Q4) a) What is NPDA?

Construct a NPDA for the set of all strings over {a,b} with odd length
palindrome.

Ans:-An NPDA (Nondeterminis c Pushdown Automaton) is an extension of a pushdown automaton

(PDA) that allows for nondeterminism in its transi ons. It has the same components as a PDA but can
have mul ple possible transi ons from a given state on a given input symbol, or it can make
\(\varepsilon\)-transi ons without consuming any input.Now, let's construct an NPDA for the set of all
strings over \(\{a, b\}\) with odd-length palindromes.

**NPDA Construc on:**

b) Design a push down automaton to recognize the language generated by the following
grammar: [8] S  S + S | S S | 4 | 2 Show the acceptance of the input string 2 + 2*4 by this PD
Q 2a) Construct a DFA for the following le linear grammar. [9]

SC



 C

C A0

Ans :-To construct a determinis c finite automaton (DFA) for a le -linear grammar, we can follow
these general steps:1. Iden fy the non-terminals and terminals.

2. Construct states for each non-terminal.

3. Define transi ons based on the produc on rules.

4. Designate one state as the start state and mark accep ng states if needed.

Given Le -Linear Grammar:

Q 5)Reduce the following grammar to Greibach Normal form. [9]

S AA | 0

A SS | 1

Ans :-
To convert the given grammar into Greibach Normal Form (GNF), we need to follow certain
steps:
1. Eliminate ε-produc ons (produc ons that generate the empty string).
2. Eliminate unit produc ons (produc ons where the right-hand side is a single non-terminal).
3. Remove le recursion.
4. Convert each produc on into GNF.
Given Grammar:

S AA | 0

A SS | 1

**Step 1: Eliminate ε-produc ons**

There are no ε-produc ons in the given grammar, so no changes are needed for this step.
**Step 2: Eliminate unit produc ons**
Again, there are no unit produc ons in the given grammar.
**Step 3: Remove le recursion**
The given grammar does not have le recursion, so no changes are needed for this step.
**Step 4: Convert each produc on into GNF**
1. Q is a finite set of states.

2. Σ is a finite input alphabet, not containing the blank symbol □.

3. Γ is a finite tape alphabet, where □ ∈ Γ and Σ ⊆ Γ.

4. δ: Q × Γ → Q × Γ × {L, R} is the transi on func on.

5. q0 ∈ Q is the ini al state.

6. q_accept ∈ Q is the accep ng state.

7. q_reject ∈ Q is the rejec ng state, where q_reject ≠ q_accept.

The transi on func on δ specifies how the machine transi ons from one state to another based on the
current state and the symbol read from the tape. It also defines the symbol to write on the tape and
 - Introduce an oracle that provides answers to certain ques ons.

- The TM can query the oracle for informa on, enabling it to solve problems that might be difficult or
impossible without addi onal resources.

4. **Infinite Memory:**

- Provide the TM with an infinite tape on both sides.

- This extension allows the TM to move arbitrarily far to the le or right, providing unbounded
memory.

5. **Nested TMs or Subrou nes:**

- Allow the TM to call other TMs as subrou nes.

- This extension enables the TM to modularize its computa on and reuse certain func onali es.

Q6) a) What is TM? Design TM to check well formedness of Parenthesis. Expand the transi on
for (())()
Ans :- A Turing Machine (TM) is a theore cal model of computa on introduced by Alan Turing. It consists
of an infinite tape divided into cells, a read/write head that can move le or right along the tape, a set of
states, and a transi on func on that defines how the machine transi ons between states based on the
symbol read from the tape.
 - A language L is recursively enumerable if there exists a Turing Machine that, on input w, halts and
accepts if w belongs to L, and either halts and rejects or runs indefinitely if w does not belong to L.

- All regular languages, context-free languages, and recursively enumerable languages are subsets of
recursively enumerable languages.

iii) **Hal ng Problem of Turing Machine:**

- The Hal ng Problem is a classic problem in the theory of computa on, first introduced by Alan Turing.

- It asks whether, given a descrip on of an arbitrary Turing Machine M and an input w, it is possible to
determine whether M will halt (stop) or run indefinitely on input w.

- Alan Turing proved that there is no general algorithm that can solve the Hal ng Problem for all
possible Turing Machines and inputs.

