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Module 5

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37 views38 pages

Module 5

Uploaded by

Sanskriti Gupta
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Energy sources

Module 5
Fuels
❑ Combustible substance (may be solid, liquid or gas) having carbon as major
constituent gives energy while burning.
Energy: Heat or Light

❑ Reacts with oxygen leading to the formation of the product with the evolution of
heat at a rapid rate.
Fuel + O2 → Products + Heat

❑ The energy liberated as heat can be used economically for domestic and industrial
purpose. Example wood, charcoal, kerosene, petrol, natural gas etc.
Classification of Fuel

Fuels can be classified:


a) On the basis of their occurrence
b) On the basis of physical state of aggregation
Units of heat

• Calorie: the total amount of heat required to raise the temperature


of 1 gm of water through 1º C.
1 cal = 4.184 Joules

• British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.): the total amount of heat required


to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water through 1º F.

• Centigrade Heat Unit (C.H.U.): the total amount of heat required


to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water through 1º C.
1 Kcal = 3.968 B.T.U. = 2.2 C.H.U
Calorific value of fuels
• Total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burnt completely is
known as Calorific Value.

Calorific values of solid and liquid fuels are usually expressed in calories per
gram (Cals/g) or Kilocalories per kilogram (Kcals/Kg) or British Thermal Units
per pound (B. Th. U./lb.);

whereas the calorific values of gases are expressed as Kilocalories per cubic
metre (K cals/m3) or British thermal units per cubic foot (B. Th. U./ft3) or
Centigrade Thermal Units per pound (C.H.U./lb) or C.H.U./ft3.

These units can be interconverted as follows:

1 cal/g = 1 Kcal/Kg = 1.8 B. Th. U./lb.


1 K cal/m3 = 0.1077 B. Th. U./ ft3
1 B. Th. U./ft3 = 9.3 Kcals/m3
GCV/HCV– Gross / Higher calorific value

• “Amount of heat produced, when unit mass/volume of the fuel is


burnt completely, and the products of combustion have been cooled to
room temperature”.

• Hydrogen is present in all most all the fuels & when the calorific value of
the fuel is determined experimentally, hydrogen is converted into steam.

• If the product of combustion are condensed to the room temperature, the


latent heat of condensation of steam also gets included in the measured heat,
which is then called Gross Calorific Value or Higher Calorific Value.
LCV/NCV– Low / Net calorific value

• It is the net heat produced when unit mass or volume of fuel has been
burnt completely and the products of combustion are allowed to
escape.

• In actual use of any fuel, the water vapour and moisture etc. escape
as such along with hot combustion gases. Since they are not
condensed. Hence a lesser amount of heat is available.

• LCV = HCV – Latent heat of water vapour formed


LCV/NCV– Low / Net calorific value

H2 + O → H2O
2g 16g 18g

(1 part by mass of hydrogen produces 9 part by mass of water)

LCV = HCV – 9 x Percentage of Hydrogen x Latent Heat of steam

LCV = HCV – 0.09 * %H * 587

Latent Heat of steam= 587 cal/g.


Determination of Calorific Value by Bomb Calorimeter

A known mass of the fuel is burnt and the quantity of heat produced is
absorbed by water & measured, then the quantity of heat produced by
burning unit mass of fuel is calculated.
Bomb Calorimeter

Beckmann’s
thermometer Oxygen
valve

Electrically
Electrodes to operated stirrer
which Mg
wire is
attached Copper
calorimeter

Mg fuse wire Stainless


steel bomb
Weighed pellet Stainless steel
of a fuel sample
crucible
Construction
Steel Bomb
• Stainless steel bomb in which the combustion of fuel takes place
• fuse wire of Magnesium is connected to both the electrode.
• A cotton thread is tied at one end of the fuse wire while other end remain in
contact with fuel in the stainless crucible.
• Lined with platinum to resist acid corrosion

Copper calorimeter
• The bomb is kept in a copper calorimeter having known quantity of water.

• The copper calorimeter is provided with an electrical stirrer and a Beckmann’s


thermometer.

• The copper calorimeter is surrounded by air-jacket and water-jacket to prevent


loss of heat due to radiation.
Working

• Known amount of fuel is taken.


• Bomb is filled with Oxygen at 25
atm. Pressure.
• Kept inside the calorimeter having
known amount of water.
• Start the stirring and Initial
temperature of water is noted (t1º C).
• Then electrodes are connected to 6 V
battery.
• Sample burns and heat liberated
which is transferred to water.
• Stirring is continued and maximum
temperature attained is noted (t2º C)
Calculation
m = mass of fuel pellet
w1 = mass of water in the calorimeter
w2 = water equivalent of calorimeter and others
w1+w2= total weight
t1 = initial temperature of calorimeter
t2 = final temperature of calorimeter
t2-t1 = Increase in temperature
Heat lost by ‘m’ mass of fuel = heat gained by system
= (w1+w2) * Sp. Heat X (t2-t1)
= (w1+w2) * 1 * (t2-t1)

HCV or GCV = (w1+w2) * (t2-t1) / m cal/g or kcal/kg

LCV of Fuel (L) = HCV – 0.09 * %H * 587 (cal/g or kcal/kg)


Corrections
• Fuse wire corrections: Heat liberated & measured includes heat given
by the ignition of fuse wire due to short circuit. Hence it should be
deducted.

• Acid corrections: Fuel containing S and N are oxidised under high


pressure. Formation of acid (H2SO4, HNO3) is exothermic reaction so,
measured heat also includes the heat given out during acid formation.
Hence it should be deducted.

• Cotton Thread corrections: Cotton thread is used for the ignition of fuel,
so its burning also generates heat & it should be deducted.

• Cooling corrections: Time taken to cool the water in calorimeter from


maximum temperature to room temperature is noted. From the rate of
cooling (dT/minute) and actual time taken for cooling (t min.) the
cooling correction of (dT*t) is added to the rise in temperature.

HCV /GCV = [(w1+w2) *(t2-t1 + CC) – FC - AC – CtC] /m


Problem
Calculate the GCV and NCV of a fuel from the following data:
– Mass of fuel burnt= 750 mg
– Water equivalent = 350 g
– Mass of water taken =1.15 kg
– Initial temperature= 16 0C
– Final temperature = 19.02 0C
– Percentage of hydrogen in fuel = 2.8

ANS: HCV : 6040 cal/g


LCV: 5892 cal/g
Problem
A Coal sample contains C= 92%; H= 5% and ash = 3%. When this coal
sample was tested in the laboratory for its cv in a bomb calorimeter, the
following data were obtained.

Mass of coal burnt= 0.95 g


Water equivalent = 700 g
Mass of water taken = 2 kg
Initial temperature= 16 0C
Final temperature = 18.48 0C
Acid correction = 60 cal
Fuse wire correction = 10 cal
Cooling correction = 0.02 0C

Calculate the GCV and NCV

Ans: GCV= 7031.57 cal/g


NCV= 6767.43 cal/g
Boy’s gas calorimeter

• The calorific value of gaseous or volatile liquid fuels is measured


by Boy’s Calorimeter.

• The Boys gas calorimeter is a simple and effective means of


measuring the calorific values of gaseous fuels.

• The principle is to burn the gas at a constant rate in a vessel &


the entire amount of heat produced is absorbed by water which
is also flowing at constant rate.

• From the volume of gas burnt, the volume of water collected and
mean rise in temperature of water, the calorific value of gaseous
fuel can be calculated.
Construction
A burner situated in chimney which is the
centre of the annual vessel.

A tank where the water condensate from the


product

The product of combustion moves upwards to


the chimney and deflected downward by
water cooled head.

A gasometer measures volume of gas burning


per unit time.

Water: The water flows from outer coil to the


inner coil and the temperature of inlet and
outlet water are measured with different
thermometers.

Outer Jacket: Prevents heat loss by


radiation.
Calculation
• Volume of gas burn = V m3
• Mass of the water = W kg

• Temperature of inlet water = t1


• Temperature of outlet water = t2

• Specific heat of water S = 1 Kcal

• Heat absorbed by circulating water = W(t2-t1)×S

= W(t2-t1)

• HCV = W(t2-t1) / V Kcal/m3

If ‘m’ kg of steam condensed from V m3 of the fuel


Then, mass of condensation per 1 m3 of the fuel == m/v kg
So, Latent heat of steam= 587* m/V Kcal

LCV = HCV - (587* m / V )


During the determination of calorific value of a gaseous fuel by Boy’s calorimeter,
the following results were recorded:

Vol. of the gaseous fuel burnt at NTP = 0.093 m3


Wt. of water used for cooling the combustion products = 30.5 kg
Wt. of steam condensed = 0.031 kg
Temp. of inlet water = 26.1 ˚C
Temp. of outlet water = 36.5 ˚C

Determine the GCV & NCV of the gaseous fuel per cubic meter at NTP, provided
that the heat liberated in condensation of water vapour and cooling the condensate is
587 Kcal/kg

SOLUTION:

GCV = [w(t2-t1)] / V = [30.5 (36.5-26.1)]/0.093 = 3410 Kcal/m3

Net Calorific Value = [G.C.V. - {(m x 587)/V}] = 3410 – {(0.031 x 587)/0.093}


= 3214.3 Kcal/m3
Problem
Following data were obtained in a Boy’s calorimeter
– Volume of gas burn = 0.1 m3
– Mass of the water = 25 kg
– Temperature of inlet water = 20 0C
– Temperature of outlet water = 350C
– Weight of steam condensed = 0.025 kg
Calculate GCV and LCV

ANS:
GCV= 3750 kcal/m3
LCV= 3603 kcal/m3
Coal
• Coal is a fossil fuel found under the earth crust commonly known as coal beds or
coal seams. It is formed from the dead plants and animals by a process called
coalification.

• All coals are of vegetable origin and are the remains of prehistoric forests.

• Dead plants and animals are first converted into peat which in turn is converted
into lignite, after that bituminous coal and then anthracite.
Analysis of Coal
The analysis of coal done to determine the coal’s energy value. Coal’s heating value
is an important factor for deciding the usage of coal.

Analysis of coal done by two methods:


a) Proximate Analysis

b) Ultimate Analysis (Elemental Analysis)

Proximate Analysis of Coal


Proximate analysis gives information about
▪ Moisture Content
▪ Volatile Content
▪ Ash Content
▪ Fixed Carbon Content
Moisture Content:
• Moisture Content quenches the fire and it evaporates during the burning of coal
& takes the liberated heat in the form of latent heat evaporation & reduces the
effective calorific value.

• High percentage of moisture lower the calorific value of coal; moisture in coal
consumes more heat in the form of latent heat of evaporation. Hence more heat
is to be supplied to the coal.

Procedure:
• The weight of empty crucible is taken, and 1 gm of coal sample is taken in it
(W1 gm).
• The crucible is kept in an oven at 105-110º C for a period of 60 min. The
crucible is then withdrawn from the oven & kept in a desiccator for cooling.
After cooling weight of the crucible is again taken (W2 gm).

% Moisture Content = (W1-W2)*100 / Weight of coal sample


Volatile Content:
• The volatile matter may be combustible gases (like H2, CO, CH4 & other lower
hydrocarbons) and non-combustible gases (like CO2 & N2).

• The presence of volatile matter is undesirable since they don’t add to the heating
value. Coal with high volatile content burns with long flame, high smoke & has
low calorific value.

Procedure:

• After the analysis of moisture content, the crucible with residual coal sample is
covered with a lid and it is heated at 950 +/- 20º C for 7 minutes in a muffle
furnace. The crucible is taken out & air cooled inside the desiccator and weighed (W3
gm).

% Volatile Content = (W2-W3)*100 / Weight of coal sample


Ash Content:
• Ash is a non-combustible & useless which is left behind when all the combustible
substance is burnt off & reduces the calorific value.

High percentage of ash content is undesirable because,


• It reduces the calorific value of coal,
• Ash causes hindrance to heat flow as well as it can block the air supply through
the fuel,
• It increases the transporting, handling, and storage costs. It involves additional
cost in ash disposal.

Procedure:

• After the analysis of volatile matter, the crucible with residual coal sample
is heated without lid at 700 +/- 50º C for 1 hour in a muffle furnace. The
loss in weight of the sample is found out and the % of ash content is calculated
as,
% Ash Content = Weight of Ash formed *100 / Weight of coal sample
Fixed Carbon Content:

• After the determination of moisture, volatile content and ash


content the remaining matter is Fixed Carbon.

• Higher % of Fixed carbon, greater is the calorific value.

• The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace and


the shape of the fire-box.

% Fixed Carbon = 100 - %(moisture + volatile + ash)


Problem
• A sample of coal was analyzed as following:
Exactly 2.5 g was weighed into silica crucible. After heating for an
hour at 110 0C, the residue weighed 2.415 gm. The crucible was then
covered and strongly heated for 7 to 10 minutes at 950 0C. The
residue weighed 1.528 g. The crucible was then heated without cover
until a constant weight was obtained. The last residue was found to
weigh 0.245 g.
Calculate the % of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon in
the coal sample.

Moisture = 3.4 %; Volatile = 35.5%; Ash= 9.8%; Carbon= 51.3%


Ultimate Analysis
Elemental Analysis of Coal
It involves the determination of percentage of:

• Carbon and hydrogen contents: % of C is the basis for the classification of coal,
higher the %C, better the quality of coal. % of H is associated with the volatile matter
and affects the usability of coal, lower the %H, better the quality of coal.

• Nitrogen content: Nitrogen is an inert and non-combustible gas & hence is


presence is undesirable. Thus, a good quality of coal should have very less/no
Nitrogen content.

• Sulphur content: Presence of sulphur is undesirable in coal as on oxidation it


produces harmful and corrosive SO2 and SO3.

• Oxygen content: High Oxygen content coals have high moisture & low calorific
value. Thus, a good quality coal should have low % of oxygen.
Determination of Carbon & Hydrogen
A known quantity of coal is burnt in the current of dry oxygen when carbon and
hydrogen in coal are oxidised to CO2 & H2O respectively.
C + O2 → CO2
H 2 + ½ O2 → H2O
A gaseous product of combustion are passed through CaCl2 tube and potash bulbs.

The CaCl2 tube contains weighted amount of anhydrous CaCl2 absorbs water.
CaCl2 + 7 H2O → CaCl2.7.H2O

The Potash tube contains weighted amount of KOH absorbs CO2.


2KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O
Determination of Carbon & Hydrogen
Determination of Nitrogen
Nitrogen in coal is determined by Kjeldhal’s method
• 1 gm of accurately weighed powdered coal is heated with conc. H2SO4 along with K2SO4
(Catalyst) in a long-necked flask (Kjeldahl’s flask).
• Nitrogen in the coal is converted into ammonium sulphate.
• It is heated with 50% NaOH and it produce NH3
• The liberated NH3 is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume of std 0.1N HCl
• NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
• The volume of unused acid is determined by back titration with std. NaOH (0.1N)

Digestion:
Sample (N)+
Conc. H2SO4 +
K2SO4

(NH4)2SO4
Determination of Nitrogen
Determination of Sulphur
A known amount of coal (W1 gm) is burnt completely in bomb calorimeter
in the current of oxygen, by which sulphur is oxidised to sulphates.

The ash from the bomb calorimeter is extracted with dil. HCl. The acid
extracted is treated with BaCl2 to precipitate sulphate as BaSO4.

The BaSO4 is filtered, washed, dried and heated to constant weight.

S + O2 → SO42- → BaSO4
Determination
Determinationof Oxygen
ofen
• Oxygen is present in combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus
hydrogen available for combustion is lesser than the actual one.

• High Oxygen content coals have high moisture & low calorific value.
Thus a good quality coal should have low % of oxygen.

% Oxygen= 100 - % (C + H + N + S + Ash)

35
Dulong’s Formula
Depending upon the chemical composition of fuel, calorific value can be
estimated using Dulong’s formula

1 é æ Oö ù
HCV = ê8080 *C + 34500 * ç H - ÷ + 2240 * Sú kcal/kg
100 ë è 8ø û

Where, C, H, O and S are the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen &


sulphur in the fuel respectively. Here, Oxygen is assumed to be present in
combination with hydrogen as water, and

9
𝐿𝐶𝑉 = 𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 𝐻 𝑥 587 = 𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 0.09𝐻 𝑥 587 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
100
Problem
A coal has following composition by weight: C= 90%; O=
3%; S= 0.5%; N= 0.5% and Ash= 2.5%. NCV of coal = 8490.5
Kcal/gm. Calculate the % of H and HCV.

%H= 3.5
HCV= 8675.4 kcal/Kg
Problem

Calculate the GCV and NCV of coal having following composition:


Carbon= 85%; Hydrogen= 8%; Sulphur= 1%; Nitrogen= 2% and
Ash= 4%

Ans: GCV : 9650 Kcal/Kg


LCV: 9227 kcal/kg

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