6.10 (ALARM63)

Extension of Exercise 6.9: It shall be possible to identify by means of three lights from
which reporting point the alarm was triggered.

6.8 Signal Memories as Function Blocks

This manual work described in the previous section for the use of flip-flop circuits is not
necessary with a PLC according to IEC 61131-3. This is because the flip-flop types are
included as so-called function blocks. Such a function block independently manages the
necessary actions to achieve the priority set or reset.
The priority resetting memory element is called RS-flip-flop and the priority setting one
is called SR-flip-flop. In the graphical representation (Fig. 6.10), the names inside the rect-
angle are at the top. The names at the inputs and the output within the rectangle are the
names of the “formal parameters”. The function block uses these names internally. The
inputs are on the left and the outputs on the right. The appended digit “1” indicates the
priority. Outside the rectangle, you can write the names of the signal variables that you use
in your program itself. These are called the “actual parameters”.

Fig. 6.10 Function blocks: Resetting Priority Setting Priority

priority resetting and priority
setting flip-flop
102 6 Logical Memory Circuits

6.9 Use of Function Modules

The application of function modules takes place in four steps:

1. Define module Instantiate

Make module available
2. Pass parameters Parameterize
Supply module with values
module reads in values
3. Execute module Call
module works
4. Read out output values Results
module outputs values
Values can be used
You can see here the “IPO” model generally known in computer technology: in step 2
the block reads in values (I), in step 3 these are processed (P) and in step 4 the block out-
puts the results (O).

Step 1: Instantiation
You cannot call the function blocks directly, but you have to create a so-called “instance”
for the application. This is much easier than it reads here and goes like assigning the sym-
bolic names to the variable types in the declaration part of the program.
While you specify the data type (e.g. BOOL) for variables, you must specify the func-
tion module type to instantiate a function module. This type is the abbreviated name at the
top of the graphical display, for example RS or SR.
The effect of instantiation is basically the same for variables and function blocks: for
variables, an instance is created which is a memory location of type “BOOL”. After instan-
tiation, the function blocks occupy memory space for variables as well as references to
functions for the actions that can be performed.
In the example, an instance of a priority-setting memory block is created. You can
choose the instance name “FlipFlop” as you like:

PROGRAM Pulser
VAR
FlipFlop: SR
END_VAR

Step 2: Parameterization
Before calling the function block in the program (see step 3), you must transfer the values
for the inputs to the function block! This is called “parameterizing”. You can parameterize
in two different ways in the instruction list:
6.9 Use of Function Modules 103

a) Call with loading and saving of input parameters

However, you can also save the actual parameters in the formal parameters before calling
them. This has the advantage that the actual parameters are processed immediately when
they are created.
In the memory commands, the instance name is specified separately with a dot before
the formal parameter name. When the block is called later, no more parameters are passed:

LD a
ST FlipFlop.R (* Prepare reset *)
LD b
ST FlipFlop.S1 (* Prepare setting *)

b) Call with the list of input parameters

This method combines steps 2 and 3. When you call it (see step 3), you pass a list with
the actual parameters. The operating system then supplies the formal parameters with the
current values (see step 2).
In the parenthesis after the instance name of the function block, specify the name of the
formal parameter followed by the string “:=”. Then the actual value is specified, in this
case the identifier of direct PLC inputs. This notation allows you to see the parameter sup-
ply “at a glance”. This notation is not possible in PLC-lite.

CAL FlipFlop (R:=a, S1:=b)

Step 3: Call in the program

You call the function block in the program using the CAL operator. This function module
call executes it, i.e. the output signals are determined from the currently applied input
signals and the intermediate values stored in the function module.

CAL FlipFlop (* execute function block *)

Step 4: Using the output values

You can use the LD operator to read the output values from the function block into the
current result and then use them as required, for example, to send them to a PLC output.

LD FlipFlop.Q1
ST x
104 6 Logical Memory Circuits

Fig. 6.11 Circuit for Acknowledgement

Exercise 6.11 Fault

The instruction list must always contain both instructions (set and reset), because
every flip-flop that has been set must also be reset at some point.

Exercise 6.11 (ALARM64)

Examine the alarm circuit 4 (Fig. 6.11). When does the lamp light and when does the
siren sound? Also make sure whether the flip-flops should be programmed primarily
setting or resetting. Initialisation with the value “0” (“I = 0”) is achieved without fur-
ther action.
Complete the time diagram from Fig. 6.12!
Use the “Boiler” process in PLC-lite. You can generate a fault using the manual but-
ton for the heating.

Assignment list:
Acknowledge Acknowledge key %IX0.6
Fault Fault signal %IX1.0
Lamp Indicator lamp %QX1.0
Horn warning signal %QX0.7

6.10 Control for Filling and Emptying a Measuring Vessel

In chemical process engineering, the individual components must be precisely dosed.

Liquids are measured in a vessel. A control system ensures that the vessel is filled pre-
cisely. The measuring vessel is always completely filled and completely emptied; this
ensures an exact liquid measurement. In the following tasks, you will develop a control
system for a measuring vessel.

Fault
Ack

Fig. 6.12 Time diagram for Exercise 6.11

6.10 Control for Filling and Emptying a Measuring Vessel 105

Fig. 6.13 Measuring vessel

for Exercise 6.12

Exercise 6.12 (TANK62)

The measuring vessel (Fig. 6.13) is to be controlled in such a way that water flows in via
solenoid valve V1 after an impulse is given via a “Fill” button until the “Full” state is sig-
nalled by limit switch LIS2. (“Empty” we program only in the next exercise!) The LIS
give signal “1” when immersed in liquid. Create the logic diagram and instruction list. Use
the flip-flop function blocks SR or RS for storage! (Process: “Tanks (small)”)

Assignment list:
Start filling tank (manual switch) %IX0.7
LIS2 Upper limit switch %IX0.2
V1 Inlet valve %QX0.1

Exercise 6.13 (TANK63)

Extend the program from Exercise 6.12 so that when a pulse is given via the “Empty” but-
ton, the vessel is emptied via valve V3 until LIS1 signals “Empty”, i.e. LIS1 supplies a
“0” signal.

Assignment list (in addition to previous exercise):

S1 Drain container (manual switch) %IX0.6
LIS1 Lower limit switch %IX0.1
V3 Exhaust valve %QX0.3

Even this solution still shows weaknesses: If you press the Empty button before the
vessel is completely full, the water runs through. Now it is possible that neither the upper
limit value LIS2 nor the lower limit value LIS1 is reached: the system is blocked!

Exercise 6.14 (TANK64)

Emptying during exercise TANK63 should only be possible when the tank is com-
pletely full (LIS2 in liquid). Conversely, filling should also only be possible when the
tank is completely empty (LIS1 not in liquid). Test your program thoroughly and also
check if during the filling process it is not possible to empty and during the emptying
process it is not possible to fill! Correct it if necessary.
106 6 Logical Memory Circuits

At this point we would like to remind you of Sect. 2.7 “AND operation as data
switch”. You can use the AND operation to switch off data paths and thus prevent inputs
from becoming effective. You can use these gate circuits to mutually interlock signals
in this task and thus, for example, prevent boiler draining from starting before the boiler
is completely filled.
Investigate whether the two memory flip-flops must be priority resetting or priority
setting. Draw the logic diagram for this task as well!

Exercise 6.15 (TANK65)

With the same arrangement as in the previous Exercise 6.14, the manual button for
emptying should now be omitted. The vessel should be emptied automatically as soon
as it is full.
Create the associated logic diagram, instruction list and test your program with the
PLC and the process engineering process model.
Check how the system behaves when the “Fill” button is held down (blocked in the
pressed position) for the entire time!

Exercise 6.16 (SWITCH61)

Try to program a “push-button switch”: alternately, pressing one push-button (not two
push-buttons!) should switch a lamp on and off again. So: the same pushbutton is used
both to switch on and to switch off the lamp (as is usual, for example, with bed-
side lamps).
Notice:
This task is difficult to realize with the present knowledge; in Sect. 12.1 a systematic
solution possibility is shown by programming as “sequence control”. However, it is
worthwhile to try this problem now (without “cheating” at the back) in order to see the
advantages of the systematic approach all the better later.
Timers with PLC
7

Abstract

In very many processes, an event must last for a very specific time. The controller must
then run for a certain time like a stopwatch in response to a start signal. At the end of
this time, further actions must be triggered by the program. With a PLC, you can set
times from 1/100 s and less to 1 h and more.
In this chapter we will show you how to select and use the appropriate timer types
for different tasks in the PLC.

In a PLC there are several different types of timers that can be set and started indepen-
dently of each other at different times and differ in their response to the start pulse.
In order for the timers to operate independently of each other, they must each have their
own memory area for the internal variables. Timers are therefore “function blocks” in the
same way as the RS and SR flip-flop signal memories.

7.1 Timer for Pulses

First we consider only the “simple” timer function (Fig. 7.1): the timer has an output
which carries ‘1’ signal as long as the time is running and ‘0’ signal when the time has
expired. So this timer generates a pulse. According to the standard, its designation is
“pulse” or TP (“timer pulse”). It is a function block; it must therefore be instantiated,
parameterized and called in a similar way to the flip-flop already discussed.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 107
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_7
108 7 Timers with PLC

Fig. 7.1 Pulse function block Pulse

The timer has the input “IN” for start/stop and runs as long as this start/stop
input is ‘1’.
The second input “PT” is used to set the time. Time values (e.g. 100 ms) must be
applied to this input. To load the time values into the current result in the PLC program,
use the LD command as before.1
The instruction is called: LD Value1. For Value1 you can enter t#1000 ms for a
time of 1.0 s, for example. For more information on which time values can be used in PLC-
lite, refer to Chap. 16 in Table 16.4.
You call the timer with its instance name. The parameterization is carried out as already
learned with the flip-flops by the prior assignment of the current parameter values to the
formal parameters. You can query output Q with the LD operator. To access the inputs/
outputs of the instance, first specify the instance name as usual, followed by a period and
then the name of the input or output.

Example 7.1 (Pulses)

Program example for calling the “Timer” function block after loading and saving the
input parameters:

PROGRAM Pulses
VAR
Start AT %IX0.0: bool
Lamp AT %QX0.0: bool
Pulse : TP
END_VAR
LD Start
ST Pulse.IN
LD t#1000ms
ST Pulse.PT ◄

1
This property that the LD operator can process different data types is called “overloaded”. You then
simply store the loaded number to the desired location using the ST command, for example to the
Impulse.PT input of the timer. The ST operator is also overloaded and can handle multiple data
types! See Sect. 8.1 for more information on data types.
7.1 Timer for Pulses 109

Fig. 7.2 Time diagram for

Exercise 7.1 (MIXER71)

CAL Pulse
LD Pulse.Q
ST Lamp
END_PROGRAM

Have you noticed that a number entered as time is preceded by the character “t#”? You
can specify the time unit in any combination of ms, s, m, h, or d (milliseconds, seconds,
minutes, hours, or days).

To use the pulse timer, you must first instantiate it. After supplying the parameters,
the timer is called by the CAL operator.

Exercise 7.1 (MIXER71)

After pressing a start button, a agitator should run for three seconds. Program the agita-
tor control and test the behaviour. Use the time diagram Fig. 7.2!
Shorten and extend the runtime! How is the timing influenced by the pushbutton?
Check in particular the behaviour of the circuit when the pushbutton is released prema-
turely or pressed several times within the time! Describe in words the processes
involved in this control! Note: Use the “Boiler” process! Complete the time diagram (1
graduation mark = 1 s)!

Exercise 7.2 (MIXER72)

There should be an indicator light on while the agitator is running.

Exercise 7.3 (MIXER73)

The agitator in Exercise 7.2 should now continue to run even if the time has expired but
the button is still pressed. The lamp should only light up as long as the timer is running.
(Do not forget to draw the function chart).
Extend the program so that you can reset the output at any time with a second switch.
110 7 Timers with PLC

Fig. 7.3 Measuring vessel

7.2 Filling and Emptying with Time Control

With the control to the measuring vessel in Fig. 7.3, many time-dependent tasks can occur.
Perhaps the vessel must not be emptied immediately after filling because the liquid must
first settle, or the valve must not be closed immediately after emptying so that, depending
on the viscosity of the substance, the vessel can run completely empty.

Assignment list:
S1 Drain tank %IX0.6
S2 Fill measuring vessel %IX0.7
LIS1 Lower limit switch %IX0.1
LIS2 Upper limit switch %IX0.2
V1 Inlet valve %QX0.1
V3 Bottom valve %QX0.3
Horn horn %QX0.7

Exercise 7.4 (TANK71)

The measuring vessel in Fig. 7.3 shall be filled. As soon as it is full, a horn signal should
sound for one second. Only after this time has elapsed may emptying be possible.

Exercise 7.5 (TANK72)

After the measuring vessel has been emptied, valve V3 should remain open for another
three seconds so that the boiler can run completely empty. Only after this time has
elapsed may the filling/emptying process be possible again.

In Exercise 7.5, encoder LIS1 must be interrogated several times. It may happen that
the container runs empty exactly between the two queries, so that LIS1 supplies different
values in each case. In a PLC, these peripheral values are usually not transferred to the
variables directly during the current cycle, but before the start of a new cycle (see Sect.
6.5), so that this case cannot cause a fault.
7.3 Flashing Lights and Oscillating Circuits 111

7.3 Flashing Lights and Oscillating Circuits

With two different timers a circuit can be realized, which oscillates independently. The
first timer is started when the second one is not running (anymore); the second one is
started when the first one has run out: the timers switch each other.

Example 7.2 (Oscillating Circuit Incorrect)

The following program example seems to do that:

program OscillatorERROR
var
Pulse1: TP
Pulse2: TP
Lamp AT %QX0.0: bool
end_var
ld t#1000ms (* set times *)
st Pulse1.pt
st Pulse2.pt
ldn Pulse2.q (* is Timer2 running? *)
st Pulse1.in (* if no Start Timer1 *)
ldn Pulse1.q (* is Timer1 running? *)
st Pulse2.in (* if no start Timer2 *)
cal Pulse1 (* call timer *)
cal Pulse2
ld Pulse1.q
st Lamp
end_program ◄

Exercise 7.6 (FLASH71)

Test the program Example 7.2. Find out that it does not work correctly, although the
program seems to be correct according to the reasoning from above. To find the error
try to find out how the timers start at the very beginning of the program and what hap-
pens when a timer runs out!
You can systematically track down the error if you “step through” the program in
single steps (Fig. 7.4). In this case, the timers in PLC-lite are controlled so that they run
in time with the individual steps. They do not run in real time, but are stopped as long
as you leave the program in one step.
Check the times at which the timers are started or updated.
112 7 Timers with PLC

Fig. 7.4 PLC-lite in step mode for Exercise 7.6

In Fig. 7.4 the program OscillatorERROR in PLC-lite is running in single step

mode. Each click on “Step” executes another instruction of the instruction list. In the
example we have arrived at line 17. The next step would execute timer 2 with
cal pulse2.
In the “Watch expressions” window you can see that Timer Pulse1 has already been
started and has the output value IMPULS1.Q = “1”. With the next step Timer Pulse2
will be started and then its output IMPULS2.Q will also = “1”. So at the end of the first
cycle both timers are running: blinking is impossible this way! You see: the timers are
always updated when they are called with cal Timer.... Until the next call, the initial
value is maintained. At the beginning of the first cycle none of the timers is started, so in
the first cycle already all both timers get the start signal. The running light cannot work
like this!
The solution to this problem is simple: the problem here is that pulse1 is polled
before it is updated with the cal pulse1 command. You can work around this prob-
lem if you start the timers as soon as the conditions are met, i.e. You keep exactly to
7.4 Alarm Circuit 5 113

the sequence IPO (input – processing – output) and if possible do not insert any other
steps in between:

ldn pulse2.q
st Pulse1.in (* I: Enter value *)
cal Pulse1 (* P: process in timer *)
ldn Pulse1.q (* O: Output result *)
st Pulse2.in
cal Pulse2

Now, when pulse1 is requested (even in the very first cycle!), timer1 is already started,
and the program does not start timer2 and starts up correctly immediately.

The timers are updated when they are called with cal Timer. The initial state
Timer.q is retained until the next call.

The following applies to the duty cycle k and the oscillation frequency f:

Duty cycle T1
k
Total duration T1 T2 (7.1)

1 1
f (7.2)
Total duration T1 T2

Exercise 7.7 (FLASH72)

Program the PLC for a flashing light and test the program!
Determine frequency and duty cycle! Change both values, also independently of
each other. Also add buttons to start and stop the flasher.
Extend the program to an “alternating blinker”, i.e. two lights blink alternately!

7.4 Alarm Circuit 5

Exercise 7.8 (ALARM71)

Analyze the function of the alarm circuit 5 (Fig. 7.5), complete the timing diagram
Fig. 7.6 and program the PLC!
114 7 Timers with PLC

Acknowledgement
Fault

Fig. 7.5 Circuit for Exercises 7.8 and 7.9

Fig. 7.6 Time diagram for

Exercises 7.8 and 7.9 Fault
Ack

Exercise 7.9 (ALARM72)

Extend the alarm circuit 5 from Exercise 7.8 in such a way that the horn stops immedi-
ately after the acknowledgement is pressed, but the lamp continues to flash for another
5 seconds and only then changes to a continuous light if the fault still persists!

7.5 Using Multiple Timers: Chasers

A chaser is a chain of lights that alternately light up one after the other. The circuit for
controlling these lights has several outputs; as many as there are lights to be controlled.
The circuit can also be thought of as a generator with several outputs, which emits succes-
sive pulses on the various outputs.
We want to approach this topic, which at first does not seem so difficult, in steps. First
of all, we will build a “mini running light” consisting of only two lamps which are to flash
alternately (Fig. 7.7).

Fig. 7.7 Generator with two outputs and example of output pulses (cf. Exercise 7.7)
7.5 Using Multiple Timers: Chasers 115

The extension of Exercise 7.7 to the “alternating indicator” is exactly this task! We go
back to this and in Example 7.3 we go straight to the extension to three lights.

Example 7.3 (Running Light with Three Lamps)

For the extension to three lamps, the quick solution is to simply add the third pulse3 to
the program from Exercise 7.7:

program Flash73ERROR
var
Pulse1: TP
Pulse2: TP
Pulse3: TP
Lamp1 AT %
QX0. 0: BOOL
Lamp2 AT %QX0.1: BOOL
Lamp3 AT %QX0.2: BOOL
end_var
ld t#1s
st Pulse1.pt
st Pulse2.pt
st Pulse3.pt

ldn Pulse3.q (* Test Pulse3 *)

st Pulse1.in
cal Pulse1
ldn Pulse1.q (* Test Pulse1 *)
st Pulse2.in
cal Pulse2
ldn Pulse2.q (* Test Pulse2 *)
st Pulse3.in
cal Pulse3

ld Pulse1.q
st Lamp1
ld Pulse2.q
st Lamp2
ld Pulse3.q
st Lamp3
end_program ◄

But this does not work: When starting a timer you always have to check if both other tim-
ers are running!
116 7 Timers with PLC

Fig. 7.8 Generator with three

outputs and example of
output pulses

Exercise 7.10 (FLASH73)

Now create a program for a running light with three LEDs (Fig. 7.8). Perhaps you can
also extend it to more lights?

7.6 Timer with Switch-On Delay

We consider a further timer. In this case, the output signal Q only becomes logic ‘1’ after
a delay time, provided that the input signal is still present. After that, the output remains
‘1’ as long as the input signal is ‘1’ (Fig. 7.9).
This timing element passes on the input pulse only after a certain delay time has
elapsed. On the other hand, this can also be seen as suppressing (too) short input pulses.
You can study the time sequences with the help of the Logic Analyzer. Figure 7.10
shows an exemplary sequence: The upper line shows the input signal, the lower line the
signal at the output.
Do you recognize that the output signal only appears after a certain time? The output
signal becomes ‘0’ when the input also becomes ‘0’. If the input signal is too short, no
reaction at all appears at the output.

Fig. 7.9 Timer with switch-

on delay

Fig. 7.10 Time diagram in the Logic Analyzer

7.7 Start/Stop Oscillator with only One Timing Element 117

Exercise 7.11 (FLASH75)

Test the following program Example 7.4. Attention, after program start nothing should
be visible in the standard process at first. Only when you have held the button at %Q0.0
for at least one second does the lamp start to light up.
Observe how long the output %q0.0 remains logically ‘1’ when you release the
key again.
Test this timer extensively to try out other possible applications in the following
exercises. Also use the Step Mode and the Logic Analyzer!

Example 7.4 (Switch-On Delay)

Program SwitchOn
var
Pulse: TON
Start AT %IX0.0: bool
Lamp AT %QX0.0: bool
end_var
ld Start
st Pulse.IN
ld t#1000ms
st Pulse.PT
cal Pulse (* Start timer *)
ld Pulse.Q
st Lamp
end_program ◄

7.7 Start/Stop Oscillator with only One Timing Element

You can already build a generator, but it has the disadvantage that it requires two timers.
In this section we will learn about a generator circuit with only a single timer. The circuit
works with the on-delay and a “feedback” from the output to the input.
Look again at the “on-delay” timer. Remember how it works: if a ‘1’ is present at input
IN, then output Q becomes ‘1’ at the end of the delay time. If you apply a ‘0’ to the input
shortly after this ‘1’ appears, the output also becomes ‘0’ again immediately.
Now we start the game over again and put a ‘1’ at the input again. What happens?
Exactly, the output becomes ‘1’ again, but not immediately, but only after the delay time.
If now the input becomes ‘0’ again, the ‘1’ at the output is over: there is only a (short)
pulse at the output!
118 7 Timers with PLC

Fig. 7.11 Circuit “Start/stop

Oscillator with only one timing
element” for Example 7.5
(pulses)

We now make this the method, and always apply the output signal negated to the input.
Then we have the circuit shown in Fig. 7.11. The fact that this circuit actually generates
pulses all the time will be examined in more detail in a moment. But first the circuit as
PLC-instruction list:

Example 7.5 (Pulses)

Program code “Start/Stop generator with only one timer”: This program emits regular
pulses, but they are of very short duration.

Program Pulses
var
Pulse: TON
Lamp AT %QX0.0: bool
end_var
ldn Pulse.Q (* output negates load and *)
st Pulse.IN (* feed back to the input *)
ld t#500ms
st Pulse.PT
cal Pulse (* Start timer *)
ld Pulse.Q
st Lamp
end_program ◄

The Example 7.5 must be analyzed in more detail. For this purpose, we will now
describe the mode of operation step by step. Follow the program run with the aid of
Table 7.1.
We consider the nth cycle. This is the last cycle where the output is still ‘0’. Because of
ldn Pulse.Q there is a ‘1’ at Pulse.IN. As soon as the delay time of the timer has
expired, the output Pulse.Q becomes ‘1’ when cal Pulse is processed. In the follow-
ing cycle, ldn Pulse.Q is used to apply this signal inverted (i.e. as ‘0’) to input Pulse.
IN. But only when the instruction cal Pulse is reached, the output of the timer will
become ‘0’.
7.8 Note on the Display of Very Short Pulses 119

Table 7.1 Transitions after the delay time has elapsed

n. Cycle n + 1. Cycle n + 2. Cycle
ldn Pulse.Q Output is ‘0’ Output is ‘1’ Output is ‘0’
st Pulse.IN Delay time running Timer is Delay time starts again
stopped
cal pulses Output becomes ‘1’ when Output becomes Output becomes ‘1’ when time
time has elapsed ‘0’ has elapsed

The timer therefore had the output at ‘1’ for exactly one cycle! From the next cycle, the
delay time starts to run again, because the Pulse.IN input now receives a ‘1’ again.

Exercise 7.12 (FLASH76)

Write the sample program 7.5 ‘Pulse’ and test it in step mode.
The pulse duration is exactly a PLC cycle duration. Therefore you will only be able
to observe something at output %q0.0 in step mode or with the help of the logic
analyzer.

7.8 Note on the Display of Very Short Pulses

You can make the pulses visible in any case by extending them with a pulse. You can do
this with the example program 7.6.

Example 7.6 (ImpulseLang)

This following example program “PulseLong” emits regular pulses whose pulse dura-
tion has been extended by means of the timer LED and thus becomes perceptible:

Program PulseLong
var
LED: TP (* pulse extender *)
Pulse: TON
Lamp AT %QX0.0: bool
end_var
ldn Pulse.Q (* output negates load and *)
st Pulse.IN (* feed back to the input *)
ld t#500ms
st Pulse.PT ◄
120 7 Timers with PLC

cal Pulse (* Start timer *)

ld t#150ms (* extend pulse duration *)
st LED.PT
ld Pulse.Q
st LED.IN
cal LED
ld LED.Q (* output of the LED timer *)
st Lamp
end_program

In Sect. 8.7 we will “count” the pulses with a counter and thus make them indirectly
visible.
Counter with PLC
8

Abstract

Counting functions are required to implement many control tasks (e.g. quantity or piece
count evaluations, evaluation of times, speeds or distances). The counters installed in
the automation device can be operated as up or down counters.
In this chapter we will look at counters and data types for numbers.
Up to Chap. 6 we had used exclusively logical datatypes: the values of variables,
in- and outputs had only the values ‘1’ (‘true’) or ‘0’ (‘false’). In the program header,
these variables were designated with the type ‘Bool’. For the type Bool, one memory
bit is sufficient, e.g. %IX0.0.
In Chap. 7 “Time functions” another data type was added: times. Times are not logi-
cal values, so they are not of type ‘Bool’; but we had always specified them directly as
constants in the program, but never used them as variables. Since we didn’t use time
variables, we didn’t have to declare them in the program header, so we didn’t need to
know that they were designated with type ‘Time’.

8.1 Data Types

With the counters, however, we cannot avoid using another data type, namely “numbers”
also as variables, which must be declared in the program header. We have already dealt
with numbers in the first chapter of this book. From Table 1.2 you can see the position
values of the dual numbers.
If 8 digits are used, then the largest number that can be represented is:
2 7 26 2 5 2 4 23 2 2 21 2 0 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 255

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 121
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_8
122 8 Counter with PLC

The PLC can therefore represent the number range in 0…255 a 8 bit = 1 Byte large
memory. This data type is called “unsigned short integer” or “integer” according to IEC
61131: USINT (unsigned short integer). We will explain what ‘unsigned’ means a lit-
tle later.
These byte values can be declared to %IB0 for the lowest input byte or %QB0 for the
lowest output byte:1

var
Number8bitIn AT %IB0: USINT (* with data type *)
Number8bitOut AT %QB0: USINT
end_var

01000011USINT = 67dez (8.1)

10000011USINT = 131dez (8.2)

From the pure memory values alone the PLC cannot recognize whether it is a matter of
eight individual logical values (bit sequence) or whether the 8 bits mean a USINT number.
Therefore, the type specification is indispensable in the declaration.
If a 16 bit = 1 word-sized memory is used, the number range from 0 to
(215 + 214 + … + 20) = 65535 can be represented. The data type is called UINT as abbrevia-
tion of ‘unsigned integer’: These 16 bit values are declared as %IW0 for the lowest input
word or %QW0 for the lowest output word:

var
Number16bitIn AT %IW0: UINT
Number16bitOut AT %QW0: UINT
end_var

The relationship between the memory values for bit, byte and word with the appropri-
ate numbers can be seen in Fig. 8.1. Because two bytes make a word, %IB1 and %IB0
together denote the same inputs as %IW0.
We can not only address a single bit as before (%IXa.b or %QXa.b), but a whole
“byte”, i.e. 8 bits at once or even a whole “word” with 16 bits! The “lowest” word has the
number 0 and is addressed with %IW0 or %QW0. The next higher word is addressed with
%IW1 or %QW1.
If you want to represent not only positive but also negative numbers, this is not so easy,
because there is no memory for a ‘minus’ or ‘plus’ sign: only bits can be represented. As
a way out, the following agreement is made: if the first digit is a ‘0’, then the following bits

1
Note on the two-digit notation for a single bit: The dot is preceded by the byte address; the number
following the dot indicates the position of the bit within that byte. Thus, the specification %IX1.0
addresses bit number 0 in the input byte %IB1.
8.1 Data Types 123

Fig. 8.1 Relationship between

bit, byte and word

are to be interpreted as positive numbers. But if the number starts with a ‘1’, then it should
be a negative number. The first bit serves as a “sign”. The representable number range for
8 bits now extends from −128 … 0 … + 127. This data type is called a “short inte-
ger”: SINT.2
Also the signed number can be declared with %IB0 for the lowest input byte or %QB0
for the lowest output byte:

var
SignNumber8bitIn AT %IB0: SINT
SignCount8bitOut AT %QB0: SINT
end_var

01000011SINT = 67dez (8.3)

10000011SINT 126 dez (8.4)

The same bit sequence 10000011 resulted in a different decimal value as USINT type! The
data types USINT (unsigned number) or SINT (signed number) can correspond to differ-
ent decimal values for the same bit sequence. It is therefore of utmost importance not to
confuse the data types.
The signed 16-bit numbers are “integer numbers” of the data type INT, whose value
range extends from −32768 … 0 … + 32767. The values are declared with %IW0 for
the lowest input word or %QW0 for the lowest output word:

var
SignNumber16bitIn AT %IW0: INT
SignCount16bitOut AT %QW0: INT
end_var

Numbers with the length of 32 bits form the data types ‘double integer’ DINT or
‘unsigned double integer’ UDINT or ‘double word’ DWORD. The 64 bit long data types

2
We will not cover in this book how to calculate the negative number from the bit sequence. If you
want to know more about this, you can look up the term “two’s complement” in e.g. Wikipedia.
124 8 Counter with PLC

Table 8.1 Data types in the PLC

ANY_NUM
Length (bit) Signed Unsigned ANY_BIT
1 – – BOOL
8 SINT USINT BYTE
16 INT UINT WORD
32 DINT UDINT DWORD
64 LINT ULINT LWORD

are: ‘long integer’ LINT or ‘unsigned long integer’ ULINT and ‘long word’ LWORD (cf.
Table 8.1).
IEC 61131 summarizes the arithmetic number types in a superordinate type ANY_NUM
and the binary bit sequence types in ANY_BIT. Chapter 16, Table 16.5 lists the data types
available in PLC-lite.
To load the numerical values into the current result in the PLC program, use the LD
instruction as before, regardless of the respective data type. The instruction is called e.g.
LD Value1. You have already become acquainted with the property that the LD operator
can be overloaded in the previous Chap. 7 (see footnote in Sect. 7.1). In this chapter,
USINT values are processed.
In the step mode of PLC-lite you can read the assignment of the different data types
with the current values in the window ‘Watch Expressions’. In particular, you can track
which data types are in the ‘Current Result’ (CR) in each case.
You then simply save the loaded number to the desired location using the ST instruc-
tion, for example to the output %QB1. The instruction is called, for example: ST Out.
The ST operator is also overloaded and can process several data types!

Example 8.1

Program integer
var
Value AT %IB0: SINT
Out AT %QB0: SINT
end_var
ld Value
st Out
end_program ◄

Exercise 8.1 (INOUT81)

You can use the program from Example 8.1 (Fig. 8.2) to try out reading in and output-
ting the numbers. Use the other data types as well!
Use both the standard I/O and the hexadecimal digit display (process “HEX Output”).
Compare the numbers in the dual with the hexadecimal display.
8.2 Type Conversions 125

Fig. 8.2 PLC-lite in step mode for Exercise 8.1 (INOUT81)

You can load all processes at the same time. By clicking on the small digit, you can
switch the byte number via which the process is to be “connected” to the PLC. Adjust
the byte number accordingly in the program!

8.2 Type Conversions

Example 8.2 (Assignment of Different Data Types)

Program integer
var
Value AT %IB0: USINT
Out AT %QB0: SINT
end_var
ld Value
st Out
end_program ◄
126 8 Counter with PLC

Exercise 8.2 (INOUT82)

Test the program from Example 8.2!

In Example 8.2 a runtime error occurs because of the assignment of Value (type:
USINT) to Out (type: SINT). This behavior did not exist in the “old” PLCs, it was only
introduced with IEC 61131.
This is a bit annoying at first, especially since the 8.2 program would work completely
correctly depending on the numerical values. But it turns out to be a great help in practice:
In a certain range of numbers, SINT and USINT are the same. It could therefore be that
the error situation does not occur at all in the test phase (by chance), but later in operation
other numerical values occur, which then lead to a functional error. The type checking
performed in IEC 61131 makes the PLC programs safer by detecting such programming
errors in good time.
But there are situations conceivable, where bit sequences have to be considered as num-
bers of different types. However, the programmer knows this and can also carry it out
consciously. The standard provides type conversion functions for this purpose. For exam-
ple USINT_TO_SINT in Example 8.3.
These type conversions do not take place automatically in a PLC according to IEC
61131, but only after explicit programming. This clearly places the responsibility on the
programmer to ensure that the conversion does not cause any errors in the specific case.
We will return to this issue later in Exercise 8.4 and in Exercise 8.8.

Example 8.3 (Assignment after Conversion of the Data Type)

Program IntegerType
var
Value AT %IB0: USINT
Out AT %QB0: SINT
end_var
ld Value
USINT_TO_SINT (* Data type conversion *)
st Out
end_program ◄

Exercise 8.3 (INOUT83)

Test the program Example 8.3 for different input values, especially also for values
>127. In single-step mode, observe the assignment of the data types to the Current
result CR!
8.3 Three Different Counter Types 127

Fig. 8.3 Up-counter CTU Counter

8.3 Three Different Counter Types

8.3.1 Up Counter

In Fig. 8.3 the current counter value is available at output CV as a value with the number
type INT. The identifier CV means “counter value”. How we handle this number further,
you will learn a little later in this chapter.
The counters in the PLC respond to pulses on the CU input and change the count value
at the start of the pulse when the input value goes from ‘0’ to ‘1’. This is called: rising edge
triggering. The second, falling edge at the end of the pulse has no effect on the count result.
The “up-counter” increases its numerical value with each pulse (more precisely: with
each rising edge) at the CU input, it is a “counter up”. The abbreviation in the circuit dia-
gram is therefore “CTU”.
The CTU counter has three inputs, designated by the formal parameters CU, R and
PV. The CU input is for the pulses to be counted. CU stands for “clock up”. The R input is
used to reset the counter value to zero. A ‘1’ at the R input immediately sets the counter
value to zero.

Step 1: Set Preset Value

The PV input requires the number type INT. Assign a number to the formal parameter PV
using the ST operator. This gives the counter a comparison number to control output
Q. The abbreviation PV means “Preset Value”.

Step 2: Evaluation of the Counter

You can query the Q output to evaluate the counter. This is an output with a Boolean value.
It is only ‘1’ if the counter reading at the CV output is greater than or equal to the preset
value at the PV input, otherwise it is ‘0’.

Notice: When the PLC is started, the value PV is preset to zero.

128 8 Counter with PLC

The output Q of the up-counter is ‘1’ if the current count value CV is equal to or
greater than the preset value set at PV.

Step 3: Output of the Numerical Values

The numerical values of the current counter status at output CV are available as integer
numerical values (16 bit) binary coded.

Exercise 8.4 (COUNT81)

Test the up-counter with the following sample program “CountUP”. In particular,
explore when output Q changes its signal (process “Counter CTU”)!
For practice, try to convert the dual displayed numerical values into hexadecimal
numbers. Use the HEX display only for checking! Refer to the digital technology
section at the front of the manual if you have problems with the dual and HEX
display.
With PLC-lite you can also use the step mode here. Please note that you must not
simply “clamp” the clock input CU, but that you must apply at least one cycle alter-
nately ‘1’ and ‘0’ (i.e. a complete pulse). (see Figs. 8.4 and 8.5)

Fig. 8.4 PLC-lite for Exercise 8.4

8.3 Three Different Counter Types 129

Fig. 8.5 PLC-lite single step

for Exercise 8.4

If you take a closer look at the example program, you will notice that the
explicit type conversion described in Sect. 8.2 is used here: this is necessary
because the counter function block works internally with INT variables, i.e. 16
bits, while only 8 bits each (data type SINT) are available for the input and output
in the example.
Consider under which conditions this type conversion is valid! Check your con-
sideration with the simulation by provoking a runtime error there. To prevent these
errors, you must check the value range before the type conversion and take appro-
priate action in the event of an overflow. You will learn an example of this in
Sect. 10.5.

Example 8.4

PROGRAM CountUP
VAR
Counter : CTU
Clock AT %IX0.3: Bool
Reset AT %IX0.0: Bool
ComparePV AT %QX0.3: Bool
PresetValue AT %IB1: SINT
CountValue AT %QB1: SINT
END_VAR
LD Clock
ST Counter.CU
LD PresetValue
SINT_TO_INT (* type conversion! *)
ST Counter.PV
LD reset
ST Counter.R
CAL Counter (* Call counter *)
LD Counter.Q
ST ComparePV
LD Counter.CV
130 8 Counter with PLC

INT_TO_SINT (* type conversion! *)

ST CountValue
END_PROGRAM ◄

8.3.2 Down Counter

The down counter in Fig. 8.6 has the name: CTD (“Counter Down”). It reacts to the rising
edges at the CD input. With each active edge at the CD input, the counter value CV
decreases by 1.
A ‘1’ at the LD input sets the counter value CV to the preset value PV.

Attention
The preset value is always 0 when the PLC is started. The down counter thus counts into
the range of negative numbers from the first pulse. If you want to process the counter read-
ing as an unsigned number (e.g. as USINT), you must therefore always load a (positive)
preset value yourself, otherwise you cannot count down!
Also with the CTD counter you can make a quick evaluation of the counter. However,
because this counter counts backwards, it is interesting to know whether a lower value has
been reached or fallen below. This lower value cannot be changed and is always zero.

The output Q of the down counter has the value ‘1’ if the counter reading CV is less
than or equal to zero.

Exercise 8.5 (COUNT82)

Create a program to test the possibilities of the down counter! Pay attention again to the
output value CV of the counter and the signal Q (process “Counter CTD”)!

8.3.3 Combined Up/Down Counter

There is also the combined counter type, which has two separately operating pulse inputs
(Fig. 8.7). The counter value CV registers the pulses at the CU and CD inputs independently
of each other. The meanings of the inputs and outputs are the same as those of the other

Fig. 8.6 Down counter CTD Counter

8.3 Three Different Counter Types 131

Fig. 8.7 Combined up/down Counter

counter CTUD

counter types. However, there are now two outputs which indicate whether the counter
value CV has exceeded the preset value PV or fallen below ‘0’. They are called QU and QD
accordingly.

Exercise 8.6 (COUNT83)

Create the sample program and test the function (process: “Counter CTUD”). At which
clock edge does a counter pulse become effective? When do the outputs QU and QD
become ‘1’?

Example 8.5

PROGRAM CountUPDN
VAR
Counter : CTUD
ClockDN AT %IX0.2: Bool
ClockUP AT %IX0.3: Bool
Reset AT %IX0.0: Bool
SetLoad AT %IX0.1: Bool
CompareZero AT %QX0.2: Bool
ComparePV AT %QX0.3: Bool
PresetValue AT %IB1: SINT
CountValue AT %QB1: SINT
END_VAR
LD PresetValue
SINT_TO_INT (* type conversion! *)
ST Counter.PV
LD ClockDN
ST Counter.CD
LD ClockUP
ST Counter.CU
LD reset
ST Counter.R
LD SetLoad
ST Counter.LD
132 8 Counter with PLC

CAL Counter
LD Counter.QU
ST ComparePV
LD Counter.QD
ST CompareZero
LD Counter.CV
INT_TO_SINT (* type conversion! *)
ST CountValue
END_PROGRAM ◄

8.4 Determine Numbers

When a certain number is reached, a Boolean value is to go to ‘1’ and thus trigger an
action. The Q output of the counter can be used for this.

Exercise 8.7 (COUNT84)

In a retail store, a control light in the office should light up when one or more customers
are in the store. Design a solution with PLC.
In addition, you can also output the total number of customers.
As a further modification, you can change the output so that lamps indicate whether
there are no customers or more than 5 customers in the store.

8.5 Multi-Digit Decimal Counter (BCD)

We now want to implement a multi-digit decimal counter. You already learned about such
a counter in Part I of this book. Go back to the BCD counter (Sect. 4.6.5), and to Sect. 1.12
for the BCD code.

Exercise 8.8 (DEKADE81)

Complete the following program and add to it a three digit output. Perhaps you can also
create a reset option to reset the decades to zero by means of a pushbutton, independent
of the respective counter reading. To visualize the output you can use a “Hex-Output”
for each decimal place.
Justify why type conversion with INT_TO_SINT may be used in this particular
case without checking the value range separately.

Example 8.6

PROGRAM Decade81
VAR
One : CTU
8.6 Multiple Filling and Emptying 133

Ten : CTU
Clock AT %IX0.3: Bool
ByteOne AT %QB1: SINT
ByteTen AT %QB2: SINT

END_VAR
LD 10 (* default setting *)
ST One.PV
ST Ten.PV
LD Clock (* Clock *)
ST One.CU

CAL One (* Start single digit *)

LD One.CV (* Read value *)
INT_TO_SINT (* type conversion OK here! WHY? *)
ST ByteOne (* output *)
LD One.Q (* Test overflow *)
ST Ten.CU (* input pulse higher digit *)
ST One.R (* Reset position *)
...
END_PROGRAM ◄

8.6 Multiple Filling and Emptying

In a chemical process, the individual components must be in a certain ratio. The dosing is
done by the number of fillings of the measuring vessel. Of course, for different substances
to be mixed in the reaction vessel, either several measuring vessels are needed, or different
substances are filled into the measuring vessel through different inlet valves. In a first
example we will use only one measuring vessel and also only one inlet valve.

Exercise 8.9 (MIXER81)

The control is to be programmed in such a way that the measuring vessel is filled via
V1 after an impulse is given via a start button and emptied via V3 when LIS2 has
responded. This process should run three times in succession. After the third emptying,
it should be possible to restart the entire process. In this task, do not yet consider the
processes in the reaction vessel!
After the assignment list, create the function block diagram and the instruction list
for the PLC. Test the program with the model from Fig. 8.8.

Assignment list:
S1 Fill measuring vessel/ start control %IX0.7
LIS1 Lower limit switch %IX0.1
134 8 Counter with PLC

Fig. 8.8 Process model

LIS2 Upper limit switch %IX0.2

LIS3 Limit value transmitter Reaction vessel %IX0.3
TIC Setpoint generator temperature %IX0.4
V1 Inlet valve %QX0.1
V3 Exhaust valve %QX0.3
V2 Valve coolant %QX0.2
V4 Outlet valve reaction vessel %QX0.4
M Stirrer motor %QX0.6
H Heating %QX0.5

8.7 Generator for Counting Pulses

We now return to the task from Sect. 7.7 (single timer start/stop generator). This generator
produces pulses of the duration of a single cycle. These short pulses can be applied to the
input of a counter. The counter run will tell you if the pulses are present, even without a
logic analyzer.

Exercise 8.10 (GEN81)

Complete the program Example 7.5 “ImpulseTON” with a counter and the correspond-
ing display (Fig. 8.9).
You can also use the multilevel decade counter from Exercise 8.8 (DEKADE81).
Change the count speed. Pay close attention to how you change the values to make
the counter run faster or slower.
8.8 Time measuring 135

Fig. 8.9 Circuit for Exercise

8.10 (GEN81)

Start/Stop Device
To set up a start/stop facility, remember the gate circuit in Sect. 2.7. Make sure that the
“feedback” of the Pulse.Q signal to the Pulse.IN input can be interrupted.

Exercise 8.11 (GEN82)

With the switch at %i0.7 the count run shall be started and stopped (use also the pro-
cess “HEX-Output”).

Exercise 8.12 (GEN83)

Now use a combined up/down counter, connect a stopable pulse generator to each of
the counter inputs CU and CD and observe the counter readings. Complete the circuit by
loading a preset value. The counter should only be able to count back and forth between
zero and this maximum value!

8.8 Time measuring

Basically, time measurement means nothing more than counting: a generator forms the
“time standard”, which emits pulses at regular intervals. If the pulse intervals are exactly
one second, then the counter reading indicates the number of seconds that have elapsed.
With shorter pulses, e.g. 1/100 s, correspondingly more precise times can be realized. The
single timer start/stop generator shown in Sect. 7.7 is ideal for timing.

Exercise 8.13 (TIME81)

Start the counter with the button at %i0.1 and determine the time until you stop the
counter again with the button at %i0.2. With the key at %i0.6 or %i0.0 the counter
is to be reset again.
136 8 Counter with PLC

Exercise 8.14 (TIME82)

Determine the time in which the measuring vessel is filled from the lower level LIS1
to the upper level LIS2.

8.9 Quantity Measuring

The time for filling the measuring vessel is always the same if the inflow is constant. If you
measure the filling time, you can also interpret the meter output as the filling quantity. The
measuring vessel content would be exactly 50 l between the two levels. You can follow the
litre display in the following task and stop “by hand” at a certain number of litres. In Chap.
10 we will get to know a possibility to let the inflow stop automatically when a certain
number is reached.

Exercise 8.15 (TANK81)

Set the pulse duration so that the counter runs from 0 to 50 during filling from LIS1 to
LIS2. Attention: if you use the HEX output, the numerical value runs up to the HEX
number (32Hex or as binary value 00110010), which corresponds to the decimal
value 50Dez.
A decimal display instead of hexadecimals would be desirable here. Unfortunately,
you will have to wait a while for this: We will create a converter for HEX to BCD num-
bers later, in Sect. 11.4.

8.10 Reaction Tester

In this section, you are to solve a task in which two timers are used. At the push of a button,
a timer starts, which determines a lead time. After its expiration, a lamp lights up and the
pulsetimer starts to run.
Its pulses are counted until it is stopped by pressing a button. This makes it possible to
determine the reaction time that elapses between detecting the light signal and pressing
the button.
In this exercise, we set a specific lead time. In Sect. 10.9 we will learn to generate ran-
dom numbers.

Exercise 8.16 (REAKT81)

Program a reaction tester!

Function Blocks
9

Abstract

You already know some of the standard function blocks present in every PLC: RS and
SR flip-flops, timers and counters. In this chapter, we will look at creating your own
function blocks. You will learn how to create function blocks yourself. Function blocks
are used as a tool for structuring PLC programs. You can program frequently used or
complicated actions once in self-created function blocks and then use them as often as
you like. These self-created function blocks are called and used in exactly the same way
as the already familiar standard function blocks: namely instantiated, supplied with
parameters, called and the results retrieved.
A function block is a program organizational unit that returns one or more values
during execution. Several instances of a function block can be created, each with its
own name and memory areas for the variables.
Any function block that has already been declared can be used in the declaration of
another function block.

9.1 The Function Block (FB) Outputs Values

Example 9.1 (Flashing by Means of a Function Block)

If a ‘1’ is present at input %IX0.1, output %QX0.0 is to flash. You have already car-
ried out this task in Exercise 7.6. Now, however, this program is to be rewritten as a
function block so that it is easier to integrate the blinking function into a program. ◄

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 137
Springer Nature 2022
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138 9 Function Blocks

9.2 Creating a Function Block (FB)

• The entire code of a function block is framed by the keywords FUNCTION_BLOCK

and END_FUNCTION_BLOCK.
• Variables that are only used within the function block (local variables) are declared
between VAR and END_VAR. In the example, the timers, which are only required
within the function block, must be instantiated here. They are then available as local
values in the function block.
• Variables that are used for output from the function block to the calling program must
be declared between VAR_OUTPUT and END_VAR. In this way, they are assigned their
value in the function block, which you can load (“read”) in the main program. Note that
‘Q’ cannot be used as the output name, because the identifier ‘Q’ is reserved for the
outputs of the standard function blocks!1
• The actual program code then does not differ from a “normal” program, e.g. the follow-
ing function block Gen05 is practically identical to the program already written in
Exercise 7.6.
• The end of the block is indicated by RET. This means that the program execution is to
return to the calling (main) program.

Example 9.2 (Function Block for an Oscillator)

FUNCTION_BLOCK Gen05
VAR
Pulse1 : TP
Pulse2 : TP
END_VAR
VAR_OUTPUT
Y : BOOL
END_VAR
LD t#500ms
ST Pulse1.PT
ST Pulse2.PT

LDN Pulse2.Q
ST Pulse1.IN
CAL Pulse1

LDN Pulse1.Q
ST Pulse2.IN
CAL Pulse2

1
For reserved identifiers in PLC-lite, see Sect. 16.3 (Table 16.12).
9.3 Program Organization Units (POUs) 139

LD Pulse1.Q
ST Y
RET
END_FUNCTION_BLOCK ◄

Exercise 9.1

Compare the function block Gen05 from Example 9.2 with the program from Exercise
7.6 and mark the changes in the FUNCTION_BLOCK Gen05 block by underlin-
ing them.

9.3 Program Organization Units (POUs)

Example 9.3 (“Main Program”, Which Uses FB Gen05)

PROGRAM FlashLight
VAR
Flash: Gen05 (* FB declaration *)
Lamp AT %QX0.0: Bool
END_VAR
CAL Flash
LD Flash.Y
ST Lamp
END_PROGRAM ◄

The function block Gen05 must first be instantiated (like a standard function block) in
the program header of the main program and given the instance name.
The call is made in the program body of the “main program” with the instruction cal
Flash. After that, the output of the flasher can be queried. The necessary timers are “hid-
den” for the program in the function block Gen05.

Exercise 9.2 (FLASH92)

Create the program for the turn signal as described above.

Type the Example 9.2 and save the file under the name FB_GEN05.IL. Attention!
Do not confuse this with saving the project!
In order to add this main program to the project, select in PLC-lite in the menu File
the item: New file, or click the symbol for “Add new file” (Fig. 9.1). This will create a
new sheet in the editor where you can write the main program. (Fig. 9.2) You can switch
between the individual files using the tabs at the top of the editor window. At the end,
save this file as well. Use the name FLASH92.IL for the main program.
140 9 Function Blocks

Fig. 9.1 Creating a new file and adding it to the project

Fig. 9.2 Program files of the project of Exercise 9.3 and simulation in PLC-lite

The entire project now consists of two program files: one with the main program and
the other with the function block.
Each of these parts is called a “program organization unit” (POU). In the PLC system,
the project management ensures that the parts that belong together are also found together
again. In PLC-lite, you only have to call up the “Save project” item in the File menu. The
next time the project is loaded, all associated files are opened again and displayed in
the editor.
9.4 Including a Function Block in a Project at a Later Stage 141

Note the names: The POU “Main Program” has the name you entered after the keyword
Program. This name does not have to be identical with the name of the file on the
hard disk!
The same applies to the POU “function block”: The name of the function block is
located after the keyword Function_Block. The function block is addressed under this
name in the main program when it is instantiated and called. On the hard disk, the function
module can be given a different name when it is saved.

Exercise 9.3 (GEN91)

Create a function block FB_SEC1 which, as in Exercise 8.10, generates pulses at

1-second intervals. Test the function block in a program with an up-counter.

9.4 Including a Function Block in a Project at a Later Stage

You can try out the advantage of these function blocks right away: an already written pro-
gram is to be extended by the possibility of a blink output. Instead of having to rewrite
everything in this program, you can simply include the already existing function block in
the project! (Fig. 9.3).

Exercise 9.4 (ALARM91)

Load the project ALARM61.PLP. This initially contains only the file ALARM61.
IL. Save the file under the name ALARM91.IL. Add the file FB_GEN05.IL and save
the project under the name ALARM91.PLP. After instantiation of the “Blinker” you
can modify the program so that in addition to the alarm horn the indicator lamp flashes
at %QX0.0.

Fig. 9.3 Including an existing file in an open project

142 9 Function Blocks

Fig. 9.4 RS flip-flop made

from standard components.
Converted from the circuit in
Sect. 3.2

9.5 The Function Block Reads in Values

In Sect. 3.2 we created a flip-flop. In the circuit of that time only the inverted flip-flop
output is present. By conversion with the help of de Morgan’s rules we get the circuit as
we have given it to you here in Fig. 9.4.

Exercise 9.5

Try to prove the equality of the circuit in Fig. 9.4 with the circuit you already know
from Sect. 3.2!

We now want to create this circuit as a function block. The identifiers for the block
name (RS or SR) and the names of the formal parameters (R, S, Q) already provided by the
standard function block are protected keywords that must not be used in your own proj-
ects. Let us use the identifiers Set and Rset for the inputs and Y for the output. The block
is to be called FFSR.
Now values have to be brought into the block as well as out of it, we get INPUT and
OUTPUT variable. Here the beginner often has problems with the assignment. The values
that the main program supplies are input values for the function block. The values that the
block supplies are its output values, but they are input values for the calling main program!

So that no confusion arises here:

Input and output are always to be seen from the module!

Example 9.4
FUNCTION_BLOCK FFSR
VAR_INPUT
Set : BOOL
Rset : BOOL
END_VAR
VAR_OUTPUT
Y : BOOL
END_VAR
9.6 Function Block: FB_Tank 143

Fig. 9.5 Circuit for

Exercise 9.7

LD Set
ORN( Rset
AND Y
)
ST Y
RET
END_FUNCTION_BLOCK ◄

Exercise 9.6 (FFFB92)

Open a new project and write the function block FFSR according to Example 9.4. Save
the function block under the name FB_FFSR.IL. Then write a main program that
uses this block. The inputs %IX0.0 and %IX0.1 are to be reset and set inputs respec-
tively, the output %QX0.0 is to display the result. Explain why the function block is
primarily setting.

Exercise 9.7 (FFFB93)

Write a function block FFRS (file name: FB_FFRS.IL) for a priority resetting flip-
flop. The standard specifies the circuit shown in Fig. 9.5 for this type.

9.6 Function Block: FB_Tank

Example 9.5 (Tank Function Block)

A function block FB_Tank is programmed according to Exercise 6.15 and provided as

a function block with the input parameters: LIS1, LIS2 and Start.
Start = ‘1’ triggers a filling process of the boiler. The function block controls the
filling or empty valve via the output parameters V1 and V3.

FUNCTION_BLOCK Tank
VAR_INPUT
LIS1 : BOOL
LIS2 : BOOL
144 9 Function Blocks

Start: BOOL
END_VAR
VAR_OUTPUT
V1 : BOOL
V3 : BOOL
END_VAR
VAR
V1FF : RS
V3FF : RS
END_VAR
LD Start
ANDN V3
ANDN LIS2
ST V1FF.S
LD LIS2
ST V1FF.R1
ST V3FF.S
LDN LIS1
ST V3FF.R1
cal V1FF
cal V3FF
ld V3FF.Q1
st V3
ld V1FF.Q1
st V1
END_FUNCTION_BLOCK ◄

Example 9.6 (OneTank Main Program)

The main program consists almost only of parameter calls. You don’t notice anymore
that flip-flops are required!

program OneTank
var
(* instantiation *)
Tank0: Tank
LIS01 AT %IX0.1: bool
LIS02 AT %IX0.2: bool
V01 AT %QX0.1: bool
V03 AT %QX0.3: bool
Start AT %IX0.7: bool
end_var
(* Linking the input terminals *)
9.6 Function Block: FB_Tank 145

ld Start
st Tank0.Start
ld LIS01
st Tank0.LIS1
ld LIS02
st Tank0.LIS2
(* function module call *)
cal Tank0
(* Linking the output terminals *)
ld Tank0.V1
st V01
ld Tank0.V3
st V03
end_program ◄

Exercise 9.8 (TANK91)

Write down the function block (Example 9.5) and the main program (Example 9.6).
Save the function block under the name FB_Tank.il! The program file should be
named TANK91.IL and the project TANK91.PLP. Test the project with the process
“Tanks (small)”!

So far, I don’t think you see much of an advantage. The story becomes interesting when
several boilers are used. Then the program no longer needs to be rewritten for each indi-
vidual boiler, but it is sufficient to instantiate the function block for each real boiler and
link the input and output terminals with the formal parameters.

Exercise 9.9 (TANK92)

Complete the program from Exercise 9.8 so that all three boilers are filled at the push
of a button, and test it with the “Tanks (big)” process! You can find the beginning in
Example 9.7.

Example 9.7 (Extension of Exercise 9.8 to a System with Three Tanks)

Note that the function block FB_Tank does not have to be changed here compared to
Exercise 9.8! You do not need to retype it or save it again.

program ThreeTanks
var
(* instantiation tank0 *)
Tank0: Tank
LIS01 AT %IX0.1: bool
LIS02 AT %IX0.2: bool
146 9 Function Blocks

V01 AT %QX0.1: bool

V03 AT %QX0.3: bool
(* instantiation Tank1 *)
Tank1: Tank
LIS11 AT %IX1.1: bool
LIS12 AT %IX1.2: bool
V11 AT %QX1.1: bool
V13 AT %QX1.3: bool
(* instantiation Tank2 *)
Tank2: Tank
LIS21 AT %IX2.1: bool
LIS22 AT %IX2.2: bool
V21 AT %QX2.1: bool
V23 AT %QX2.3: bool
... ◄
Jumps, Loops and Repetitions
10

Abstract

For execution control, conditional and unconditional jump instructions are available in
the “Instruction List” (IL) language. With their help, repetition structures (“loops”) and
selections can be realized. This allows us to program complex sequences that either
repeat the same statements several times in succession or whose sequence depends on
input values or other conditions and can take different “paths” in the statement list.
The language “Structured Text” (abbreviated ST) goes even further, but is not the
subject of this course. It is a high-level programming language for PLCs according to
IEC 61131-3, which allows to solve repetition statements or branches with the constructs
FOR ... TO ... DO, WHILE ... DO, REPEAT, CASE, IF ... THEN ...
ELSE very elegantly as known from other high-level languages.

10.1 The Running Dot

We have already dealt with running lights in Sect. 7.5. Unlike there, only one timer is to
be used here, which is operated as a pulse generator and supplies switching pulses. With
each pulse a new numerical value must be applied to the output.
How can the light spot continue to run? Go back to Sect. 1.6 and assume that the LED
at the rightmost byte %qb1 is lit. The value of this byte in binary notation is: 0000 0001.
In the decimal system, this is the value 1. After the switching pulse, the light spot should
have moved one position to the left; the binary value is then: 0000 0010, which corre-
sponds to 2 in the decimal system. One step further, the value 0000 0100 (=4decimal) must

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 147
Springer Nature 2022
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61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_10
148 10 Jumps, Loops and Repetitions

be output. Now the calculation is clear? Exactly, the numerical value must be doubled
when moving on. The operation mul 2 multiplies the current result by 2.

The operation mul 2 multiplies the current result by 2. In the case of the binary
number, this means the shift by one place to the left.

10.2 Conditional Jump

We use the pulse generator from Sect. 7.7.

The switching on of the chaser must take place exactly at certain points in time. We
therefore need the condition for switching on at these time intervals. The PLC always runs
through cyclically; this means that the multiply instruction may only be executed when the
“correct” time has come. Then the mul instruction must be executed in the cycle, other-
wise not. This can be achieved by skipping the mul 2 instruction during the “wrong” times.
Our pulse oscillator supplies a ‘1’ signal for exactly one cycle after the delay time. Thus
the switching condition can be formulated relatively simply (Fig. 10.1): as long as the
oscillator delivers a ‘0’, the command mul 2 must be skipped. Exactly in the cycle in
which the pulse oscillator delivers the ‘1’, the new numerical value must be generated, i.e.
the mul 2 command must be executed.
The mechanism for this skipping consists of two parts:

• firstly, an evaluation of the condition whether to jump or not,

• and secondly the target, i.e. the point in the program at which machining is to be con-
tinued in the event of a jump.

Fig. 10.1 Flow chart

“conditional jump”: the jump yes
is executed if Q = 0 is, no
otherwise the instruction in the
box (mul 2) is executed
10.3 Set Initial Value 149

Fig. 10.2 Structure chart for

the conditional jump as in no yes
Example 10.1

Example 10.1 (Conditional Jump)

ldn Pulse.Q
jmpc OK (* Test of the jump condition *)
... (* part to be skipped *)
OK: (* Jump target mark: *) ◄

The jump condition is tested with the command jmpc. The name comes from the
English terms jump and conditional. The jump is executed if the current result is ‘1’.
The jump destination is specified by a mark or label. The label is inserted before the
command at which processing is to be continued in the case of a jump. You can freely
choose the name of the label. Please note: the colon is only at the destination point after
the label.
The sequence of this decision can be represented graphically in different ways: either
with the flowchart as in Fig. 10.1 or with the structure chart (Fig. 10.2). In the flowchart,
the jumps can be easily traced, whereas the structure chart allows a more compact repre-
sentation. For the “instruction list” language used in this book, the program representation
in the flowchart is usually better suited than the structure chart.

jmpc Mark Check and jump to label if necessary (without colon)

Mark: Definition of jump target (with colon)

10.3 Set Initial Value

And another problem:

At the start of the program all values are set to 0 and thus all lights are off. Multiplying
is of no use then, because zero times two always remains zero: all lamps remain off; no
light point would run. How do you get the initial value 1, i.e. the value with which the
multiplication should start?
At the beginning the first light point is to be set. The instruction s %qx1.0 must be
executed “at the beginning” to set the lowest bit in the byte %qb1. But it is wrong to
150 10 Jumps, Loops and Repetitions

execute this in every cycle, rather this instruction must be executed only once directly after
the program start.
This can be achieved by the following part of the program:

ldn Cycle1
s Bit0
s Cycle1

The flag Cycle1 is ‘0’ at the start of the program. Therefore, the following two instruc-
tions are executed: both flag Cycle1 and bit Bit0 are set. The Cycle1 flag is already
set in the second cycle, the two following instructions are no longer executed and bit Bit0
is not set.
With this procedure you achieve the conditional execution of set instructions with the
condition: very first cycle run.

10.4 Running Light

Exercise 10.1 (FLASH101)

Create a chaser program. Use the suggested variables:

var
Pulse: TON
Cycle1: BOOL
Bit0 AT %QX1.0: BOOL
Bit7 AT %QX1.7: BOOL
Byte1 AT %QB1: USINT
end_var

In the suggested sample solution, make sure that you set the “Standard I/O” process
to byte 1.
In this solution, note the allocation of a BOOL type to a portion of the memory of the
USINT number Byte1.

10.5 Comparisons

Restart in the Same Running Direction

When the running light from Exercise 10.1 has run through, the program terminates and
you get a runtime error: when the last LED is lit is the content of the USINT variable. 1000
0000bin=128dez. This multiplied by 2 gives 256, which is outside the value range of USINT.
10.5 Comparisons 151

If the running light is to start again and again from the beginning, the top bit must be
deleted in the case %QB1 = 128 and the bottom bit must be set again. You can test whether
the current result has the value 128 with the EQ operator.

LD Byte1
EQ 128
R Bit7
S Bit0

To effectively prevent the overflow, this code must be executed before the mul 2
instruction.

EQ number tests whether the current result is equal to the number.

However, you will now notice that the running light does not start with the first but with
the second LED when restarting. Of course: after setting bit0, mul 2 is executed imme-
diately, so the value is immediately set to 2dez.
How can you correct this now? – One possibility is to reset the flag Cycle1 instead of
setting Bit0. This will restart the program exactly as it did immediately after power-up.
The instruction mul 2 will still be executed when restarting, but then it has no effect any
more, because after deleting Bit7 the numerical value in Byte1 is 0.

Exercise 10.2 (FLASH102)

Make sure that the running light starts again from the beginning when the last LED
lights up!

Change of Direction
It can now also be desired that the running light changes its direction when reaching the
end and runs back again. We will do this in the next section, but here is a preliminary exer-
cise: The running light should run in the other direction, starting with the top bit %qx1.7.
Shifting the bit to the right halves the value of the byte, so you have to divide the output
value by two.

The div <number > operator divides the current result by the number.

Exercise 10.3 (FLASH103)

Create a right-hand running light!

152 10 Jumps, Loops and Repetitions

Fig. 10.3 Structure diagram

for clockwise/anticlockwise Anticlockwise
yes no
rotation

10.6 Unconditional Jump

It is possible that a certain part of the program must be skipped in any case. You can’t
imagine that? You think, then you could omit this part right away? In the following we will
show you exactly this case with an example!

Example 10.2 (Right-Left Running Light)

A running light can run both to the right and to the left. In one case you have to divide
by 2, in the other case multiply by 2. ◄

In the graphical representation (Fig. 10.3), there are two parallel paths. In one of them
you have to multiply, in the other one you have to divide. This looks very simple in the
graphic of the structure chart, but is a real problem in the “Instruction list” language:
Unfortunately, it is not possible to create parallel branches in the instruction list, but
everything must always be programmed nicely one after the other. You must implement
such a “parallel structure” in the statement list by means of jumps.
If the running light is currently running left, the program does not execute the condi-
tional jump to the label right: but continues working from the label left: and exe-
cutes the multiplication part (Fig. 10.4). Subsequently, the division part (right run) must be
skipped. Exactly here an unconditional jump to the label OK: is required.

In the statement list language, the jmp <mark> operator performs an uncondi-
tional jump.

Exercise 10.4 (FLASH104)

Create a back and forth running light! The running direction should be adjustable with
the switch at input %ix1.0. Alternatively, you can also try to switch the direction at
the edges in each case.
The following is an excerpt from the program. We have only given the commands
for the decision. You should program the commands for switching between clockwise
and counterclockwise rotation yourself.
10.6 Unconditional Jump 153

Fig. 10.4 Flow diagram for

right-left run: The “lower” part
must always be skipped if the
“upper” part has been
carried out!

conditional
jump

unconditional
jump

ldn GoLeft
jmpc Right (* conditional jump *)
Left: (* Left rotation *)
...
jmp OK (* unconditional jump*)
Right: (* Right rotation *)
...
OK:

Exercise 10.5

The PLC provides various “rotating commands” with which the realization of running
lights is also possible. Table 16.9 lists the functions included in PLC-lite. Try to pro-
gram running lights with SHL (Shift left by N bit, fill right with zero), SHR (Shift right
by N bit, fill left with zero), ROL (Rotate left by N bit, “in a circle”) or ROR (Rotate
right by N bit, “in a circle”)!
154 10 Jumps, Loops and Repetitions

Fig. 10.5 Large “Tanks (big)” measurement model

10.7 Filling Several Measuring Vessels

Figure 10.5 shows the “Large measurement model”. The three boilers are to be filled one
after the other. The valves V1, V1.1 and V2.1 must be actuated one after the other for
this purpose. This is practically the same as a running light. In contrast to the tasks dis-
cussed earlier with the running light, however, it is now not a time cycle that determines
the switching on, but a signal from the process: Reaching the upper filling levels LIS2,
LIS1.2 or LIS2.2 in each case gives the start signal for filling the next boiler.

Exercise 10.6 (TANK102)

After the start signal with the ‘I’ key, the three boilers are to be filled and emptied again
individually one after the other. Use the function block FB_Tank.IL for the tank fill-
ings. Test the program with the large measuring model “Tanks (big)”.

10.8 Multiple Selection

Example 10.3 (Control of a 7-Segment Display)

In a 7-segment display, seven LEDs are arranged so that the combination of several
light bars represents a digit in readable form. (see Fig. 10.6) The LEDs light up when a
‘1’ is present at the relevant terminal of the module. The block has 8 connections: seven
10.8 Multiple Selection 155

Fig. 10.6 Designations of the

segments of a
7-segment display

for the segments and one for the dot. The segments are labeled clockwise. In the
“7-segment” process model from PLC-lite, segments a to h are connected to outputs
%q0.0 to %q0.7, i.e. a to %q0.0, b to %q0.1, and so on. ◄

Figure 10.7 shows the displays of the digits 0 to 9 and the letters A to F. You can use the
assignments in Fig. 10.6 to determine the segments to be controlled for each digit.

Exercise 10.7 (7SEG101)

Create a table that shows which segments have to be controlled for the different
characters.
Check the table with PLC-lite! (Process: “7-Segment”).

Exercise 10.8 (7SEG102)

By means of the input switches at %ib1, digits are set which are displayed on the
7-segment display. Complete the following part-program! The flow chart is partially
given in Fig. 10.8 and the structure diagram in Fig. 10.9.

Program SevenSegment
Var
InByte AT %IB1: Byte
OutByte AT %QB0: Byte
end_var
ld InByte

Fig. 10.7 Display of HEX digits on a 7-segment display

156 10 Jumps, Loops and Repetitions

Load Pattern0

Load Pattern1

Load PatternA

Fig. 10.8 Flow chart for Exercise 10.8

Load input parameter InByte

InByte

Zero: One: Two:

load load load load
pattern0 pattern1 pattern2 PatternA
End: Specify patternx as return value OutByte

Fig. 10.9 Structure chart for Exercise 10.8

10.9 Random Numbers 157

eq 0
jmpc Zero
ld InByte
eq 1
jmpc One
ld InByte
eq 2
jmpc Two
...
jmp End
Zero:
ld 2#001111
jmp End
One:
ld 2#00000110
jmp End
Two:
...
End:
st OutByte
end_program

10.9 Random Numbers

Here we present a function block that outputs “random numbers” between 1 and 6. The
pulses of a fast running generator are added up in a counter. When 5 (= sixth number,
because the counter counts from zero) is exceeded, the counter is reset. The pulses are
counted as long as the input value run is ‘1’. This input value can be read by a push but-
ton. If the cycle frequency of the PLC is sufficiently high, the generator works so fast that
the counter runs several times from 0 to 5 when a button is pressed (however briefly). The
counter value is thus quasi “random”.
In the following Example 10.4 the generator is programmed tricky: to get the fastest
possible frequency, no timer is used, but the boolean variable toggle is “flipped” in
every cycle by first loading it negated with ldn toggle and immediately storing it again
with st toggle. This value is written to the counter input. Thus the counter receives
a clock pulse with two cycles.
When the counter has reached the count value 6, it must be reset, because the counter
should count impulses from 0...5 = 6. After setting the R-input the counter must be
called again with cal Counter, so that it is set to zero immediately.
158 10 Jumps, Loops and Repetitions

Example 10.4 (Function Block for Generating Random Numbers)

Function_Block Chance16
var_input
run: BOOL
end_var
var_output
Value: SINT
end_var
var
Counter: CTU
toggle: BOOL
end_var
ldn run
jmpc output
(* Generate counting pulses *)
ldn toggle
st toggle
st Counter.CU
cal Counter
(* Check final value *)
ld Counter.CV
gt 5
st Counter.R
cal Counter
issue:
ld Counter.CV
int_to_sint
add 1
st Value
end_function_block ◄

Exercise 10.9 (DICE101)

Draw a flow chart for the function block Chance16. Write down the function block,
save it as file FB_CHANC.IL. Create a main program which outputs the random num-
bers on the HEX display at %qb1 after pressing the key at %i0.0.
Note: In PLC-lite you can set the cycle time of the PLC in the configuration window.
Later, in Sect. 11.3, we will also display the numbers in “dice form”!
Functions
11

Abstract

You are probably familiar with functions from mathematics. A function is ‘passed’ a
number, which it processes and ‘returns’ the result (again, a number!). For example, the
function ‘square’ returns the square of every number entered. In this chapter you will
learn how functions are applied in the PLC according to IEC 61131-3.
We will show you how to use functions in IEC 61131-3 using the example of a con-
verter for digits to the 7-segment display (seven-segment decoder).

11.1 Use of Functions

A function returns an output value for an input value. The input value can be a number, e.g.
a byte. The output value can be a different representation of this number, for example in
HEX code or as a control code for a numeric display (7-segment code). It is advantageous
to use the digit to 7-segment display converter from Sect. 10.3 as a function.
We will explain the use of a function using the example of converting a byte value into
a 7-segment code.
The function is given the name ByteTo7Seg, the associated main program is to be
called SevenSegment. In the main program the function is called with its name
(ByteTo7Seg).
The calling main program reads the input value into the Current Result CR with the ld
operator and then calls the function. It receives the return value of the function again in the
Current Result CR. It writes this current result (which has changed in the meantime) into
the output byte %qb0 using the st operator.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 159
Springer Nature 2022
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61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_11
160 11 Functions

Example 11.1 (Main Program with Function Call)

Program SevenSegment
var
InByte AT %IB1: Byte
OutByte AT %QB0: Byte
end_var
ld InByte
ByteTo7Seg (* call of the function *)
st OutByte
end_program ◄

Now how do you have to create the function itself? Have another look at Exercise 10.8.
Compare the program given there with the function IntTo7Seg printed in the following
Example 11.2!

Example 11.2 (Function for Controlling the 7-Segment Display)

Function ByteTo7Seg: Byte (* type return value *)

var_input
Digit: Byte (* Declaration input value *)
end_var
ld Digit (* input value *)
eq 0
jmpc Zero
ld Digit
eq 1
jmpc One
...
Zero:
ld 2#001111
jmp End
One:
ld 2#00000110
jmp End
...
End:
st ByteTo7Seg (* return value *)
ret (* end *)
end_function ◄

Can you see in Example 11.2 how the function ByteTo7Seg takes over a numerical
value on the variable Digit? This is transferred to the current result with the ld Digit
11.2 Difference Between Function and Function Block 161

and processed further. Afterwards, the result is allocated to the memory for the return
value, which is addressed under the function name (st ByteTo7Seg). The return is
indicated by RET. In the line Function... the data type of the return value is specified
after the colon.

Exercise 11.1

Describe in your own words how a function is structured, how it reads the input value
from the main program and how it returns the result to the main program!

With the variable between var_input and end_var the function receives its
input value. The RET instruction marks the end of the function.

The function must be placed in its own file (like a function block). You must also have
a “main program” block in your project that calls the function.

Exercise 11.2 (7SEG111)

Create the main program and the function for the 7-segment coding as in Example
11.2! The program is to convert the input byte of %ib1 into a seven-segment form. The
7-segment display is to be connected to %qb0.

11.2 Difference Between Function and Function Block

Unfortunately, in IEC 61131 the names “function” and “function block” are easy to con-
fuse. Therefore, pay close attention to the difference:

The Function Block contains a “memory”. The output of a function block can take on
different values despite the same input signals. This may sound a bit puzzling, as if
random values were output by a function block. No, the output values of a function
block are not random! Let’s consider a counter. The pulse to be counted always pro-
duces the same input signal; but depending on the previous process, the function
block outputs a different numerical value. This means that the function block must
have a memory in which it stores the previous numerical value in order to be able to
determine the next number after a counting pulse.
162 11 Functions

For the Function the output value always depends directly on the input value. In Example
11.2, the same output value is always output for the same specific input value, regardless
of which value the function processed in a previous call. The function does not need a
memory, because the output value can always be determined from the current input value.
Unlike function blocks, functions do not have to be instantiated separately before use.
The PLC operating system automatically occupies the memory required for the variables
of the function only while it is called. After returning from the function, this memory area
is immediately released again. This means that all variable contents changed within the
function are no longer available the next time the function is called, and this results in the
typical behavior described above for a function: it “forgets” old values.

The function block contains a “memory”.

The output value of a function always depends directly on the input value.

11.3 Dice Game

In Exercise 10.9 you programmed a dice game with a random number generator. Now we
want to extend it with a nice dice display. The function for converting the number values
into the display works practically the same as converting a number into the 7-segment code!

Exercise 11.3 (DICE111)

Extend Exercise 10.9 by adding the IntToDice function to display the dice results in
the Dice process. Save the function under the name F_Dice.IL.

11.4 BCD Converter

In Exercise 8.15 the boiler content should be displayed in litres. At that time we had the
“blemish” that the display was in hexadecimal numbers. We now want to change this and
design a function that converts the hexadecimal notation into a BCD number notation.

Exercise 11.4 (BCD111)

Create a function to convert hexadecimal numbers into BCD numbers! Test the func-
tion in a suitable program, for example the one from Exercise 8.15.
11.5 Parameter Transfer to the Function 163

11.5 Parameter Transfer to the Function

The functions used so far formed an output value from exactly one input value. The input
value was brought into the function via the current result and the output value was returned
to the calling program via the current result.
How does this work if the function requires more than a single input value?
For example, the function is to determine the larger of two numbers and return it. In the
PLC it works like this: The first number is loaded into the Current Result CR with the LD
operator, the second number is written as a parameter after the function name.
Perhaps you notice the similarity of a function to an operator (e.g. add)? In both cases,
one operand is loaded into the Current Result, while the second is passed after the function
name. The calculation result is then available in the Current result!

A function returns exactly one data element after the call. In the instruction list lan-
guage, the return value is in the Current Result (CR). It differs little in use from an
operator.

Example 11.3 (Function Call with Passing of Two Parameters)

MaxTest program
...
ld Digit1 (* Load parameter1 in CR *)
Greatest Digit2 (* call and load param. 2 *)
st OutDigit (* Accept return value *)
end_program ◄

The function itself now has two input parameters in the list between var_input and
end_var.

• The value listed first is taken from the Current Result (CR),
• the second is the parameter after the function name.

Example 11.4 (Variable Declaration with Two Input Parameters)

Function Greatest: int

var_input
D1: int (* Parameter1 from CR *)
D2: int (* load parameter2 *)
164 11 Functions

end_var
...
ret (* return value in CR *)
end_function ◄

Exercise 11.5 (MAX111)

Write the function Greatest, which returns the larger of the two numerical values
passed in, and test it with a suitable program example.

Exercise 11.6 (TIME111)

In response to a start signal, two stopwatches are to run which can be stopped indepen-
dently of each other using separate buttons. The respective time1 or time2 is to be
displayed when the button is pressed. The shorter time is to be displayed in byte2, the
longer time in byte3.

If more than two values have to be passed, the parameter list can be extended after the
function name. Separate the individual parameter values with commas. For example, a
function is to check whether a number lies between two limit values. This so-called dis-
criminator function is passed the number to be tested and the two limit values, i.e. a total
of three values.

Exercise 11.7 (DISKR111)

Write a function Between, which you save as F_Diskr.IL. It is to compare two

values passed as parameters with the value standing in the current result. The function
should return ‘true’ if the current result is between the two parameter values.

Example 11.5 (Main Program with the Function Call and the Parameter List)

program discriminator
var
CompValue AT %ib0: sint
MinValue AT %ib1: sint
MaxValue AT %ib2: sint
OKLamp AT %qx0.0: bool
end_var
...
ld Compvalue
Between MinValue, MaxValue
st OKLamp
...
end_program ◄
Sequence Controls
12

Abstract

In the preceding chapters you have learned the language and structural elements for
programming the PLC using instruction lists. This gives you the tool to control any type
of technical process with PLC.
A certain type of process can be subdivided into a sequence of individual steps that
always run one after the other. For these, the programming logic of “sequential con-
trols” is suitable, which in these cases results in a clear program structure. The IEC
61131-3 standard defines a special language for programming sequential controls: the
“sequential function chart” (SFC), but this is not the subject of this course. We apply
the programming logic behind sequential programs in the Instruction List language.
Although this is not really practical, it has the advantage that the basic procedure can
be easily understood.

12.1 Basic Principle of Sequence Control Using the Example

of Pushbuttons

The sequence controls are so important in practice that the standard provides a special
language for them. In this chapter, however, you will not implement the sequence control
with this special language, but in the “instruction list” language. This is somewhat more
“cumbersome”, but you will gain an insight into the working method and the basic ideas
behind this programming language.
Most controls can be broken down into successive individual steps. This breakdown
provides a better overview. The transition from one single step to the next depends on
conditions; this can be a reached filling level or a certain temperature, but also the expiry

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 165
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_12
166 12 Sequence Controls

of a time period. The programs gain considerably in clarity through the realization as
sequence control and can therefore be programmed and later maintained much more easily.
You can also imagine the principle of sequence control like this: The process sequence
is shown on a display panel. Each important process step is described on a backlit field,
e.g.: (1) filling, (2) stirring, (3) heating and stirring, (4) emptying. Then everyone can see
the instantaneous working status of the plant at a glance. You see: Only one step is active
at a time, i.e. only one field is illuminated. In each step certain actions are executed. The
sequence of the steps is predefined and certain conditions must be fulfilled for the change
to the next step. The sequence control by means of PLC supports these properties of the
process.
Before we bombard you with a lot of theory, let’s first consider a simple example to
explore the principle of sequential control. The following problem, which at first seems
quite simple, is very suitable:

Example 12.1 (Push Button)

A lamp should light up as long as a button is pressed.

This task can of course be accomplished with the simple program:

Program PushButton0
VAR
Button AT %IX0.0: Bool
Lamp AT %QX0.0: Bool
END_VAR
LD Button
ST Lamp
end_program ◄

But we don’t want to make it quite that easy for ourselves, after all there are much more
complex tasks to master! That is why we will proceed systematically step by step:
The entire process can be broken down into two steps, which are shown graphically in
Fig. 12.1:

• Step 1: The button is not pressed

–– The lamp is off
–– Waiting for keystroke
• Step 2: The button is pressed
–– The lamp is on
–– Wait until key is released

If you look at these steps more closely, you can identify an action at each step (the lamp is
off/on) and a transition condition that must be met for the system to move to the next step
(wait for key press/wait for release).
12.2 The Sequence Chain 167

Fig. 12.1 Sequence of the

Example 12.1 push button Waiting for keystroke

The key is pressed The lamp is on

Wait until button is released

The key is not pressed The lamp is off

12.2 The Sequence Chain

Example 12.1.(pushbutton) is now transferred to the PLC language:

The control is divided into steps and forms a chain of steps. In this sequence, only one
step is active at any time. In order to reach the next step, a condition (transition) must be
fulfilled. The controller executes different actions for each step.
This looks just like a running light! Instead of an illuminated light, we have an active
process step. However, the transition from one state to the next is not given by a time
clock, but rather as in the problem already discussed in Sect. 10.7: One action after the
other runs and the transitions (transition conditions) are provided by the process.

Example 12.2 (Pushbutton as Sequence Chain)

The control for Example 12.1 can be realized with the following program part: To pro-
gram the sequence chain, we can provide a flag (“step flag” Step1 and Step2) for
each step. A set flag then means: Step active. The transition is made by resetting the
corresponding flag as soon as the transition conditions are fulfilled.

Program PushButton1
VAR
Step1: bool
Step2: bool
Button AT %IX0.0: Bool
Lamp AT %QX0.0: Bool
END_VAR
(* Sequence of events: *)
(* STEP 1 *)
LD Step1 (* Step 1 active? *)
168 12 Sequence Controls

AND Button (* button pressed? *)

R Step1 (* Exit step 1 *)
S Step2 (* Activate step 2 *)
(* STEP 2 *)
LD Step2 (* Step 2 active? *)
ANDN Button (* button released? *)
R Step2 (* Exit step 2 *)
S Step1 (* Activate step 1 *)
(* ACTION in step 2 *)
LD Step2 (* Step 2 active? *)
ST Lamp (* Switch on lamp *)
end_program ◄

Note that in program Example 12.2, a separation has been intentionally made between
the flow of the sequence chain and the action to be executed in step 2. In the example, an
action is only required in step 2, but in general one or more actions will have to be exe-
cuted in each step. The actions to be executed in each step are only programmed at the end,
after the sequence chain. This increases the clarity of the program.

12.3 Set Initial State

Take another critical look at program Example 12.2! Concentrate completely on the begin-
ning of the program, at the very beginning, when the program is started. Answer the ques-
tion: What are the values of the two flags? Exactly: Both are ‘0’; the control cannot start at
all! The control can only start if you make sure that exactly one flag is set at the beginning.
You have already learned how to do this in Sect. 10.3. We still have to make sure that
exactly one flag is set at the start of the program.

ldn Cycle1
s Cycle1
s Step1

In sequence control, exactly one flag must always be set in the sequence chain.
12.5 Graphical Representation of Sequence Controls 169

Exercise 12.1 (PUSH121)

Write down the sample program PushButton1 and test it. The test is positive when
the lamp is lit as long as the button is pressed at %IX0.0 and goes out when the button
is released.

We can understand very well if you are not yet convinced of the sense of the sequence
controls, the program became quite considerably longer than the program Example 12.1
PushButton0 with the same functionality! But just a little more patience, and you will
clearly see the advantages. If you have tried Exercises 6.16 and 7.12, you will soon appre-
ciate the advantages of the new design method!

12.4 Sequence Step and Step-On Condition

A sequence control has a positively controlled sequence. The smallest functional unit of
such a control is a sequence step (or step for short). The entire task is therefore broken
down into individual “processing blocks” that can be separated from one another. The
sequence of the steps results in the entire program, the so-called sequence chain.
A process element is assigned to each step. In the example, this is a flag that generates
the signals required to influence the process, i.e. the actions, via links.
If the step-on condition is fulfilled, the next step is activated by setting the next flag and
resetting the current one. The step-on conditions can come from outside (keystroke by the
operating personnel), from the process itself (“from inside”: e.g. temperature reached, fill
level reached, time elapsed, etc.) or also from a timer.
Because a flag is assigned to each step, the current state of the control can be seen at
any time from the flag set.
Care must be taken when setting up the step-on conditions! If, for example, the condi-
tion cannot occur in the process, then the controller can no longer continue to run, it
“blocks”. A frequent cause for the blocking of a control is also forgotten step-on condi-
tions. However, compared to a “normal” control, errors can usually be detected quickly in
a sequence control.

12.5 Graphical Representation of Sequence Controls

In practice, sequence programming offers several advantages:

• Simple project planning and programming

• clear program structure
170 12 Sequence Controls

Fig. 12.2 Graphical represen- Initial step

tation of the sequence chain
Starting conditions

Action 1
Step 1
Instructions

Step enabling condition

Action 2
Step 2
Instructions

• easy change of the function sequence

• in the event of faults, easy recognition of the cause of the fault
• adjustable different operating modes.

Practically all technical processes can be broken down into sub-steps that must be exe-
cuted in a specific sequence one after the other. This is referred to as a “sequence”. Each
step in this sequence can be precisely designated (e.g. numbered). The steps are divided in
such a way that only one specific step is ever being processed, i.e. is “active”.
Actually, the process control for technical processes is not that unusual: When you
describe a technical process, you “automatically” break down the entire process into a
sequence of individual processes.
The IEC 61131-3 standard also describes the sequential function chart (SFC) and its
graphical representation. It is based on the DIN EN 60848 standard, which regulates the
representation of sequential controls. This is known by the acronym “GRAFCET”
(GRAphe Fonctionnel de Commande Etapes/Transitions) and has replaced DIN 40719
Part 6 since 2005. An example is shown in Fig. 12.2.

• The step symbols are displayed as rectangles. The step is described either by a number
or a symbolic name.
• The commands to be executed when this step is active are displayed as action blocks in
a separate field to the right of the step symbol.
• At the top of the action block, the action name is entered in the middle.
• In the lower part of the action block, the commands to be executed with this step are
specified.
• The entries in the left part above are the action destination marks (designator). We will
discuss them a little further on.
• In the upper right, optional part of the action block, a “display” variable of data type
BOOL can be specified to indicate the completion, timeout or error conditions, etc. of
this action block.
12.6 Pressure Switch 171

12.6 Pressure Switch

The following task already shows the advantage of the systematic approach to program-
ming in the sequential function chart. Perhaps you have dealt with Exercise 6.16?
With the so-called “bedside lamp switch”, the light is supposed to change every time
the switch (actually: pushbutton) is pressed: The first press switches the light on, which is
switched off again with the next press on this very pushbutton. This can no longer be done
with an “ordinary” pushbutton! And without a systematic approach, this task becomes a
fiddly job!
We can distinguish four different states (steps):

1. Button released, light off, wait for pressure

2. Button pressed, light on, wait for release
3. Button released, light also on, waiting for pressure
4. Button pressed again, light off, wait for release

The light must be on in both step 2 and step 3. So in these two steps the action “light on”
has to be executed, in the other two nothing.

Exercise 12.2 (PUSH122)

A pushbutton is to switch on a lamp; by pressing this pushbutton again, the lamp is to

be switched off again.

Fig. 12.3 Sequence chain to

the pressure switch
(Exercise 12.2)

Lamp on

Lamp on
172 12 Sequence Controls

The control for this task can be realized with the program Example 12.3 and the cor-
responding sequence Fig. 12.3.

Example 12.3 (Pressure Switch)

Program PushButton2
VAR
Step1: bool
Step2: bool
Step3: bool
Step4: bool
Cycle1: bool
Button AT %IX0.0: bool
Lamp AT %QX0.0: bool
END_VAR
ldn Cycle1
s Cycle1
s Step1
(* Sequence of events: *)
(* STEP 1 *)
LD Step1 (* Step 1 active? *)
AND button (* button pressed? *)
R Step1 (* Exit step 1 *)
S Step2 (* Activate step 2 *)
(* STEP 2 *)
LD Step2 (* Step 2 active? *)
ANDN button (* button released? *)
R Step2 (* Exit step 2 *)
S Step3 (* Activate step 3 *)
(* STEP 3 *)
LD Step3 (* Step 3 active? *)
AND button (* button pressed? *)
R Step3 (* Exit step 3 *)
S Step4 (* Activate step 4 *)
(* STEP 4 *)
LD Step4 (* Step 4 active? *)
ANDN button (* button released? *)
R Step4 (* Exit step 4 *)
S Step1 (* Activate step 1 *)
(* ACTIONS *)
LD Step2 (* Step 2 active? *)
ST Lamp (* Switch on lamp *)
LD Step3 (* Step 3 active? *)
12.7 Control of Actions 173

ST Lamp (* Switch on lamp *)

end_program ◄

12.7 Control of Actions

With the momentary-action switch, the lamp must be activated in steps two and three, i.e.
the same action must be performed in two steps. In the above example, the two flags for
the respective steps are linked with OR.

alternatively for the ACTIONS:

(* ACTION *)
LD Step2 (* Step 2 active? *)
OR Step3 (* Step 3 active? *)
ST Lamp (* Switch on lamp *)

The same objective can be achieved by setting the lamp to “ON” in step two and reset-
ting the lamp to “OFF” in step four. The action thus extends over several steps. In such
cases, the PLC must remember the action over several steps, i.e. save it. For saving, the
output can be set or reset directly. This is shown graphically in the sequence in Fig. 12.4.

If an action is to be effective over several steps, it must be executed “saving”.

In the step in which the action begins, the output is set; in the step in which the action
is to end, the output is reset.
Some commands should only be active during the current step (“non-storing”), others
must have an effect over several steps (“storing”), still others must last for a very specific
time before the step counter is allowed to continue.
When issuing commands, the non-storing (N) commands are the easiest to handle. The
execution of the command stops as soon as the step is exited.
Table 12.1 lists some of the actions defined in the IEC 61131 standard. The type of
action is indicated by the action designation mark (designator) in the left part of the com-
mand field.

Exercise 12.3 (PUSH123)

Change the program for the pushbutton switch (Example 12.3) so that in step 2 the
lamp is switched ON and in step 4 the lamp is switched OFF (Fig. 12.4). You can extend
the program so that the respective step flag is displayed on LEDs 1.1 to 1.4.
174 12 Sequence Controls

Fig. 12.4 Sequence of events

for Exercise 12.3 with setting/
resetting (storing) of the states

Lamp on

Lamp off
reset

Exercise 12.4 (TANK121)

Create the sequence control for the system in Fig. 12.5 according to the flow diagram!
Enter the instruction list printed in Example 12.4 into the PLC, test the program and
describe verbally (in words) the process sequence.

Example 12.4 (Tank)

Proposed programme for Exercise 12.4:

Program Tank
VAR
S01: BOOL
S02: BOOL

Table 12.1 Action designator Designator Action, explanation

None or N Non-storing
R Overriding reset
S Set stored
L Time limited
D Time delayed
12.7 Control of Actions 175

Startbutton

Filling

Emptying

Fig. 12.5 System and flow diagram (sequencechart) for Exercise 12.4

S03: BOOL
Cycle1: BOOL
V1 AT %qx0.1: BOOL
V3 AT %qx0.3: BOOL
LIS1 AT %ix0.1: BOOL
LIS2 AT %ix0.2: BOOL
Start AT %ix0.7: BOOL
END_VAR
LDN Cycle1
S Cycle1
S S03
(* STEP 1 *) (*Drain chain *)
LD S01 (*step 1 active? *)
AND LIS2 (*full? *)
R S01 (*exit step 1 *)
S S02 (*activate step 2*)
(* STEP 2 *)
LD S02 (*step 2 active? *)
ANDN LIS1 (*empty? *)
R S02 (*exit step 2 *)
S S03 (*activate step 3*)
(* STOP *)
LD S03 (*stop step? *)
AND Start (*Start button? *)
R S03 (*exit step 3 *)
176 12 Sequence Controls

Startbutton

V1 open
Fill

V3 open
Supplying

Heating on
Heating Stirrer on
V2 open

Stirring

Startbutton

V4 open
Emptying Stirrer off

V2 close

Fig. 12.6 Sequence and apparatus for Exercise 12.6

S S01 (activate step 1)

(* ACTION.)
LD S01 (*step 1 active? *)
ST V1 (*open V1 *)
LD S02 (*step 2 active? *)
ST V3 (*open V3 *)
end_program ◄

Exercise 12.5 (TANK122)

Improve the program from solution 12.4 so that the boiler is only filled and emptied
once, even though the start button is pressed continuously. Before a new filling process,
the start button must first be released!
12.8 Programming the Timing Elements in a Sequence Control System 177

Fig. 12.7 For Exercise 12.7:

Changing the sequence by time
elements Stirring
Stirring

open
Emptying Stirrer off

Exercise 12.6 (MIXER121)

The plant set-up shown in Fig. 12.6 is to be operated with a sequence control. Compare
the functional diagram with the verbal description. Implement the control system with
the aid of PLCs!

Verbal Description:

1. Water is supplied to a measuring vessel via valve V1 until the limit switch LIS2
signals “measuring vessel full”.
2. Via valve V3, the water supplied is drained into the stirring piston until LIS1
signals “measuring vessel empty”.
3. The flask content is heated up until the contact thermometer TIS indicates “Set
temperature reached”. When heating up, the stirrer must be switched on and the
cooling water valve V2 opened.
4. Once the set temperature has been reached, the flask contents continue to be stirred.
5. If stirring has been “long enough”, the stirrer should be switched off by pressing
the start button again and valve V4 opened to empty the piston.
6. After emptying the piston (LIS3 = 0), the cooling water is closed and the entire
process can be repeated by pressing the “Start” button.

12.8 Programming the Timing Elements in a Sequence

Control System

In the previous control, in step 4, the post-stirring time should be automatically terminated
after 10 s without the need to press the button again. Figure 12.7 shows the change in the
flow chart for steps four and five.

Exercise 12.7 (MIXER122)

Complete the control with the timer for the transition from step 4 to step 5! Why does
it make sense to use the timer with switch-on delay (TON)?

Note the ease with which flow control can be extended: see Exercise 13.28 for a task
description for an extended process.
178 12 Sequence Controls

12.9 In Conclusion

Congratulations and our appreciation for your perseverance and achievement! You have
now reached the end of this introductory course. We hope you have enjoyed the work and
can use the suggestions for your own tasks.
In order to support you in your further programming exercises, we have compiled some
repetition tasks in the following chapter. In the last chapter, essential features of “PLC-
lite” are compiled, so that you can clarify further questions yourself with the help of this
reference.
We wish you continued success!
Repeat Tasks
13

Abstract

This chapter contains further practice and revision exercises with which you can con-
solidate the knowledge you have acquired.

13.1 Review Tasks for Chap. 2

Exercise 13.1 (LOGIC27)

Give the functional equation for all four switching elements Fig. 13.1!
Complete the function table Fig. 13.2!
To which of the links drawn above does the given function table belong? (Fig. 13.3).

Exercise 13.2 (LOGIC28)

Which of the switching elements Fig. 13.4 can replace the combination of the two logic
elements Fig. 13.3?

Exercise 13.3 (LOGIC29)

A lamp L is to be controlled so that it lights up whenever only switch S1 or only switch

S2 is operated. Figure 13.5 shows the function table to be implemented.
Which of the functional elements Figs. 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, or 13.9 satisfies these condi-
tions? What are the functional equations in each case?

Exercise 13.4 (LOGIC30)

What is the functional equation for the circuit Fig. 13.10? Try to make the function
table. Since we have 5 variables here, the table must have 32 rows. However, you can

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 179
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_13
180 13 Repeat Tasks

Fig. 13.1 Switching elements

for Exercise 13.1

Fig. 13.2 Function table for

Exercise 13.1

Fig. 13.3 Switching element for

Exercise 13.2

Fig. 13.4 Switching elements

for Exercise 13.2

Fig. 13.5 Function table for

Exercise 13.3

Fig. 13.6 Function 1 for

Exercise 13.3

Fig. 13.7 Function 2 for

Exercise 13.3

Fig. 13.8 Function 3 for

Exercise 13.3

Fig. 13.9 Function 4 for

Exercise 13.3
13.2 Review Tasks for Chap. 5 181

Fig. 13.10 Circuit for

Exercise 13.4

reduce the number of rows to be written if you “trick” a little: for a = 0, namely, x
always = 0!

Exercise 13.5 (FLASH23)

A lamp should be able to be switched either to off, continuous light or flashing light.
Provide one switch as on/off switch and a second switch for switching between con-
tinuous and flashing light. To solve this task, you should refer to Sects. 2.7: AND opera-
tion as data switch and 2.9: OR operation as data switch.

13.2 Review Tasks for Chap. 5

Exercise 13.6 (TEMP51)

The temperature of a chemical process is monitored with a bimetallic thermometer. If

the temperature falls below a certain value, the signal transmitter reports this with the
signal value ‘0’ and an alarm horn is actuated.

Exercise 13.7 (LOGIC51)

In an injection moulding machine, the plunger only moves down when the mould pres-
sure is built up, the protective grid is down and the pressing temperature has been
reached. The logical behavior of the individual sensors:

Form closed: log. 1 (proximity switch)

Forming pressure reached: log. 0 (strain gauge)
Protection grid bottom: log. 1 (limit switch)
Pressing temperature reached: log. 0 (thermocouple)
Punch extends: log. 1 (valve)

Exercise 13.8 (LOGIC52)

The water supply to a turbine is blocked if a certain speed is exceeded or the bearing
temperature is too high or the cooling circuit is no longer in operation. All sensors give
log. 1 when the operating condition is no longer fulfilled.
182 13 Repeat Tasks

Exercise 13.9 (BOILER53b)

Exercise 5.8 can be extended even further:

(a) The stirrer should run when the switch Sw1 has switched on the system with the
heating and the temperature of 50° C has not yet been reached. When the tempera-
ture of 50° C is reached, the heating should switch off.

(b) The stirrer should run when the system is switched on with switch Sw1 and the
temperature is exceeded 40° C . The stirrer should also continue to run when the
temperature reaches 50° C.

Exercise 13.10 (BOILER55)

In a reaction vessel, a safety valve must be opened when the pressure is too high or the
temperature is too high or the inlet valve is opened or a certain concentration of the
chemical reaction is reached.

Pressure too high: log. 0

Temperature too high: log. 0
Valve open: log. 1
Concentration reached: log. 1

13.3 Review Tasks for Chap. 6

Exercise 13.11 (TANK66)

Extension of Exercise 6.15:

The “Fill, Empty” cycle should be repeated after pressing a start button until a sec-
ond “Stop” button stops the process again at the end of the cycle, i.e. when the container
has run empty!

Exercise 13.12 (COOLER61)

One unit is cooled by two fans. The function is monitored by one air flow monitor each.
If both fans fail while the unit is switched on, an acoustic signal should be emitted.
This message is to be output until the fault message is acknowledged via an acknowl-
edgement button.
However, the acknowledgement should only become effective when at least one of
the two fans is back in operation or the unit is no longer switched on.
Determine the assignment tables, the control for the signaling device and implement
the control with PLC.
13.5 Review Exercises for Chap. 8 183

Exercise 13.13 (SORTER61)

Long and short workpieces are transported in any order on a conveyor belt. The belt
switch is to be controlled in such a way that the arriving parts are selected according to
their length and fed to separate delivery stations. The length of the parts is determined
by a scanning device (roller lever valves). If a long part passes through the scanning
device, all three roller lever valves are briefly actuated. In the case of a short part, on the
other hand, only the middle valve is actuated.
Create assignment tables, the function block diagram, the instruction list and imple-
ment and test the circuit with PLC.

13.4 Review of Chap. 7

Exercise 13.14 (FLASH74)

Program a generator to output a pulse train at output %q0.0 that gives a total duration
T1 + T2 = 5s and a duty cycle k = 3/5.
What is the frequency of the generator?
The generator should be able to be switched on by pushbuttons with input %i0.7
and switched off with input %i0.6.
Change the duty cycle to k = 0.25 at the same frequency!

13.5 Review Exercises for Chap. 8

Exercise 13.15 (COUNT85)

In a floppy disk factory, 10 floppy disks are to be packed in each carton. After filling a
carton, it must be replaced by an empty one, which is then filled again. Design a control
system! Create the assignment list and the logic diagram, program and test your solution.

Exercise 13.16 (COUNT85b)

Modify the program from Exercise 13.15 so that you can set the number of floppy disks
on the digital input unit.

Exercise 13.17 (MIXER82)

The program of Exercise 8.9 is to be extended to control the complete plant set-up
shown in Fig. 13.11 consisting of measuring and reaction vessel.

• After filling the measuring vessel twice, the stirrer and the heater should be
switched on.
• The stirrer should run for 5 s.
• The heating is switched off as soon as TIC reports the setpoint. At this moment the
substance is also drained via V4.
184 13 Repeat Tasks

Fig. 13.11 Process model

• The process may only be restarted after all the liquid has been drained via V4.

Realize the control with the help of PLC and test the circuit!

13.6 Review of Chap. 9

Exercise 13.18 (FFFB94)

Now use the function blocks FFSR and FFRS (FB_FFSR.IL and FB_FFRS.IL)
from both Exercises 9.6 and 9.7 together in one project. Both flip-flops are to be reset
and set with the same inputs (%IX0.0 and %IX0.1). Give the outputs to the lamps at
QX0.0 and QX0.1. Test the operation of the two flip-flop types in comparison.

Exercise 13.19 (GEN92)

Another example results from Exercise 8.12. There, two generators should be used.
Simplify the project by using a function block for the pulses. Name this block ‘FB_
PULS.IL’.

13.7 Review of Chap. 10

Exercise 13.20 (TANK101)

Do you remember the tasks with the quantity measurement from Sect. 8.9? The CV
output of the counter constantly indicates the fill level. By comparing the CV output
with a setpoint, a very specific quantity can be filled into the vessel.
13.7 Review of Chap. 10 185

Supplement Exercise 8.15 with an input option for the setpoint. As soon as the actual
value has reached the setpoint, the filling should stop.

Exercise 13.21 (7SEG103)

In Exercise 10.8 the digits to be displayed were set by means of the input switches at
%ib1. Now provide a counter whose count is displayed on the 7-segment display.

Exercise 13.22 (FLASH105)

Let a running light run back and forth over two bytes! To do this, load the standard I/O
process twice and set the correct byte number for each.

Exercise 13.23 (DICE102)

Play with two dice: Create a program in which two random generators are started and
the numbers are output on the outputs %qb0 and %qb1.

Exercise 13.24 (DICE103)

The two random numbers from Exercise 13.23 above are displayed in two different
bytes. However, for both bytes only one digit each, i.e. half a byte, namely the “lower”
half, is used. Now both half bytes are to be displayed in a single byte.
How can we combine the two random numbers so that both numbers are displayed
next to each other in a single byte? Exactly, first the second number must be shifted four
places to the left and then the values must be “superimposed”.
As already applied to the running light, shifting by one place to the left is done by
multiplying by two. But with which number must be multiplied for a shift by four
places? In the case of the running light, we multiplied by 2 for a shift of one place.
Therefore, for four places, we must multiply by two four times in succession, that is,
multiply by 2∗2∗2∗2 = 24 = 16. (Not by 2∗4 = 8).
To finally connect the two values, we only need to OR them. To understand this last
step, you should take another look at the “data switch with the OR element” from Sect.
2.9. In the PLC, the OR operator acts on the entire byte and links the bits in the same
positions individually.
186 13 Repeat Tasks

ld Dice0.Value
mul 16
or Dice1.Value
st OutByte1

13.8 Review of Chap. 11

Exercise 13.25 (7SEG112)

Modify Exercise 11.2 so that now the upper four input bits are evaluated and appear in
the 7-segment display at %qb1.
In Exercise 11.2, only the lower four bits of the input byte are evaluated. We can also
use the upper four bits. The easiest way to do this is to shift all bits four positions to the
right. Yes exactly, similar to the running light and the cube (Exercise 11.2), but the other
direction: each bit shifted to the right must be divided by two, i.e. by 2∗2∗2∗2 = 24 = 16.

ld InByte
div 16
ByteTo7Seg
st OutByte1

Exercise 13.26 (7SEG113)

Combine the two seven-segment displays for the low and high parts of the input byte at
%ib1 so that the byte is displayed in two digits.
Now we want to combine the two tasks, and display the input byte of %ib1 in two
digits, each in a seven-segment-digit. So that the two parts: the four low bits and the
four high bits do not interfere with each other, the other half byte must be “hidden”, i.e.
the corresponding digits must be replaced with ‘0’. To do this, you can use the “data
switch with the AND element” from Sect. 2.7.
The PLC applies the AND operation to each bit of a byte individually. The “four-bit”
data switch can therefore be implemented as shown in the following program excerpt.

ld InByte
and 2#00001111
ByteTo7Seg
st OutByte0
13.9 Review of Chap. 12 187

Exercise 13.27 (DICE112)

Create a program for two dice, each using the ByteToDice function to display the
dice results in the Dice process. Compare here also with Exercises 13.23 and 13.24.

13.9 Review of Chap. 12

Exercise 13.28 (MIXER123)

Extension of flow control Exercise 12.7:

The process of Exercise 12.7 is to be extended. In the following task, only the
advancing conditions for steps 3 and 5 must be changed in such a way that they only
take place with the execution or expiry of the respective preceding instruction 1. These
delay times in turn start depending on LIS1 or LIS3. The necessary changes are
marked in bold in the following text and in the flow chart Fig. 13.12.

1. Water is supplied to a measuring vessel via valve V1 until the limit switch LIS2
signals “measuring vessel full”.
2. Via valve V3 the supplied water is drained into the agitator piston.
b. If LIS1 signals “measuring vessel empty”, valve V3 should remain open for
another 2 s so that the measuring vessel can run empty.
3. The flask contents are heated up until the contact thermometer TIC indicates “Set
temperature reached”. When heating up, the stirrer must be switched on and the
cooling water valve V2 opened.
4. After reaching the set temperature, the contents of the flask are stirred for 10 s.
5. When the post-stirring time is finished, the stirrer is switched off and valve V4 is
opened to empty the piston.

Fig. 13.12 Extension of an

existing sequence control. See
Exercise 13.28 V3 open
Supplying 1

Afterrun
Supplying 2
V3 open

Heating on
Heating Stirrer on
V2 open
188 13 Repeat Tasks

Clockwise: Kiln

Conveyor belt

Fig. 13.13 Technology diagram for Exercise 13.30

b. After emptying the piston (LIS3 = 0), valve V4 should remain open for
another 2 seconds to allow the piston to run empty.
6. Then the cooling water is closed and the whole process can be repeated by pressing
the “Start” button.

• The transition from step 2 to step 3 (or from step 5 to step 6) only takes place when
the signal LIS1 (or LIS3) has gone AND the time of 2 seconds has elapsed.

Carry out the program extension for steps 2b and 5b! Note that valves V2 and V4
must now be open during several steps.

Exercise 13.29 (MIXER124)

Finally, program a sequence control for the large chemistry process. Let the three mea-
suring vessels fill and empty one after the other. Then the mixture is to be stirred and
heated and the waste gas cooled. When the set temperature is reached, the substance is
drained and the process can be restarted by pressing the start button. Do not forget the
run-on times!

13.10 Mixed Tasks

Exercise 13.30 (EX01)

Kiln control (Fig. 13.13):

When the impulse is given with the operating switch S1, the conveyor belt starts
running clockwise. When switch S3 is reached, the heating is switched on. As soon as
the limit switch S4 makes contact, the belt stops. The dwell time in the oven is 10 s.
After that the part is moved back again until reaching the limit switch S2. The system
should be stopped at any time by the stop switch. In this case, the heating is to be
switched off immediately and the part is to be moved back to the starting position.
13.10 Mixed Tasks 189

Conveyor belt 2

Roller conveyor Lifting table with

conveyor belt 1

Fig. 13.14 Technology diagram for Exercise 13.31 (EX02) and for Exercise 13.32

Exercise 13.31 (EX02)

Pallet lifting table 1 (Fig. 13.14).

The lifting table is to be used to transfer pallets to a higher loading platform.

1. When the pushbutton S1 is actuated, the conveyor belt 1 of the lift table is switched
on. The pallet rolls over the inclined roller conveyor onto the running conveyor belt
1. By actuating the limit switch S3, the conveyor belt 1 is switched off and the
motor for the upward movement of the lifting table is switched on. If the table actu-
ates the limit switch S5, the motor is switched off and both conveyor belts 1 and 2
must run until the limit switch S6 is actuated by the pallet. Now the lift table moves
downwards again until S4 signals that the lower limit position has been reached.
2. It must be possible to switch off the system at any time using the pushbutton switch
S0. After actuation of S1 the started sequence of the plant shall be continued.
3. As long as the system does not assume the initial position (lifting table down, con-
veyor belt switched off), the H1 signal lamp should light up.

Exercise 13.32 (EX03)

Pallet lift table 2 (Fig. 13.14).

In addition to the previous task 13.31, empty pallets are now to be transported back.
If an empty pallet is on the conveyor belt 2 (limit switch S6 actuated) and the pushbut-
ton switch S2 is pressed, the upward movement of the lift table is switched on. In the
upper end position (S5), both conveyor belts are switched on in counterclockwise rota-
tion. If the limit switch S3 is actuated by the pallet and then released again, the con-
veyor belts are switched off and the table moves downwards to the lower position.
190 13 Repeat Tasks

It must be possible to stop the system at any time by pressing pushbutton S0. After
subsequent actuation of the pushbutton S1 or S2, the pallet transport is to be continued
in the desired direction.

Exercise 13.33 (EX04)

A transport section, e.g. a conveyor belt, is to be monitored to ensure that no more than
12 and no fewer than 8 parts are present within the section between photoelectric sensor
LS1 and photoelectric sensor LS2. If 12 parts are within this range, the stopper shall
stop the parts supply. If there are less than 8 parts, a warning signal (lamp or horn) shall
be given. After the switch-off signal, the belt should run empty for some time before
it stops.
Notice:
Each inflowing part passing the light barrier LS1 shall increase the counter value by
1, and each outflowing part passing the light barrier LS2 shall decrease 1.
Solve this task with PLC! To do this, create the assignment lists, the function block
diagram, the instruction list and test your program.

Exercise 13.34 (EX05)

In a floppy disk factory, 10 floppy disks are to be packed in each box. Design a control
system! Create the allocation list, the logic diagram, program and test your solution.

Exercise 13.35 (EX06)

In a retail store, a control light in the office should light up when one or more customers
are in the store. Design a solution with PLC.

Exercise 13.36 (EX07)

Program a generator that outputs a pulse train at output A0.1 that gives a total duration
T1 + T2 = 5s and a duty cycle k = 3/5. What is the frequency of the generator?

Exercise 13.37 (EX08)

A single-track railway line is divided into four track sections. In order to prevent the
simultaneous use of track sections by several trains, a signal is set up at the beginning
of each section. In an interlocking, an alarm device shall be triggered when signal 1 and
2 indicate free running or 2 and 3 indicate free running or 3 and 4 indicate free running.
Determine the complete function table for this control.
13.10 Mixed Tasks 191

Fig. 13.15 For Exercise 13.42 Clock

Exercise 13.38 (EX09)

An airlock has three doors. Two immediately following doors must always be closed.
The individual doors are opened via door openers. Limit switches report whether the
doors are closed. Set up the function table and implement the control with PLC.

Exercise 13.39 (EX10a)

In a large detached house with decentralised hot water supply, five instantaneous water
heaters are installed. Due to the high connected load of the instantaneous water heaters,
only a maximum of two may be in operation at the same time. The operating status of
the instantaneous water heaters is indicated by load shedding relays.
Design an interlock circuit 2 out of 5 by setting up an assignment table and a func-
tion table. Then determine the disjunctive normal form from the function table.
Implement the circuit with PLC!

Exercise 13.40 (EX10b)

As Exercise 13.39, but four heaters have a connected load of 1 kW each, and the fifth
has a load of 2 kW. Implement a circuit which gives an alarm when the power of 2 kW
is exceeded!

Exercise 13.41 (EX11)

The note-taking light in a demonstration room may only be lit when the main light is
switched off and the on switch is operated.

Exercise 13.42 (EX12)

1. Implement a blinker on output A 1.1, which is stopped with a 0 signal on input E

1.1. (Fig. 13.15).
2. Realize a blinker on output A 1.2, which is stopped with a 1 signal on input E 1.2.

Exercise 13.43 (EX13)

1. Write a PLC program that queries the keys at %ix0.7, %ix0.6 and %ix0.0.
The key at %ix0.0 fills the boiler as long as it is pressed, the key at %ix0.6 emp-
ties the boiler. The key at %ix0.7 is used for heating.
192 13 Repeat Tasks

2. With the key at %ix0.7, the heating is now to be switched on permanently by

briefly pressing the key, but only if the boiler is not empty! The key at %ix0.6
switches the heating off.
3. Extension of the task: after reaching T = 50° C the heating should switch off until
the boiler has cooled down to 40° C. Now the heating must switch on again and so
on until the process is completely ended by means of the key at %ix0.6.

Exercise 13.44 (EX14)

1. Write a PLC program that queries the button at %ix0.7. As long as the button is
pressed, the control lamp at %qx0.0 should light up, the heating in the boiler pro-
cess should heat up and the boiler should be filled via the filling valve.
2. Now each keystroke is to be counted. The number is to be output on the byte %qb3.
3. A second counter is now to indicate how often the temperature of has been reached
40° C or exceeded. This number is to be output on a byte at %qb2.
4. When the temperature has been reached three times, open the outlet valve
accumulating.

Exercise 13.45 (EX15)

1. Write a PLC program that queries the button at %ix0.7. As long as the button is
pressed, the control lamp at %qx0.0 should light up and the boiler should be filled
via the filling valve.
2. Now the heating process is to be started at the push of a button. As soon as are
reached 50° C, the heating stops.
3. A counter is now to indicate how often the temperature of has been reached
50° C. This number is to be output on a byte at %qb3.
4. When the temperature has been reached three times 50° C, open the outlet valve
accumulating as soon as the temperature has cooled down.

Exercise 13.46 (EX16)

In a production line Fig. 13.16, the manufactured parts must be distributed to three dif-
ferent workstations for further processing.
A light barrier is installed in the conveyor belt, which gives a 0 signal when a part
passes through. This signal causes the magnetic actuator to receive an impulse lasting
half a second, which causes the switch to move one step further, thus clearing the way
to the corresponding station. After the third station, the first station is to be started
again. This is achieved by a three-second impulse to the solenoid actuator.
13.10 Mixed Tasks 193

Fig. 13.16 For Exercise 13.46

Magnetic
actuator

Exercise 13.47 (EX17)

1. A measuring vessel is to be filled. A (short) press on the start button starts the filling
process. The filling valve should remain open for 3 s. The limit value transmitter is
not yet to be taken into account.
2. A (short) press on the stop button also closes the valve before the time from task 1
has elapsed. Likewise, reaching LIS2 closes the filling valve; i.e. after pressing the
start button, the filling valve should now be closed after 3 s or by pressing the stop
button or by reaching LIS2.
3. As soon as the upper limit value LIS2 is reached, the drain valve should open auto-
matically until LIS1 signals drain. Then the drain valve closes again. During this
time, filling should also not be possible.
4. After LIS1 has signalled draining, the valve should not be closed immediately, but
only after 3 s, so that the boiler can drain completely.
5. The number of fillings should be displayed with LEDs dual.

Exercise 13.48 (EX18)

Sorting plant 1 (Fig. 13.17).

Wooden beams are transported over a roller system and are to be counted. The
beams are of different lengths. Therefore, short and long beams are to be recorded sepa-
rately. An encoder0 emits a pulse when a beam passes through. If the beam is short,
only encoder1 also emits a ‘1’ signal; if the beam is long, both encoder1 and encoder2
emit a ‘1’ signal.

1. Write a PLC program that displays the number of bars in a single-digit 7-segment
display. Simulate the encoders with the standard IO process. Initially, the display
does not need to go beyond ‘9’, so only a maximum of nine are initially recorded.
2. Now a distinction is to be made between the short and long bars. With two separate
counters the respective numbers are to be represented at two displays. (Again only
up to max. 9 pieces)
194 13 Repeat Tasks

Fig. 13.17 For Exercise 13.48 Encoder1 Encoder2

and for Exercise 13.49 Encoder0

3. If no other encoder or only encoder 2 gives a signal when encoder 0 is pulsed, some
kind of fault has occurred. This fault should be signalled by a lamp until an
acknowledgement button has been pressed. During the fault indication no counting
pulses may reach the counters.
4. In a HEX display, the numbers from 10dec are displayed as ‘A’,‘B’ …. Create a deci-
mal display with two counter components and two 7-segment displays, which dis-
plays two digits from ‘00’ … ‘09’, ‘10’, … ‘99’.

Exercise 13.49 (EX19)

Sorting plant 2 (Fig. 13.17).

1. Write a PLC program that displays the total number of bars (without distinguishing
between long and short) in a single-digit 7-segment display. Simulate the encoders
with the standard IO process. The display does not need to be decimal; in this case
you can simply use the HEX-Output display for display.
2. Now a distinction is to be made between the short and long bars. With two separate
counters, the respective numbers are to be displayed on two displays.
3. If no further encoder or only encoder 2 gives a signal when encoder 0 is pulsed,
some kind of fault has occurred. This fault should be signalled by a lamp until an
acknowledgement button has been pressed.
4. During the fault indication and for 3 s after acknowledgement, no counting pulses
may reach the counters.

Exercise 13.50 (EX20)

In a traffic light control system, the traffic light for the side street should not turn
“green” until four cars are waiting. Even if there is less traffic, no car should wait longer
than 10 s. The secondary traffic light should show green for 10 s and then switch
back to red.
Example: Control of a Mountain Railway
14

Abstract

In this chapter we have worked on the example 4.2.5 (page 116) and 4.4.5 (page 163)
from the book by John and Tiegelkamp (Book: John, Karl-Heinz, Tiegelkamp, Michael.:
SPS-Programmierung mit IEC 61131-3 – Konzepte und Programmiersprachen,
Anforderungen an Programmiersysteme, Entscheidungshilfen, Springer, Heidelberg
(2009)) for the programming of a control of a mountain railway – cable car for “PLC-
lite” as an exercise and repetition task and commented on it in detail. Beyond the given
example, the functionality was extended, e.g. by a demand stop request. With “PLC-
lite” this exercise can be carried out on the PC. During the simulation with the program
“PLC-lite” the gondola moves in the landscape. By means of control panels the move-
ment of the gondola can be controlled on the screen. In this way, you can safely test all
control situations. If a wrong run occurs, the error is clearly displayed.

14.1 Control of a Cable Car

Figure 14.11 shows the topography image of the Ifinger cable car (“Bergbahn” in German)
“Merano 2000”. Located near Merano, Italy, this 3800-m-long cable car can transport over
800 people per hour from the lower station (“Talstation” in German) to the top station
(“Bergstation” in German) 1240 m higher at the foot of the Ifinger. This cable car has two
gondolas, with only one of them stopping on demand at the middle station (“Mittelstation”
in German) near Gsteier. Considering only this one gondola, this corresponds exactly to
the example from the book [1], which performs the following functionality:

1
Photo with permission of Geo Marketing GmbH/srl, 39100 Bolzano, Italy.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 195
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_14
196 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

Fig. 14.1 Ifinger mountain railway

Task
The control system must take the following requirements into account:

• The sensors S1, S2, S3 report TRUE (1) when the gondola is in one of the stations.
In the counter StationStopp the total sum of all station entries is to be registered.
• The motor for nacelle movement knows the input variables:
Direction: Forward (TRUE)/Backward (FALSE) (buffered declared)
StartStop: Start (TRUE), Stop (FALSE)
14.1 Control of a Cable Car 197

• There is a DoorOpen switch in the gondola. Switch to 1 means: “Open door”, FALSE
means: “Close door”.
• The motor for door control has two actuators ActOpenDoor and ActCloseDoor (active:
on edge from FALSE to TRUE), which cause it to open and close the door respectively.
• A Startbutton sets the gondolas in operation;
The end of operation can be initiated with the Stop button.
• A warning signal is to be activated in the time between switching off the cable car and
the restart.

The PLC project consists of a main program and a function block. In the main program,
mainly the input variables (sensors, switches) are queried and the output variables (actua-
tors, displays) are controlled. The functionality is mainly implemented in the func-
tion block.
In Exercise 14.1 you can experiment with a cable car control. At first, do not pay atten-
tion to the program codes, but “play”! We will explain the code in detail in a moment.

Exercise 14.1 (CC01a)

Start with PLC-lite the project CC01a.plp and the visualization of the process “Mountain
railway” (Bergbahn). You can additionally display the process “Standard-I/O 16bit”, so
that you can better observe the signals of the process.
Start the program with “Run”.
After pressing the green start button on the “main panel” at the top left (which is
located in the cable car control room), the cabin door closes after a few seconds and the
gondola starts moving. It stops at the mid station, continues after a short stop, reverses
direction after stopping at the top station and returns to the valley.
In the simulation with PLC-lite, the small “cabin panel” with the green door button
and the red stop button travels with the cabin. For space reasons it is not “mounted”
inside but outside next to the cabin. In addition, there is a “copy” of this panel in the
upper left corner, because otherwise it is difficult to click the buttons with the mouse
while driving. With the button “Door open” you can open the closing door once more,
to allow e.g. late arriving passengers to enter. The red stop button on the cabin panel is
still without function, it will be put into operation in Exercise 14.7.
With the red stop button (end of operation, power off) on the main panel you give the
signal to the gondola to continue driving and to stop at the next stop at the lower station
until you press the start button again. Coloured rings around the buttons indicate the
operating states Ready, Run, End of operation requested and End of stop reached
(Power off).
198 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

At the middle station at Gsteier there is another small “station panel”, with a dis-
play of the direction of travel and two buttons for a stop request up or down. These are
not yet used in the first example, but will be programmed in Exercise 14.10.
In addition, there is a “revision panel” in the upper left corner with four buttons:
fault acknowledgement, open door (directly, without PLC program), drive up or down
(also directly). Attention: You can use these buttons to open the door during the run
(fault simulation) and run the gondola against the ends, beyond the normal end points.

We now look at the program code of the example in detail.

14.2 Cable Car: Main Programme

First the input variables for the input buttons and sensors, the output variables for the dis-
plays of some process states and for the actuators and other variables are declared. The
displays for direction (Richtung), moving (Fahrt), station stops (Start/Stop), door open and
door close (Tür öffnen, Tür zu), wait (warten) and the displays for the operating states
ready, travel mode, end of operation requested and final stop reached (PowerOff) are set
independently by the simulation process and do not have to be programmed separately.

PROGRAM CC01a
(* Processes: *)
(* Bergbahn (cable car) *)
(* example from "SPS-Programmierung mit IEC 61131-3" *)
(* (c) 2008 John/Tiegelkamp (Springer-Verlag) *)

VAR
Start AT %I0.0: BOOL (* 1 = Start *)
End AT %I0.1: BOOL (* 1 = Stop in lower station *)
ButtonOpenDoor AT %I0.3: BOOL (* 1 = open *)
SensorDoorClosed AT %I0.4: BOOL (* 1 = closed *)
LowerStation AT %I1.0: BOOL (* 1 = in station *)
MiddleStation AT %I1.1: BOOL
TopStation AT %I1.2: BOOL
Action AT %Q0.0: BOOL (* 1 = Plant on *)
ActOpenDoor AT %Q0.1: BOOL (* 1 = Open door *)
ActCloseDoor AT %Q0.2: BOOL (* 1 = close *)
PowerOff AT %Q0.3: BOOL (* 1 = stop, cabin in lower station *)
StartStop AT %Q0.4: BOOL (* 1 = drive *)
MoveDown AT %Q0.5: BOOL (* 1 = downwards *)
DisplayEnd AT %Q0.6: BOOL
14.2 Cable Car: Main Programme 199

Warning AT %Q0.7: BOOL

StationStopp AT %QB3: INT
DisplayWait AT %Q1.7: BOOL
cycle1: BOOL
CabinControl: CCControl
END_VAR

(* set initial values *)

LDN cycle1
S PowerOff
S DisplayEnd
S cycle1

Evaluation of the start or stop button and the PowerOff signal:

(* Load physical I/O values (sensor information) *)

LD Start
ST CabinControl.CablewayOn
LD PowerOff
ANDN Start
JMPC NoOperation
LD End
ST CabinControl.CablewayOff

Determine station stays and transfer them to the “CabinControl” control function block
BBControl:

(* stops *)
LD lowerStation
ST CabinControl.St1
LD MiddleStation
ST CabinControl.St2
LD TopStation
ST CabinControl.St3

Activate:
(* Activate mountain railway control FB *)
LD ButtonOpenDoor
ST CabinControl.ButtonOpenDoor
LD StartStop
200 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

ST CabinControl.CabinRun
CAL CabinControl

Read values from the control function module and pass them to variables in the main
program:

(* Store physical I/O values (Motor Information) *)

LD CabinControl.ActOpenDoor
ST ActOpenDoor
LD CabinControl.EndSignal
ST PowerOff
// because in PLC-lite no type VAR_IN_OUT ->
LD CabinControl.CabinRunOut
AND SensorDoorClosed
ST StartStop
LD CabinControl.DirectionOut
ST MoveDown
LD CabinControl.PowerOffOut
ST DisplayEnd
// additional control displays:
LD CabinControl.StationStoppOut
ST StationStopp
LD CabinControl.Wait
ST DisplayWait
LD CabinControl.Action
ST Action
JMP End_POU

Gondola is in the lower station and operation is stopped (PowerOff):

NoOperation:
LD FALSE
ST ActCloseDoor
STN ActOpenDoor
ST CabinControl.CablewayOn
ST StartStop
ST CabinControl.CabinRun
CAL CabinControl
// because in PLC-lite no type VAR_IN_OUT ->
LD CabinControl.Action
ST Action
14.3 Edge Detection 201

End_POU:
END_PROGRAM

14.3 Edge Detection

The system has a sensor for each stop station, which indicates the stay of the gondola in
the respective station by a 1. When the car enters the station, the sensor signal goes from
0 to 1. This “rising edge” indicates that the car has just entered the station. In [1], variables
of type BOOL with the attribute R_EDGE are therefore used for the sensor signal. This
attribute is not implemented in PLC-lite, but a standard function block R_TRIG is. With
this, edge detection is also possible.
The function block R_TRIG is the standard specified in [4] and [6]2: These blocks must
operate according to the following rules.

• In the case of a function module R_TRIG, after the transition of the input CLK from 0
to 1, the output Q goes to the Boolean value 1 during the subsequent first execution
(CAL ...) of the function module and returns to 0 during the second execution.
The same applies to F_TRIG: after the transition of input CLK from 1 to 0, output Q
remains at the value 1 from the next to the next but one execution of the function block.
• NOTE: If the input CLK of an instance of type R_TRIG is connected to a value 1, its
output Q will go to 1 and remain so after its first execution following a cold start. From
the next and all subsequent executions, output Q will go to 0 and remain so.
The same applies to an instance F_TRIG, whose input CLK is unconnected or is con-
nected with the value FALSE.

Rising Edge Detection

In the following function module you can see the IL with which the above rules can be
implemented. You do not need to program this! This standard function block is integrated
in PLC-lite. This program code only serves as an illustration for you if you want to under-
stand how it works.

FUNCTION_BLOCK BOOL_R_TRIG
VAR_INPUT
CLOCK: BOOL
END_VAR

2
German: [4] EN 61131-3:2003 (Kapitel 2.5.2.3.2 Flankenerkennung / Tabelle 35 – Standard-
Funktionsbausteine Flankenerkennung) or English: [6] E DIN IEC 61131-3:2009-12 – Draft –
(6.5.3.5.2 Bistable elements/Table 41 – Standard bistable function blocks).
202 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

VAR_OUTPUT
EDGE: BOOL
END_VAR
VAR
M: BOOL
END_VAR
LD CLOCK
ANDN M
ST EDGE
LD CLOCK
ST M
END_FUNCTION_BLOCK

Exercise 14.2 (FLASH141)

In Sect. 10.3 you programmed a running light that required an initial value to be set.
Compare the solution from there with the method given here, which uses the function
block F_TRIG.
The function block Cycle1: F_TRIG is called exactly once at the beginning of
each cycle with CAL Cycle1. Output Cycle1.Q therefore remains at the value 1
from the start of the program for exactly the first cycle and goes constantly to 0 for the
rest of the program run. Note that you do not have to assign a value to input
Cycle1.CLK.
Create the program for the running light and test it.

Program FlashLightFlash141
(*Processes: *)
(* standard I/O byte 1 *)
(* Hex-Output byte 1 *)
var
Pulse: TON
Cycle1: F_TRIG
Bit0 AT %QX1.0: BOOL
Bit7 AT %QX1.7: BOOL
Byte1 AT %QB1: USINT
end_var
(* set bit *)
CAL Cycle1
LD Cycle1.Q
S Bit0
...
14.4 Cable Car (Bergbahn): Control Function Block 203

14.4 Cable Car (Bergbahn): Control Function Block

We can now look at the control function block.

First, the variables are defined:

FUNCTION_BLOCK CCCONTROL
VAR_INPUT
CablewayOn: BOOL //R_EDGE (* key to start *)
CablewayOff: BOOL (* initiate end *)
St1,St2,St3: BOOL //R_EDGE (* sensor station *)
ButtonOpenDoor: BOOL (* 1 = open, 0 = close *)
END_VAR

VAR_INPUT //_IN_OUT
CabinRun: BOOL (* 1 = car moves *)
END_VAR

VAR_OUTPUT
ActOpenDoor: BOOL
ActCloseDoor: BOOL
CabinRunOut: BOOL
DirectionOut : BOOL
PowerOffOut: BOOL
Action: BOOL
StationStoppOut: INT
Wait: BOOL
END_VAR

VAR_OUTPUT // RETAIN
EndSignal: BOOL (* Warning signal PowerOff *)
END_VAR

VAR
StationStopp: CTU (* station entrances *)
DoorTime: TON
Entry: BOOL
StartPuls: R_TRIG
St1Puls: R_TRIG
St2Puls: R_TRIG
St3Puls: R_TRIG
END_VAR

VAR // RETAIN
Direction: BOOL
DirectionFF: RS
204 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

END_VAR

Now the function blocks for edge detection are prepared:

LD CablewayOff
S PowerOffOut

LD CablewayOn
ST StartPuls.CLK
CAL StartPuls
LD St3
ST St3Puls.CLK
CAL ST3Pulse
LD St2
ST St2Puls.CLK
CAL ST2Pulse
LD St1
ST St1Puls.CLK
CAL ST1Pulse

Exercise 14.1 requires a warning signal to be output between switching off the path and
restarting it. This end signal remains because of the declaration with the attribute
RETAIN (also in case of power failure). Therefore, at program start the buffered value and
not automatically the initial value 0 is assigned. This is meaningless here with PLC-lite
because the RETAIN attribute is not available. However, we leave the reset in the program
as it is carried out in [1].

LD StartPuls.Q (* the first call? *)

R EndSignal (* because of attribute RETAIN *)
S Action
JMPC ResetCounter
JMP GoEntry

ResetCounter:
LD 1
ST StationStop.R
CAL StationStop
LD 1
ST StationStop.CU
LD 0
ST StationStop.R
CAL StationStop
LD StationStop.CV
ST StationStopOut
JMP CabinClose
14.4 Cable Car (Bergbahn): Control Function Block 205

After entering a station, several actions are required: stop the engine, open the door and
count up the station counter.

GoEntry:
LD St1Puls.Q
OR St2Puls.Q
OR St3Puls.Q
ST Entry
R CabinRun
S ActOpenDoor
ST StationStop.CU
LD 0
ST StationStop.R
CAL StationStop
LD StationStop.CV
ST StationStopOut

Now we check whether the car is in the lower station (St1) or the top station (St3).
We do this with XOR: in case of a sensor error it could happen that both sensors indicate
1. We should still catch this error case and handle it accordingly (e.g. initiate an emer-
gency stop). Also for safety reasons, we do not simply switch the direction by the com-
mand sequence LD direction STN direction, but use the flip-flop
directionFF. To set the new direction we use the static signals of the stations.

(* possibly change direction *)

LD St1 (* static signals! *)
XOR St3
JMPCN NoSwitch (* no 1? -> continue *)
(* change direction *)
LD St1 (* static signals! *)
ST DirectionFF.R1
LD St3
ST DirectionFF.S
CAL DirectionFF
LD DirectionFF.Q1
ST DirectionOut

The car door may only be opened when staying in a station. The signal from the door
open button is linked accordingly:

NoSwitch:
LD ButtonOpenDoor (* Query door switch *)
AND( St1 (* when staying in station *)
OR St2
206 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

OR St3
)
S ActOpenDoor

If the end of service has been requested and we have pulled into the lower station, then
we are now done …

(* End + in station -> POU end *)

LD PowerOffOut (* circuit breaker actuated? *)
AND St1Puls.Q (* entry in lower station *)
S EndSignal
R Action
JMPC PoeEnd

CabinClose:
LD ActOpenDoor
STN ActCloseDoor (* never both the same! *)
(* Continue after 4 sec. *)
LDN ButtonOpenDoor
ANDN CabinRun
ST DoorTime.IN
S Wait (* control display *)
LD T#4s
ST DoorTime.PT
CAL DoorTime
LD DoorTime.Q (* Time expired? *)
AND Action
S CabinRun
R ActOpenDoor
R Wait

End of the function module and return to the calling main program:

PoeEnd:
LD CabinRun
ST CabinRunOut
END_FUNCTION_BLOCK

Exercise 14.3 (CC01FF)

For example, using a function table, justify why the flip-flop switches directionFF
to reverse direction only in the two end stations.
Specify a circuit that detects the error case: both sensors give signal and turns on a
warning light.
14.4 Cable Car (Bergbahn): Control Function Block 207

Exercise 14.4 (CC01b)

Our display of station entries has the “flaw” that the numbers are displayed in HEX
code. To display the numbers in BCD code, we have developed a function in Exercise
11.4 (BCD111.PLP):

Function hex_to_bcd: Byte (f_h2bcd.il)

Extend the mountain railway Exercise 14.1 by this function to display the station
entries in BCD notation!

Exercise 14.5 (CC01c)

The display should now not show the number of station entries, but the respective sta-
tion number for a station stop: for the lower station a 1, for the middle station the
number 2 and for the top station the 3. During the journey the character string “FA”
should be displayed.
Solution hint: This is a code converter that must convert the 1-out-of-3 code into a
dual code. In Sects. 2.14 and 2.17, you created a circuit equation by evaluating the
minterms (“AND-before-OR”) of a function table. We can proceed similarly here. We
have the three input signals lowerStation, MiddleStation and TopStation,
of which either none or only one is “1”. As outputs of the function table we provide the
two bits for 21 and 20 of the station number. These are combined to give the station
number as a numerical value 01BCD, 10BCD or 11BCD (as decimal numbers: 1, 2 or 3).
Change the mountain railway Exercise 14.1 to show the station number instead of
the number of station entries.

Display of the Station Number

The solution of Exercise 14.5 can be realized with the following program part: First we
determine the more significant bit 21. It must be 1, if the car is in the middle station or in
the top station. Here we specify the complete minterms, although this would not be neces-
sary, because the car is always only in one station. But: if a sensor error would occur, this
situation can be recognized and appropriate measures can be taken. The minterms result in
values of type BOOL, which must be converted into numerical values (type INT) for fur-
ther processing. In Sect. 8.2 we already dealt with type conversions. The result is tempo-
rarily stored in the variable station number:

(* Output station number as a number *)

LD MiddleStation (* bit 1 determine *)
ANDN lowerStation
ANDN TopStation
OR( TopStation
ANDN MiddleStation
208 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

ANDN BotomStation
)
BOOL_TO_INT
MUL 2 (* push left *)
ST StationNumber

Determination of the least significant bit 20, also the complete minterms. This bit must
be 1 if the car is in the lower station or the top station:

LD lowerStation (* bit 0 determine *)

ANDN MiddleStation
ANDN TopStation
OR( TopStation
ANDN MiddleStation
ANDN lowerStation
)
BOOL_TO_INT

Now the variable StationNumber is added to this intermediate result and the sum is
stored back as the final result in the variable StationNumber:

ADD StationNumber (* combine *)

ST StationNumber

StationNumber is 0 if the car is not in a station. At this point one could also evalu-
ate the variable StartStop:

EQ 0
JMPC DisplayRide (* not in station *)
LD StationNumber
JMP DisplayStation
DisplayRide:
LD 16#FA
DisplayStation:
ST StationStop (* show *)

Exercise 14.6 (CC01d)

Modify the solution from Exercise 14.4 by using the variable StartStop as a condi-
tion for the ride display. Discuss the consequences of the two different methods.
14.5 Mountain Railway with Stop Request from the Cabin 209

14.5 Mountain Railway with Stop Request from the Cabin

The mountain railway is now to stop at the Gsteier middle station only on request. Initially,
this should only be possible with the button in the cabin panel in the cabin. This means that
only persons travelling with the cabin can initiate the on-demand stop.

Exercise 14.7 (CC02a)

Extend the program from Exercise 14.1 by the request of the stop button on the car
panel and the car stop at the middle station, if the stop button was pressed before.

Solution Tip
A variable is set to store the keystroke on the hold button. Only when this variable is set is
the sensor signal passed on to the control function block. This stop request variable is reset
when the exit is made. To register the exit, you can use a variable of type F_TRIG.
The button and the display are connected to the following inputs and outputs
respectively:

StopSt2CabButton AT %I1.3: BOOL

StopSt2Cabin AT %Q1.3: BOOL

You do not need to make any changes in the control function module, only in the main
program.

Stop at the Middle Station at Gsteier Only on Request

The control for Exercise 14.7 can be realized with the following program part:

LD StopSt2CabButton
S StopSt2Cabin (* Register Halt *)
LD MiddleStation
AND StopSt2Cabin (* Stop on request *)
ST CableControl.St2
ST MiddleStationExit.CLK
CAL MiddleStationExit
LD MiddleStationExit.Q
R StopSt2Cabin (* Delete request *)

Exercise 14.8 (CC02b)

Now the display of the station stops should be shown as BCD numbers and not as HEX
numbers as in Exercise 14.4.
210 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

Exercise 14.9 (CC02c)

As in Exercise 14.5, the station numbers should now be displayed during the stays.

14.6 Cable Car with Stop Request from the Middle Station

Now, at the Gsteier mid station, the up/down buttons on the station panel at the station are
also to be put into operation so that a hiker can stop the cabin to board. In order to avoid
unnecessary stops, there are different buttons for the stop request for uphill or downhill
travel. The stop request should therefore be executed depending on the direction.

Exercise 14.10 (CC03a)

Extend the program from Exercise 14.9 by the request of the stop button on the station
panel and the car stop at the mid station, if the stop button “up” or “down” was pressed
before and the car moves in the corresponding direction. If the car travels through the
mid station in the direction not requested, the request remains set until the car travels in
the requested direction on its way back.
The buttons and the displays are connected to the following inputs and outputs:

RequestUpButton AT %I1.4: BOOL

RequestUp AT %Q1.4: BOOL
RequestDownButton AT %I1.5: BOOL
RequestDown AT %Q1.5: BOOL

Solution hint: The condition for the stop request is now:

MiddleStation
(StopSt 2Cabin
RequestOn TravelDirection
RequestFrom TravelDirection
)

The following conditions apply to resetting the stop request:

Reset StopSt2Cabin as in Exercise 14.7:
MiddleStationExit.Q

Reset RequestUp:

MiddleStationExit.Q ∧ RequestOn ∧ TravelDirection)

Reset RequestSt2Down:
MiddleStationExit. Q ∧ RequestFrom ∧ TravelDirection)
14.6 Cable Car with Stop Request from the Middle Station 211

Demand Stop at Gsteier Depending on Direction

The control for Exercise 14.10 can be realized with the following program part:
First, the corresponding keystrokes must be queried and stored.

LD StopSt2CabButton
S StopSt2Cabin (* Register stop *)
LD RequestUpButton
S RequestUp (* Register stop *)
LD RequestDownButton
S RequestDown (* Register stop *)

We now check whether there is a condition for a stop. When entering the middle station
we check if the stop button from the cabin is pressed or if the stop button for uphill was
pressed at the station panel and the car is on uphill or if the stop button for downhill was
pressed and the car is on downhill.

LD MiddleStation
AND( StopSt2Cabin (* Stop request *)
OR( RequestUp (* only for uphill *)
ANDN Direction
)
OR( RequestDown (* only for downhill *)
AND Direction

If the car has entered the middle station and a stop condition exists, the previous expres-
sion results in 1, St2 is activated in the controller and the car stops. In addition, the vari-
able MiddleStationExit is triggered. It is of type F_TRIG, the output Q remains 0
until the car has left the middle station. Then the middle station becomes 0 again, and
the 1 to 0 transition (negative edge!) at the clock input CLK causes output Q to become 1
for one program cycle. Exactly in this cycle the requests to be cleared are reset.

ST CableControl.St2
ST MiddleStationExit.CLK
CAL MiddleStationExit
LD MiddleStationExit.Q (* Exit? *)
AND StopSt2Cabin
R StopSt2Cabin (* Delete request *)
LD MiddleStationExit.Q
AND RequestUp
ANDN Direction
R RequestUp (* Delete request *)
LD MiddleStationExit.Q
AND RequestDown
AND Direction
R RequestDown (* Delete request *)
212 14 Example: Control of a Mountain Railway

14.7 Treatment of Operational Faults

Below the station names you will see fields “Sensor ok”. If you click on it, you simulate
the malfunctions “Cable break” (i.e. the sensor permanently gives 0-signal) and
“Blocking” (i.e. the sensor permanently gives 1-signal).

Exercise 14.11 (CC04a)

If you run the program from Exercise 14.1, you can observe, among other things, how
each “wrong click” on a station sensor increases the number of entries.
You can also see what happens when the gondola moves beyond the end stops! Also
use the buttons for the up and down movement of the gondola on the revision panel.
Test the programs extensively to detect as many error situations as possible!

Error Handling Routines

You can now include your own error handling. If, for example, more than one station sen-
sor gives a signal at the same time, a jump is made to the “ErrorAction” marker in the
following code fragment. There you can program a reaction to this error cause.
See also your solution to Exercise 14.3.

LDN lowerStation
ANDN MiddleStation
ANDN TopStation
OR ( lowerStation
ANDN MiddleStation
ANDN TopStation
)
OR ( MiddleStation
ANDN lowerStation
ANDN TopStation
)
OR ( TopStation
ANDN lowerStation
ANDN MiddleStation
)
JMPCN Erroraction
JMP NoFault
ErrorAction:
LD TRUE
S Warning
jmp NoOperation
NoFault:
LD TRUE
R Warning
14.7 Treatment of Operational Faults 213

Emergency Operation
Furthermore, there are additional sensors in the system as limit switches, which emit a
1-signal when not actuated. These signals come a little later than the normal stop sen-
sors. The status of these sensors is displayed on the revision panel to the right of the but-
tons for upward or downward travel. The signals are connected to the inputs %I2.0,
%I2.1 and %I2.2.

lowerStation2 AT %I2.0: BOOL (* 0=end stop *)

MiddleStation2 AT %I2.1: BOOL (* 0=hold point *)
TopStation2 AT %I2.2: BOOL (* 0=end stop *)

You can use these sensors for emergency operation.

Exercise 14.12 (CC04b)

Extend the program from Exercise 14.10 for emergency operation. The error handling
should also evaluate the limit switches. Control the warning in emergency operation
(%Q0.7)! Test the program extensively to detect all error situations if possible.
Structure and Programming of a PLC
15

Abstract

In the case of a hardwired control system, the program is determined by the fixed wir-
ing of the active switching elements (gates) and can only be changed by changing the
wire connections, which is usually very time-consuming.
In a stored-program control system, the signal processing is performed by a com-
puter. The instructions to the computer necessary for the program realization of the
control are stored in a memory. The totality of these instructions is referred to as a
“program”.
If the program is stored in a read-only memory (ROM), the control program can
only be changed by replacing this memory (chip); this is then a replaceable program-
mable controller. A freely programmable controller uses a random access memory
(RAM) as program memory. Here the program of the control can be easily changed by
reprogramming the memory.
In principle, all programmable logic controllers have the same structure as any com-
puter: central processing unit, memory and input and output units. The central process-
ing unit and memory usually form a single unit and are referred to as the automation device.

Figure 15.1 shows an overview of the control types. In the case of a hardwired-programmed
control, the program is defined by the fixed wiring of the active switching elements (gates)
and can only be changed by changing the line connections, which is usually very
time-consuming.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 215
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_15
216 15 Structure and Programming of a PLC

CONTROL

PLC
hardwired- Stored-
programmed programmed

Reprogrammable, Freely
Fixed relays, Changeable-
selector switch, programmable
circuits programmable
diode matrix RAM – memory

Unchangeable Changeable
PROM EPROM

Fig. 15.1 Programmable controllers

In a stored-program control system, the signal processing is performed by a computer.

The instructions to the computer necessary for the program realization of the control are
stored in a memory. The totality of these instructions is referred to as a “program”.
If the program is stored in a read-only memory (ROM), the control program can only
be changed by replacing this memory (chip); this is then a replaceable programmable
controller. A freely programmable controller uses a random access memory (RAM) as
program memory. Here the program of the control can be easily changed by reprogram-
ming the memory.
In principle, all programmable logic controllers have the same structure as any com-
puter: central processing unit, memory and input and output units. The central processing
unit and memory usually form a single unit and are referred to as the automation device.
Binary and digital signals can be input or output via the input and output units. Analog
signals must be converted into digital signals. The corresponding signal converters are
called analog-to-digital converters (A/D converters) or digital-to-analog converters (D/A
converters).
The creation of a control program is done in the following four steps:

1. Functional program description

The control task is described verbally, input and output data are specified. In control-
lers, input and output data are predominantly binary, digital and analog signals that
come from the process (process signals from sensors) or go to the process (commands
to actuators).
2. Create program flow chart (structure chart)
The program flow chart and the structure chart are aids that are used to “construct”
programs. With the aid of graphic symbols, the sequence of the program is clearly rep-
resented. From a rough program overview, the program structure is obtained by refin-
ing it step by step: the control task is thus divided into individual steps that can be
implemented by the computer. The structure diagram and program flow chart are inde-
pendent of the programming language used.
15 Structure and Programming of a PLC 217

3. Program creation
The individual steps that can be seen from the structure diagram or program flow chart
are transferred to the programming language. The result is, for example, the instruction
list, which can be translated into machine code by the compiler or processed directly by
the interpreter. Interpreters are often used in the PLC, since program errors can then be
found more easily in step mode.
4. Test and documentation
Program testing and documentation must be carried out very carefully. All functions of
the control must be tested in interaction with the process (on-line), or if this is not pos-
sible, by simulation (off-line) under all conceivable operating conditions. Good docu-
mentation is required in order to be able to make subsequent changes to the program
with reasonable effort.

The process signals are present at the inputs. The program is stored in the user memory
and is selected step by step by the control unit. The selected control instruction is trans-
ferred to the control unit and processed. In the process, for example, inputs, outputs, flags,
times are interrogated for their signal state and linked in order to control outputs, flags, etc.
The command is executed in the user memory. After execution of an instruction, the
instruction counter is incremented so that the next memory cell is controlled.
After execution of the last instruction, the program is started again at the first address:
the program is repeated cyclically.
Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite
16

Abstract

In this chapter you will find references to the standard IEC 61131-3, as far as they are
realized in PLC-lite. The language and structure elements of the IEC 61131-3 standard
described here document the properties of the “PLC-lite” program.

The following Tables 16.1, 16.2, 16.3, 16.4, 16.5, 16.6, 16.7 and 16.8 describe the proper-
ties of PLC-lite with regard to the IEC 61131 standard. This system meets the require-
ments of IEC 61131-3 in the following properties of the language: IL.

Table 16.1 Text elements

Term Description
Character Only characters (letters, digits and special characters) from the “basic code table” of ISO/
set IEC-646 may be used. The upper/lower case is not significant for the language elements
Identifier Identifiers, e.g. variable names, must begin with a letter or an underscore. They
must not contain umlauts (äöü) or ß!
Keywords The keywords are used by the programming system as syntactical elements and can
therefore not be used for user-defined identifiers
Space Spaces are not allowed within identifiers, keywords or literals. However, any
number of spaces are allowed in all other places
Comments Comments are enclosed by the character combinations (* and *). They may be used
wherever spaces are allowed. It is not permitted to “nest” comments; e.g. (*
comment (* nested *) *)
Literal Literals are used to represent data values. They are displayed according to the
following tables

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61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1_16
220 16 Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite

Table 16.2 Numerical literals

Name Examples Note

Integer −12
0
23
+56
Real numbers −12.0 n.s.a
0.0
3.14159
Real numbers with exponent −1.34E-12 n.s.
1.0e+6
Binary numbers 2#1111_1111
2#11100000
Octal numbers 8#377 n.s.
8#340
Hexadecimal numbers 16#ff
16#FF
16#E9
Boolean values 0 or FALSE
1 or TRUE
Literals with type specification INT#-12
BYTE#2#0110_1100
UINT#16#EFFE
n.s. means: in PLC-lite this property is not supported
a

Table 16.3 String literals

Description
No character strings (texts, strings) can be edited with PLC-lite

Table 16.4 Time literals

Name Examples Note

Duration T#14 ms
t#14h12m18s3.5 ms
t#14h_12m_18s_3.5 ms
Time#14.7 s
Date Date#1984-06-25 n.s.a
D#1984-06-25
Time of day Time_of_Day#15:36:55.36 n.s.
TOD#15:36:55.36
Date and time Date_and_Time#1984-06- n.s.
25-15:36:55.36
DT#1984-06-25-15:36:55.36
n.s. means: in PLC-lite this property is not supported
a
16 Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite 221

Table 16.5 Data types

Keyword Data type Bits Area Initialization value
BOOL Logical Boolean 1 0, 1 (FALSE, TRUE) 0
SINT Short integer 8 −128 … +127 0
INT Integer 16 −32768 … 32767 0
DINT Double integer 32 (−231) … (+231−1) 0
LINT Long integer 64 (−263) … (+263−1) 0 n.s.a
USINT Unsigned short 8 0 … 255 0
integer
UINT Unsigned 16 0 … 65535 0
integer
UDINT Unsigned double 32 0 … (232−1) 0
integer
ULINT Unsigned long 64 0 … (264−1) 0 n.s.
integer
REAL Real number 32 According to IEC 559 for floating 0 n.s.
point format
LREAL Long real 64 According to IEC 559 for floating 0 n.s.
number point format
TIME Duration 32 0 …± approx. 24 days Smallest T#0 s
unit: 1 ms
DATE Date D#0001-01-01 n.s.
TOD Time TOD#00:00:00 n.s.
DT Date and time DT#0001-01- n.s.
01-00:00:00
STRING Variable length A numeric value range is not “(empty string)” n.s.
string applicable for these data types
BYTE Bit sequence 8 0
WORD Bit sequence 16 0
DWORD Bit sequence 32 0
LWORD Bit sequence 64 0
n.s. means: in PLC-lite this property is not supported
a

Table 16.6 General data types

The general data types are identified by the prefix ‘ANY’
ANY_ELEMENTARY
ANY_MAGNITUDE ANY_BIT ANY_ ANY_DATEa
STRINGa
ANY_NUM TIME
ANY_INT ANY_
REALa
LINTa, DINT, INT, LREALa, LWORDa, DWORD, STRINGa, DATE_AND_
SINT, ULINTa, REALa WORD, BYTE, WSTRINGa TIMEa, DATE,
UDINT, UINT, USINT BOOL TIME_OF_DAYa
In PLC-lite this property is not supported
a
222 16 Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite

Table 16.7 Derived data typesa

Declarations (agreements)
The user can use the textual construction TYPE ... END_TYPE to declare data types by
derivation from others and thus use further types in addition to the elementary data types
Initialization
The default value is the value of the first identifier of the enumeration list or the lowest value of
the range, or it is specified by the assignment operator :=. For strings, the maximum length can
be specified in parentheses
The properties “derived data types” are not included in PLC-lite
a

Table 16.8 Variable

Single-element variable They contain only a single data element. This can be one of the
elementary types or a type derived from an elementary type. Single-element variables can be
represented directly: The identifier begins with the % character. Subsequent characters specify
the location, size, and hierarchical physical or logical address. The inputs of the PLC are memory
location I, outputs are memory location Q and flags are memory location M. For the addresses,
note that counting starts at 0
Direct variable (examples) Size, type Meaning
%I0.1 1 bit, Boolean Input, byte0, bit1
%I1 1 bit Input, byte0, bit1
%IB1 1 byte = 8 bit Input, byte 1
%IW0 2 byte = 16 bit, WORD Input, word 0,
consisting of byte
1 and byte 0
%ID0 4 bytes = 32 bits, DWORD Input, double
word 0,
consisting of
bytes 3–0
%IL0 8 byte = 64 bit, LWORDa Input, long word
0, consisting of
bytes 7–0
%Q... Output
%M... Flag (memory
register/bit)
Multi-element variableb
Multi-element variables are the fields (ARRAYs) and the structures (STRUCTUREs)
Declaration of variables
The declaration of variables is terminated for each variable type separately by the keyword
‘END_VAR’. Examples for the application can be found in the working part of this book. In
PLC-lite, only the properties addressed in the exercises and tasks can be used
(continued)
16.1 Program Organisation Units (POU) 223

Table 16.8 (continued)

Keyword/designator Use, scope Note
VAR Within the organizational
unit
VAR_INPUT Values are supplied from
outside the POU, cannot be
changed within the POU
VAR_OUTPUT Values are delivered from
POU to the outside
VAR_IN_OUT Values are supplied n.s.c
externally, can be changed
within the POU, and are
returned externally
VAR_EXTERNAL Values are supplied by n.s.
configuration
VAR_GLOBAL Global variable valid n.s.
everywhere
VAR_ACCESS Access paths for n.s.
communication services
according to IEC 1131-5
END_VAR Closes variable declarations
RETAIN Buffered variable, last value n.s.
is restored after warm start
CONSTANT Not changeable (=constant) n.s.
AT Assigning a specific storage
location
a
In PLC-lite this property is not supported
b
Multielement variables are not included in PLC-lite
c
n.s. means: in PLC-lite this property is not supported

16.1 Program Organisation Units (POU)

The program organisation units (e.g. “main program”, function, function module) are
described in Tables 16.9 and 16.10.

Functions
A function returns exactly one data element after the call. A field or a structure is also a
data element, even though it contains several values. In the statement list language, the
return value is in the Current Result (CR).
The Tables 16.9 and 16.10 list the functions and function blocks implemented in
PLC-lite.

Standard Function Blocks

Only the standard function blocks implemented in PLC-lite are described in Table 16.10.
224 16 Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite

Table 16.9 Standard functions

Type conversion functions
Function Return value, example Note
*_TO_** *: Input data type, e.g. INT **: Output data type, e.g.
USINT
BCD_ Input data type: ANY_BIT, BCD format **: Output data n.s.a
TO_** type, e.g. INT
*_TO_BCD *: Input data type, e.g. INT Output data type: ANY_BIT, n.s.
BCD format
TRUNC Truncation in direction zero Input type: ANY_REAL, n.s.
Output type: ANY_INT
Standard arithmetic functions
Data types: ANY_NUM, TIME
Function Return value, example Note
ADD Addition, Number of inputs
MUL Multiplication expandableb
SUB Subtraction Two inputs
DIV Division
MOD Division remainder
Standard functions for bit sequences
Data types: ANY_BIT
Function Return value, example Note
SHL Shift left by N bit, right fill with zero
SHR Shift right by N bit, fill left with zero
ROL Rotate left by N bit, “in a circle”
ROR Rotate right by N bit, “in a circle”
AND Bitwise AND operation Number of inputs
OR Bitwise OR operation expandableb
XOR Bitwise exclusive OR operation
NOT Negation
Standard functions for comparison
Input: all data types (ANY_BIT are interpreted as unsigned integers)
Output: BOOL
Function Return value, example Note
GT, > “Greater than”: returns TRUE, if operand > CR
GE, >= “Greater or equal”: TRUE if greater than or equal to CR
EQ, = “Equal”: TRUE if equal to CR
NE, <> “Not equal”: TRUE if unequal to CR
LE, <= “Less or equal”: TRUE if less than or equal to CR
LT, < “Less than”: TRUE if smaller than to CR
MAX n.s.a
MIN n.s.
n.s. means: in PLC-lite this property is not supported
a

Expandability of the inputs is not supported in PLC-lite

b
16.1 Program Organisation Units (POU) 225

Table 16.10 Standard function blocks

Function Symbol Description
Bistable function blocks
SR FlipFlop, priority setting

RS FlipFlop, priority resetting

R_TRIG Rising edge detection

F_TRIG Falling edge detection

CTU Up counter

CTD Down counter

CTUD Up-down counter

Timer
TP

Timer, Puls
Timer, pulse
TON

Timer, Einschaltverzögerung
Timer, switch-on delay
TOF

Timer, Ausschaltverzögerung
Timer, switch-off delay
226 16 Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite

16.2 Elements of the Instruction List Language (IL)

The statement list is composed of a sequence of statements. The instructions are structured
in this way, although not every instruction must contain all of these elements:

Label: Operator Operand Comment

The following Table 16.11 lists the operators defined for the statement list. A large part
of them corresponds to the standard functions mentioned in Table 16.9 and thus makes
them available in the IL.

Table 16.11 Language elements Instruction list

IL
Operator Modifier Operand type Meaning
LD N alla Sets the Current Result (CR) equal to the operand
ST N alla Saves the CR to the operand address
S BOOL Sets operand to 1 if current result is TRUE
R BOOL Resets operand to 0 if CR is TRUE
AND N ( ANY_BITa Bitwise AND
OR N ( ANY_BITa Bitwise OR
XOR N ( ANY_BITa Bitwise Exclusive OR
ADD ( ANY_NUM, TIME Addition
SUB ( ANY_NUM, TIME Subtraction
MUL ( ANY_NUM, TIME Multiplication
DIV ( ANY_NUM, TIME Division
GT ( all Comparison: >
GE ( all Comparison: >=
EQ ( all Comparison: =
NE ( all Comparison: <>
LE ( all Comparison: <
LT ( all Comparison: <=
JMP C N LABEL Jump to the LABEL
CAL C N NAME Call function module NAMEb
RET C N Return from function or FB
) Processing of the deferred operation
a
When using the modifier N, the data type must be BOOL
b
Parameters are transferred to the function block by loading/saving the input parameters as described
in the front part of this book. PLC-lite does not provide for the transfer of parameters in a list of input
parameters. Example: CAL_CTR_(CU:=Clock,_PV:=Input)
16.3 Keywords 227

16.3 Keywords

Keywords (Table 16.12) are protected and must not be used for identifiers. Particular
attention should be paid to this: The identifiers of the inputs and outputs of the standard
function blocks are also protected keywords.
The names of the input and output parameters of the standard function blocks (formal
parameters) can be found in the pictures above. These names must not be used for self-
defined FBs.

Table 16.12 Keywords

Keyword
ACTION ... END_ACTION
ARRAY ... OF
AT
CASE ... OF ... ELSE ... END_CASE
CONFIGURATION ... END_CONFIGURATION
CONSTANT
EN, ENO
EXIT
FALSE
F_EDGE
FOR ... TO ... BY ... DO ... END_FOR
FUNCTION ... END_FUNCTION
FUNCTION_BLOCK ... END_FUNCTION_BLOCK
IF ... THEN ... ELSIF ... ELSE ... END_IF
IMPLEMENTS, EXTENDS
INITIAL_STEP ... END_STEP
INTERFACE ... END_INTERFACE
METHOD ... END_METHOD
PROGRAM ... WITH
PROGRAM ... END_PROGRAM
R_EDGE
READ_ONLY, READ_WRITE
REPEAT ... UNTIL ... END_REPEAT
RESOURCE ... ON ... END_RESOURCE
RETAIN, NON_RETAIN
RETURN
STEP ... END_STEP
STRUCT ... END_STRUCT
(continued)
228 16 Standard Compliance of PLC-Lite

Table 16.12 (continued)

Keyword
TASK
THIS, SUPER
TRANSITION ... FROM ... TO ... END_TRANSITION
TRUE
TYPE ... END_TYPE
VAR ... END_VAR
VAR_INPUT ... END_VAR
VAR_OUTPUT ... END_VAR
VAR_IN_OUT ... END_VAR
VAR_TEMP ... END_VAR
VAR_EXTERNAL ... END_VAR
VAR_ACCESS ... END_VAR
VAR_CONFIG ... END_VAR
VAR_GLOBAL ... END_VAR
WHILE ... DO ... END_WHILE
WITH
Data type names (see Table 16.5)
Names of the standard functions (see Table 16.9)
Names of the standard function blocks: (see Table 16.10)
CTD, CTU, CTUD, F_TRIG, RS, R_TRIG, SR, TOF, TP, TON
Identifier of the standard function block inputs/outputs:
CD, CLK, CU, CV, ET, IN, LD, PV, Q, Q1, R, R1, S, S1
Operators of the IL language (see Table 16.11)
ST language operators:
NOT, MOD, AND, XOR, OR
Terms English – German
17

Abstract

Terms English – German.

Absolute time absolute Zeit

Access path Zugriffspfad
Action Aktion
Action block Aktionsblock
Agitator Mischer, Rührer
Aggregate Aggregat
Argument Argument
Array Feld
Assignment Zuweisung
Based number basisbezogene Zahl
Bistable function block bistabiler Funktionsbaustein
Bit string Bitfolge
Boiler Kessel
Body Rumpf
Call Aufruf
Character string Zeichenfolge
Clock Takt(−impuls)
Cluster Bündel (math.)
Comment Kommentar
Compare vergleichen
Compile kompilieren
(continued)

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230 17 Terms English – German

(continued)
Configuration Konfiguration
Cooler Kühlung
Counter Zähler
Counter function block Zähler-Baustein
Data type Datentyp
Date and time Datum und Uhrzeit
Declaration Deklaration
Delimiter Begrenzungszeichen
Dice (Spiel-)Würfel
Digit Ziffer, Zahl
Direct representation direkte Darstellung
Discriminate (between) unterscheiden (zwischen)
Double word Doppelwort
Down abwärts
Evaluation Auswertung
Execution control element Element zur Ausführungssteuerung
Falling edge fallende Flanke
Flash Blitz, Blinker
Function Funktion
Function block instance Funktionsbaustein-Instanz
Function block type Funktionsbaustein-Typ
Function block diagram Funktionsbaustein-Sprache
Generic data type allgemeiner Datentyp
Global scope globaler Geltungsbereich
Global variable globale Variable
Hierarchical addressing hierarchische Adressierung
Identifier Bezeichner
Initial value Anfangswert
Input Eingang
Input parameter Eingangsparameter
Instance Instanz
Instantiation Instanziierung
Integer literal ganzzahliges Literal
Invocation Aufruf
Keyword Schlüsselwort
Label Marke
Language element Sprachelement
Literal Literal
Local scope lokaler Geltungsbereich
Logical location logischer Speicherort
Long real lange Realzahl
Long word Langwort
Memory Datenspeicher
Mixer Mischer, Rührer
Named element bezeichnetes Element
(continued)
17 Terms English – German 231

(continued)
Off/on-delay timer function block Aus/Einschaltverzögerung
Operand Operand
Operator Operator
Output Ausgang
Output parameter Ausgangsparameter
Overloaded überladen
PII (process image inputs) PAE (Prozess-Abbild der Eingänge)
PIO (process image outputs) PAA (Prozess-Abbild der Ausgänge)
Power flow Stromfluß
Program Programmieren, Programm
Program organisation unit POU Programm-Organisations-Einheit POE
Push Drücken
Real literal reelles Literal
Reset Zurücksetzen
Resource Resource
Retentive data Gepufferte Daten
Return Rücksprung
Rising edge steigende Flanke
Scope Geltungsbereich
Semantics Semantik
Semigraphic representation Semigraphische Darstellung
Single data element Einzel-Datenelement
Step Schritt
Structured data type Strukturierter Datentyp
Subscripting Indizierung
Symbolic representation Symbolische Darstellung
Switch Schalter
Tank Kessel, Messgefäß
Task Task, Aufgabe
Time Zeit
Time literal Zeitliteral
Transition Transition, Übergang
Unsigned integer Vorzeichenlose ganze Zahl
Up Aufwärts
Value Wert
Vessel Kessel, Messgefäß
Wired or Verdrahtetes ODER
References

John, K.-H., Tiegelkamp, M.: SPS-Programmierung mit IEC 61131-3 – Konzepte und
Programmiersprachen, Anforderungen an Programmiersysteme, Entscheidungshilfen. Springer,
Heidelberg (2009)
Norm DIN EN 61131-1: Speicherprogrammierbare Steuerungen – Teil 1: Allgemeine Informationen
(IEC 611311:2003); Deutsche Fassung EN 611311:2003, Beuth, Berlin (Ausgabedatum:
2004–03)
Norm SN EN 61131-1; IEC 61131-1:2003:2003: Speicherprogrammierbare Steuerungen – Teil 1:
Allgemeine Informationen (IEC 61131-1:2003), Beuth, Berlin (Ausgabedatum: 2003)
Norm DIN EN 61131-3: Speicherprogrammierbare Steuerungen – Teil 3: Programmiersprachen
(IEC 61131-3:2003); Deutsche Fassung EN 61131-3:2003, Beuth, Berlin (Ausgabedatum:
2003–12)
Norm DIN EN 61131-3 Beiblatt 1: Speicherprogrammierbare Steuerungen – Leitlinien für die
Anwendung und Implementierung von Programmiersprachen für Speicherprogrammierbare
Steuerungen, Beuth, Berlin (Ausgabedatum: 2005–04)
Normentwurf DIN IEC 61131-3: Speicherprogrammierbare Steuerungen – Teil 3:
Programmiersprachen; Englische Fassung (IEC 65B/725/CD:2009), Beuth, Berlin
(Ausgabedatum: 2009–12)
Norm DIN EN 61131-5: Speicherprogrammierbare Steuerungen – Teil 5: Kommunikation (IEC
61131-5:2000); Deutsche Fassung EN 61131-5:2001, Beuth, Berlin (Ausgabedatum: 2001–11)
Norm DIN EN 60848: GRAFCET – Spezifikationssprache für Funktionspläne der Ablaufsteuerung
(IEC 60848:2002); Deutsche Fassung EN 60848:2002, Beuth, Berlin (Ausgabedatum: s–12)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 233
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1
Index

A B
Acknowledgement signal, 100 BCD code, 13, 132
Action, 14, 40, 44, 45, 50, 91, 92, 101, 102, BCD converter, 162
104, 129, 132, 166–171, 173, 174, BCD counter, 63, 132
205, 227, 229 Binary code, 13
block, 170 Binary number, 8, 12, 13, 63, 148, 220
name, 170 Binary signals, 15
Action destination Binary system, 8
mark, 170, 173 Bit, 40, 54, 59, 70, 76, 100, 122–124, 126, 128,
non-storing, 170, 173 149–151, 153, 161, 186, 207, 208,
Actual parameters, 101, 103 221, 222, 224, 229
Address, 72 Bit sequence, 14, 63, 122–124, 126, 221, 224
Addressing, 70, 72, 230 Block, 1, 43, 47, 56, 67, 86, 97, 101–103, 105,
AE, 223 107, 108, 129, 133, 137–146, 154,
Alarm circuit 157, 158, 161, 162, 169, 170, 183,
exercise projects, 42, 49, 51, 100, 101, 104, 184, 190, 197–199, 201–209,
113, 114 223, 225–231
Allocation list, 190 Blocked, 105
AND, 18–21, 24, 26, 37, 43, 76, 181, 186, 188, Blocking, 169
224, 226 BOOL, 72, 78, 85, 86, 102, 124, 150, 170, 198,
data switch, 21, 22, 24, 106, 201, 203, 207, 221, 224, 226
181, 186 Boolean algebra, 18–37, 78
AND-before-OR, 28, 37, 207 Brackets, 86
AND operation, 76, 77 Bundle of ten, 4, 5
Antivalence, 27–28, 87 Bundling, 4–5, 8–11
ANY_BIT, 124 Byte, 94, 100, 122–125, 147, 149–151, 159,
ANY_NUM, 124 161, 185, 186, 192, 220–222
ASCII, 14–15
ASCII code, 14
Assignment list, 71 C
Auxiliary contact, 89 Chain of steps, 167
AWL, 226 Chaser, 114

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 235
Springer Nature 2022
H.-J. Adam, M. Adam, PLC Programming in Instruction list according to IEC
61131-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65254-1
236 Index

Clamp, 92, 128 Delay time, 41, 116–119, 148, 187

Clock edge, 53–54, 60, 61, 64, 131 de Morgan’s laws, 78, 79, 142
Clock edge control, 53, 54 de Morgan’s rule, 78
Clock signal, 46 Designator, 170, 173
Clock up, 127 Destination, 149, 170
Code, 3–15, 73, 78, 118, 132, 138, 151, 159, Digit, 5–7, 10–15, 40, 59, 61, 63, 71, 100, 101,
162, 197, 198, 201, 203, 207, 212, 121, 122, 124, 125, 132, 154, 155,
217, 219 159, 160, 185, 186, 194, 219, 230
Code translator, 217 DINT, 123
Combined up/down counter (CTUD), 130 Discriminator, 164
Comment, 85–86, 219, 226, 229 Disjunction, 22–23
Conditional jump, 148–149, 152 Disjunctive normal form, 28, 36, 37, 191
Conditions, 148, 165, 169 Divide, 5, 151, 152
Conjunction, 18–19, 58 Double integer, 123
Conjunctive, 35 Down counter, 62, 130, 225, 228
Conjunctive normal form, 33, 36–37 Dual number, 3–15, 59–61, 121
Counter, 13, 53–66, 120–136, 157, 161, 173, Dual number system, 8
184, 185, 190, 192–194, 196, 205, Dual system, 8–11
217, 225, 230 Dualcode, 15
Counter down, 130 Duty cycle, 113, 183, 190
Counter up, 127 DWORD, 123
CTD, 130, 225, 228
CTU, 127
Cube E
exercise projects, 186 Edge detection, 201–204, 225
Current result (CR), 72–73, 75, 76, 87, 103, falling edge, 225
108, 124, 126, 148, 149, 151, 159, rising edge, 201, 202, 225
160, 163, 164, 223, 224, 226 Edge triggering, 127
AE, 223 Egyptian number, 7
Cycle, 58, 62, 65, 75, 80–82, 93–97, 110, 112, Engine control
113, 118, 119, 128, 134, 148, 150, exercise projects, 44
154, 157, 158, 182, 202, 211 EQUAL function, 18
Exercise projects
alarm circuit, 49, 51, 114
D cube, 62, 64, 158, 186
Data switch, 21–24, 43, 47, 48, 106, 181, engine control, 44, 46
185, 186 generator, 22, 114, 118, 135, 183–185, 190
Data type, 102, 121–126, 129, 161, 170, 221, measuring vessel, 50, 58, 105, 110, 133,
222, 224, 226, 228, 230, 231 136, 154, 177, 183, 187, 188, 193
Disjunctive, 35 mixer, 20, 66, 78, 109, 133, 177, 183,
Decade, 132, 134 187, 188
Decadic, 5 mountain railway, 207
Decimal, 5–7, 9–13, 60, 63, 123, 132, 136, running lights, 150, 186
147, 194 Exercises
counter, 132 7SEG101 – Exerc. 10.7, 155
number, 3, 4 7SEG102 – Exerc. 10.8, 155
system, 4, 6–8, 10, 147 7SEG103 – Exerc. 13.21, 185
Decision, 148–149, 152–153 7SEG111 – Exerc. 11.2, 161
Decoder, 159 7SEG112 – Exerc. 13.25, 186
Index 237

7SEG113 – Exerc. 13.26, 186 FLASH105 – Exerc. 13.22, 185

ALARM21 – Exerc. 2.5, 20 FLASH141 – Exerc. 14.2, 202
ALARM22 – Exerc. 2.16, 33 FLASH21 – Exerc. 2.6, 22
ALARM31 – Exerc. 3.2, 42 FLASH22 – Exerc. 2.7, 24
ALARM61 – Exerc. 6.8, 100 FLASH23 – Exerc. 13.5, 181
ALARM62 – Exerc. 6.9, 101 FLASH71 – Exerc. 7.6, 111
ALARM63 – Exerc. 6.10, 101 FLASH72 – Exerc. 7.7, 113
ALARM64 – Exerc. 6.11, 104 FLASH73 – Exerc. 7.10, 116
ALARM71 – Exerc. 7.8, 113 FLASH74 – Exerc. 13.14, 183
ALARM72 – Exerc. 7.9, 114 FLASH75 – Exerc. 7.11, 117
ALARM91 – Exerc. 9.4, 141 FLASH92 – Exerc. 9.2, 139
AND21 – Exerc. 2.2, 19 GEN81 – Exerc. 8.10, 134, 135
AND51 – Exerc. 5.2, 77 GEN82 – Exerc. 8.11, 135
BCD111 – Exerc. 11.4, 162 GEN83 – Exerc. 8.12, 135
BOILER52 – Exerc. 5.7, 80 GEN91 – Exerc. 9.3, 141
BOILER53 – Exerc. 5.8, 80 GEN92 – Exerc. 13.19, 184
BOILER53b – Exerc. 13.9, 182 HEAT21 – Exerc. 2.3, 19
BOILER54 – Exerc. 5.9, 83 INOUT81 – Exerc. 8.1, 124
BOILER55 – Exerc. 13.10, 182 INOUT82 – Exerc. 8.2, 126
COOLER61 – Exerc. 13.12, 182 INOUT83 – Exerc. 8.3, 126
COUNT41 – Exerc. 4.7, 61 JKFF41 – Exerc. 4.4, 57
COUNT42 – Exerc. 4.8, 61 LIFT31 – Exerc. 3.6, 44
COUNT43 – Exerc. 4.9, 62 LIFT32 – Exerc. 3.7, 45
COUNT44 – Exerc. 4.10, 63 LIFT33 – Exerc. 3.8, 46
COUNT45 – Exerc. 4.11, 63 LOGIC22 – Exerc. 2.11, 26
COUNT46 – Exerc. 4.12, 64 LOGIC23 – Exerc. 2.12, 28
COUNT47 – Exerc. 4.13, 64 LOGIC25 – Exerc. 2.18, 35
COUNT81 – Exerc. 8.4, 128 LOGIC26 – Exerc. 2.19, 36
COUNT82 – Exerc. 8.5, 130 LOGIC27 – Exerc. 13.1, 179
COUNT83 – Exerc. 8.6, 131 LOGIC28 – Exerc. 13.2, 179
COUNT84 – Exerc. 8.7, 132 LOGIC29 – Exerc. 13.3, 179
COUNT85 – Exerc. 13.15, 183 LOGIC30 – Exerc. 13.4, 179
COUNT85b – Exerc. 13.16, 183 LOGIC51 – Exerc. 13.7, 181
DEKADE81 – Exerc. 8.8, 132 LOGIC52 – Exerc. 13.8, 181
DICE101 – Exerc. 10.9, 158 LOGIC24 – Exerc. 2.17, 34
DICE102 – Exerc. 13.23, 185 MAX111 – Exerc. 11.5, 162
DICE103 – Exerc. 13.24, 185 MEMO51 – Exerc. 5.12, 86
DICE111 – Exerc. 11.3, 162 MINTERM21 – Exerc. 2.14, 31
DICE112 – Exerc. 13.27, 187 MIXER121 – Exerc. 12.6, 177
DISKR111 – Exerc. 11.7, 164 MIXER122 – Exerc. 12.7, 177
EQUAL21 – Exerc. 2.1, 18 MIXER123 – Exerc 13.28, 187, 188
EXOR51 – Exerc. 5.13, 87 MIXER124 – Exerc 13.29, 188
FFFB92 – Exerc. 9.6, 143 MIXER71 – Exerc. 7.1, 109
FFFB93 – Exerc. 9.7, 143 MIXER72 – Exerc. 7.2, 109
FFFB94 – Exerc. 13.18, 184 MIXER82 – Exerc 13.17, 183
FLASH101 – Exerc. 10.1, 150 NAND21 – Exerc. 2.8, 24
FLASH102 – Exerc. 10.2, 151 NAND51 – Exerc. 5.4, 78
FLASH103 – Exerc. 10.3, 151 NOR21 – Exerc. 2.9, 24
FLASH104 – Exerc. 10.4, 152 NOR51 – Exerc. 5.5, 78
238 Index

Exercises (cont.) F
OR51 – Exerc. 5.1, 75 Falling clock edge, 54
POWER51 – Exerc. 5.10, 83 Falling edge, 56, 57, 59–62, 127, 225, 230
POWER52 – Exerc. 5.11, 83 Feedback, 42
POWER61 – Exerc. 6.1, 90 Flag, 5, 9, 84–86, 91, 97, 150, 151, 167–169,
PUSH121 – Exerc. 12.1, 169 173, 217, 222
PUSH122 – Exerc. 12.2, 171 Flank, 230, 231
PUSH123 – Exerc. 12.3, 173 Flashing lights, 111, 112
RS61 – Exerc. 6.2, 91 Flip-flop, 39–49, 53–58, 60, 61, 89, 101,
RS62 – Exerc. 6.6, 97 104, 105, 107, 142, 143, 184,
RSFF31 – Exerc. 3.1, 42 205, 206
RSFF32 – Exerc. 3.3, 43 Flowchart, 149
RSFF33 – Exerc. 3.4, 44 Formal parameters, 101, 103, 108, 127, 142,
RSFF34 – Exerc. 3.5, 44 145, 227
RSFF35 – Exerc. 3.9, 47 F_TRIG, 201, 202, 209, 211, 225, 228
RSFF36 – Exerc. 3.10, 47 Function, 1, 18–28, 30–37, 41–44, 48,
RSFF37 – Exerc. 3.11, 47 49, 51, 56–58, 65, 67, 71, 73,
RSFF38 – Exerc. 3.12, 48 75–78, 82, 84, 86, 87, 90, 91,
RSFF39 – Exerc. 3.13, 48 97, 100–103, 105, 107–109, 113,
RSFF41 – Exerc. 4.1, 54 126, 129, 131, 133, 137–146,
RSFF42 – Exerc. 4.2, 56 153, 154, 157–164, 170, 171, 179,
RSFF43 – Exerc. 4.3, 56 180, 182–184, 187, 190, 191,
SORTER61 – Exerc. 13.13, 183 197–199, 201–209, 217, 223–228,
SWITCH21 – Exerc. 2.13, 30 230, 231
SWITCH22 – Exerc. 2.15, 31 block, 101, 107, 138, 141, 161
SWITCH61 – Exerc. 6.16, 106 block language, 42
TANK101 – Exerc. 13.20, 184 composite, 17
TANK102 – Exerc. 10.6, 154 module, 102–104, 141, 200, 201, 206, 209,
TANK121 – Exerc. 12.4, 174 223, 226
TANK122 – Exerc. 12.5, 176 table, 26, 34
TANK32 – Exerc. 3.16, 51
TANK41 – Exerc. 4.6, 58
TANK42 – Exerc. 4.14, 65 G
TANK61 – Exerc. 6.7, 99 Generator
TANK62 – Exerc. 6.12, 105 exercise project, 19, 114, 135, 162,
TANK64 – Exerc. 6.14, 105 183–185, 190
TANK65 – Exerc. 6.15, 106 GRAFCET, 170
TANK66 – Exerc. 13.11, 182
TANK71 – Exerc. 7.4, 110
TANK72 – Exerc. 7.5, 110 H
TANK81 – Exerc. 8.15, 136 Hardwired control system, 215
TANK91 – Exerc. 9.8, 145 Hardwired-programmed, 215
TANK92 – Exerc. 9.9, 145 Heating control, 19–20, 80, 82
TEMP51 – Exerc. 13.6, 181 HEX, 124
TFF41 – Exerc. 4.5, 57 Hexadecimal system, 11
TIME111 – Exerc. 11.6, 164 number, 11
TIME81 – Exerc. 8.13, 135 Hexadecimal, 11, 124
TIME82 – Exerc. 8.14, 136 numbers, 11–12
EXOR, 27–28, 37, 87 system, 11
Index 239

I M
Identifiers, 72, 142 Main memory, 55
Identity, 18 Main program, 141
Initialisation, 104 Maxterm, 26, 33, 36, 37
Initial position, 43 Measuring vessel
Initial state, 168, 169 exercise project, 50, 105, 110, 133, 136,
Initial value, 149 177, 183, 187, 188
Input image, 98 Memory, 84, 89
Input parameters, 103, 108, 143, 163, effect, 90
226, 230 flags, 84–86, 217, 222
Input value, 26, 28, 75, 97, 126, 127, 142, 157, random access memory, 216
159, 161–163 read only memory, 216
Instance, 102, 103, 108, 139, 201, 230 Minterm, 26, 28, 31, 33, 87, 207, 208
Instantiated, 107 Mixer, 28, 230
Instantiation, 102, 141, 230 exercise project, 20, 66, 78, 109, 133, 177,
Instruction list (IL), 67, 71, 73–78, 81, 183, 187, 188
83–86, 90, 91, 93, 96, 97, 99, Modifier, 77, 86, 226
100, 102, 104–106, 112, 133, Modulo-3 counter, 63
152, 165, 174, 183, 190, Mountain railway
217, 226–227 control FB, 195–198
INT, 123 exercise projects, 197, 207
Integer, 122–124, 128, 221, 230 main programme, 198–200
Integer numbers, 123 stop request, 209
IPO, 113 Multi-digit decimal counter (BCD), 13,
63–64, 132–133, 136, 162, 207,
209, 224
J Multiple assignments, 93
JK-flip-flop, 56 Multiply, 148, 152, 185
jmpc, 149
Jump, 91, 147–158, 212, 226
destination, 149 N
instructions, 147 NAND, 24, 46, 63, 64, 77–79
target, 149 Negation, 18, 20, 24–26, 28, 46, 57,
77–78, 224
Negative numbers, 122
K N/O contact, 90
Keyword, 71, 73, 138, 141, 142, 219, 221–223, Non-storing, 173
227–228, 230 NOR, 24, 41–43, 46, 77–79
Normally closed (NC), 90
Normally open (NO), 90
L NOT, 18, 24, 224
Label, 149, 152, 230 Number, 121
LINT, 124 BCD, 13, 162
Literal, 219, 220, 230, 231 binary, 8–9, 13, 14, 124, 136
Logic table, 17 decimal, 3–13, 59, 136, 194, 207
Logical functions, 26 Egyptian, 6, 7
Long word, 124 HEX, 11, 12, 136
Loops, 147–158 negative, 122, 130
LWORD, 124 Roman, 6, 7
240 Index

Number (cont.) Priority of the input signals, 43–44

signed, 123 Priority signal, 43
systems, 3–15 Procedure, 6, 31, 33, 36, 37, 42, 84, 97, 150
unsigned, 122, 130 Process image, 94, 96–99, 231
Numerals, 3, 4, 6, 7 Process image of the inputs, 96, 97
Process image register, 97
Program, 1, 67, 70–75, 77, 78, 80–86, 91, 92,
O 94, 95, 97, 99–103, 105, 106, 108,
Opener, 191 109, 111–113, 115–119, 121,
Operator, 72 124–126, 128–134, 136–145,
OR 148–154, 158–164, 166–169,
data switch, 23, 181, 185 172–174, 176, 183, 185–188,
OR-before-AND, 35–37 190–194, 197, 198, 200–202, 204,
OR operation, 71 206, 207, 209–213, 215–217, 223,
Oscillating circuits, 111, 112 227, 231
Output image, 98 Program cycle, 80, 81
Output values, 142 Programm-Organisations-Einheit (POE), 231
Overloaded, 124 Program Organization Unit (POU), 139–141,
200, 206, 223, 231
Project, 75, 86, 139–143, 145, 161, 169,
P 184, 197
Parallel branches, 152 Prozess-Abbild der Ausgänge (PAA), 96, 231
Parallel structure, 152 Prozess-Abbild der Eingänge (PAE), 97, 231
Parameterization, 102, 108, 198 Pulse duration, 119, 136
Parameterized, 107 Pulses, 107–109
Parameter list, 164
Parameters, 102, 103, 108, 109, 143, 144, 163,
164, 203, 204, 226, 227, 231 Q
Parameter transfer, 163 Quantity, 3–5, 15, 58, 136, 184
Peripheral addressing, 97 Quantity measurement, 184
PII, 97
PIO, 96
PIQ, 96 R
PLC-lite, 74 Random, 162
function module, 153 Random access memory (RAM), 216
installation, 74 memory, 216
logic analyzer, 92, 96 Random numbers, 136, 157–158, 162, 185
operations, 75 Read lock, 48
project management, 140 Read-only memory (ROM), 216
single step mode, 92, 94, 112 memory, 216
Position system, 5 Read protection, 48
Precedence, 93 Repetitions, 147–158
Preferred position, 43 Reset, 40, 42–51, 54–56, 58, 61–64, 75, 89,
Pre-memory, 55 91–94, 97, 100, 101, 104, 109, 127,
Preset value, 127 132, 135, 143, 151, 157, 173, 174,
Pressure switch, 45, 171, 172 184, 204, 209–211, 226, 231
Priority, 43, 44, 47, 92–93, 97, 100, 101, 106, Reset priority, 44
143, 225 Return, 161
Index 241

Return value, 159, 161, 163, 223, 224 flag, 167

Rising clock edge, 54 symbol, 170
Rising edge, 54–56, 61, 62, 127, 130, 201, Step-on condition, 169
225, 231 Stirrer
Roman numeral, 7 mixer, 66, 177, 183, 187
RS flip-flop, 41, 101 Stopwatch, 164
R_TRIG, 201, 203, 225, 228 Storage, 39, 40, 54, 84, 85, 93–95, 97, 100,
Running lights 105, 223
exercise project, 116, 150–153, 185, Stored in memory, 217
186, 202 Storing, 173
Runtime error, 126, 129, 150 Structure chart, 149, 152, 156, 216
Substeps, 170
Switch-on delay, 116–117, 177, 225
S Symbolic variables, 71
Sedecimal, 11 Synchronisation, 54
Selections, 147
Self-retaining, 89, 90
Sequence, 27, 49, 58, 59, 63, 64, 72, 73, 92, T
100, 106, 113, 116, 149, 165–174, Tank
176, 177, 187, 189, 205, 216, 226 measuring vessel, 49, 50, 58, 110
chain, 167–169 Target, 148
control, 106, 165–178, 187, 188 Terminal diagram, 71
element, 177 Text element, 219
steps, 169 T-flip-flop, 57
Sequential function chart (SFC), 170 Time literal, 220, 231
Set, 3, 4, 20, 40, 43, 45–51, 54–56, 58, Timer, 65, 81, 107–109, 111–119, 134–136,
61, 62, 64, 66, 73, 75, 79, 81, 138, 139, 147, 157, 169, 177,
91, 93, 94, 97, 100, 101, 104, 107, 225, 231
108, 127, 128, 135, 136, 143, Timer pulse, 107
149–151, 155, 157, 158, 167–169, Timing, 60, 109, 113, 135
173, 174, 177, 183–185, 187, 188, Timing elements, 116–119, 177
190, 191, 198, 202, 205, 209, Transition, 167
210, 219 Transition condition, 166, 167
Set priority, 43 Trigger, 33, 40, 55, 132, 143
7-segment decoder, 159 edge detection, 56, 62, 127
7-segment display, 154, 155, 159–161, 185, F_TRIG, 201, 202, 209, 211, 225, 228
186, 193, 194 R_TRIG, 201, 225, 228
Short integer, 123 Triggering, 55
Sign, 123 Two-point control, 79, 80
Signal, 15, 71 Two’s complement, 123
Signed number, 123 Type check, 126
SINT, 123 Type conversions, 125–126, 129, 132, 207, 224
SR-flip-flop, 101
Step, 10, 26, 71, 75, 84, 94–97, 102, 103,
111–114, 117–119, 124, 125, U
127–129, 147, 165–171, 173, 177, UDINT, 123
185, 187, 188, 192, 216, 217, UINT, 122
227, 231 ULINT, 124
242 Index

Unconditional, 152 V
branch, 152 Variable, 18, 20–23, 28, 31, 35–37, 57, 70–72,
jump, 152 75, 76, 82–86, 91, 92, 94–97, 101,
Unsigned double integer, 123 102, 107, 110, 121, 129, 138, 142,
Unsigned integer, 122, 221, 224, 231 150, 157, 160–163, 170, 179,
Unsigned long integer, 124 196–198, 200, 201, 203, 207–209,
Unsigned number, 123 211, 219, 221–223, 230
Unsigned short integer, 122 Visualization, 74
Up counter (CTU), 127–130, 203,
225, 228
Up/down counter (CTUD), 130–132, 135, W
225, 228 Word, 4, 6, 7, 45, 47, 57, 107, 109, 122–124,
USINT, 122, 123 161, 174, 221, 222, 230
USINT_TO_SINT, 126 Write lock, 46–48, 54, 55
Write protection, 47