- This result has significant implica ons for the limits of computability and undecidability in the field of
theore cal computer science.

b) Elaborate the following terms [9]

i) Universal Turing Machine (UTM)
ii) Recursively Enumerable Languages
iii) Hal ng Problem of Turing Machine
ans :- Certainly, let's elaborate on the terms:

**i) Universal Turing Machine (UTM):**

A Universal Turing Machine (UTM) is a theore cal construct in the field of computability and theore cal
computer science. The concept was introduced by the mathema cian and computer scien st Alan
Turing. The UTM is designed to simulate the behavior of any other Turing Machine (TM) given the
appropriate descrip on and input.

- **Simula on Capability:** A UTM is capable of emula ng the opera on of any Turing Machine. It
achieves this by taking as input the descrip on of another TM (a descrip on of its states, transi on rules,
etc.) along with an input for that TM.

- **Versa lity:** The key insight behind a UTM is its ability to read and execute descrip ons of other
TMs. This property makes it a universal or programmable compu ng machine, capable of carrying out
any computa on that can be described algorithmically.

- **Significance:** The existence of a Universal Turing Machine has profound implica ons in the theory
of computa on. It demonstrates that, in principle, a single machine can perform any computa on that
can be expressed algorithmically. This underlies the theore cal founda on of modern compu ng and the
idea of a stored-program computer.

**ii) Recursively Enumerable Languages:**

example, given a mathematical statement, is it true or false? This is an undecidable problem that cannot
be solved by any algorithm345.
The halting problem is the decision problem of determining whether a given Turing machine will
eventually stop or run forever on a given input. For example, given a Turing machine that computes the
factorial of a natural number n, and an input n = 5, will the machine halt or not? This is an instance of
the halting problem that can be answered with yes, because the machine will eventually stop and
output 12034.
However, the hal ng problem is undecidable in general, meaning that there is no algorithm that can
solve the hal ng problem for any Turing machine and any input. To prove this, Turing used a technique
called proof by contradic on, which involves assuming the opposite of what we want to prove and
showing that it leads to a logical contradic on12.
The proof by contradic on of the undecidability of the hal ng problem goes as follows:
Assume that there is an algorithm (or a Turing machine) H that can solve the halting problem for any
Turing machine M and any input I. That is, H(M, I) outputs yes if M halts on I, and no if M does not halt
on I12.
Using H, construct another algorithm (or a Turing machine) D that takes a Turing machine M as input
and does the following: If H(M, M) outputs yes, then D enters an infinite loop; if H(M, M) outputs no,
then D halts12.
Now, consider what happens when we run D on itself as input, that is, D(D). There are two possible
cases12:
If H(D, D) outputs yes, then D(D) enters an infinite loop by the definition of D. But this contradicts the
output of H, which says that D halts on D.
If H(D, D) outputs no, then D(D) halts by the definition of D. But this also contradicts the output of H,
which says that D does not halt on D.
In either case, we get a contradiction, which means that our initial assumption that H exists was false.
Therefore, there is no algorithm that can solve the halting problem for any Turing machine and any
input. Hence, the halting problem is undecidable

b) Define the Class P and Class NP and Problem with their example in detail
Ans :- **Class P:**
Class P, or "Polynomial Time," is a complexity class of decision problems that can be solved by a
determinis c Turing Machine in polynomial me. In other words, if there is an algorithm to solve a
problem, and the worst-case me complexity of that algorithm is polynomial in the size of the input,
then the problem belongs to class P.
**Example of a problem in P:**
The problem of finding the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two numbers is in P. Euclid's algorithm, a
polynomial- me algorithm, can efficiently compute the GCD of two numbers.
**Class NP:**
Class NP, or "Nondeterminis c Polynomial Time," is a complexity class of decision problems for which a
given solu on can be verified quickly (in polynomial me) by a determinis c Turing Machine. NP
contains problems for which solu ons, once guessed, can be checked quickly.
**Example of a problem in NP:**
The Boolean sa sfiability problem (SAT) is an example of a problem in NP. Given a Boolean formula, the
problem is to determine whether there exists an assignment of truth values to the variables that makes
the formula true. While finding such an assignment may not be polynomial me, verifying one is. If
someone gives you a proposed assignment, you can quickly check whether it sa sfies the formula.
**Rela on between P and NP:**
b) What do you mean by polynomial me reduc on? Explain with suitable example
ans :- Polynomial me reduc on, o en referred to as polynomial- me mapping or polynomial- me
transforma on, is a concept in computa onal complexity theory. It is a way to formally define the no on
of transforming one computa onal problem into another in a way that is computa onally efficient.
Specifically, a polynomial me reduc on is a mapping that can be computed in polynomial me.
Here's a more detailed explana on: