CHAPTER 1

UNDERSTANDING SELF-LEADERSHIP

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Define Self Concept;
2. Explain some of the theories on Self concept,
3. Define Self Leadership;
4. Identify and Explain some of the theories on Self Leadership;
5. Explain and Appreciate the Significance of Self Leadership;
6. Enumerate the ways to develop of Self-Leadership, and
7. Explain some of the strategies on how to improve self leadership.

What is Self-Concept?
Self-concept is how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics.'
It is how someone thinks about, evaluates or perceives . themselves. To be aware of oneself
is to have a concept of oneself. It is a schema consisting of an organized collection of beliefs
and feelings about one’s self.
Self-concept tends to be more malleable when we're younger and still going through
the process of self-discovery and identity formation, As we age and learn who we are and
what’s important to us, these self perceptions become much more detailed and organized. It
is shaped and influenced by our knowledge and interactions with our immediate
environment.

SELF CONCEPT THEORIES

Lewis’ Two Aspects of the Development of Self Concept
Michael Lewis is a psychologist that is known for his work on self-concept and self-
awareness. According to him the development of a concept of self has two aspects:

1. The Existential Self

It is the most basic part of the self-scheme or self-concept; the sense of being
separate and distinct from others and the awareness of the constancy of the self. The
awareness of the existential self begins as young as two to three months old and arises in
part due to the relation the child has with the world. For example, the child smiles and
someone smiles back, or the child touches an object and sees it move.
2. The Categorical Self
Having realized that he or she exists as a separate experiencing being, the child next
becomes aware that he or she is also an object in the world. Like any other objects including
people have properties that. can be experienced, example: big, small, red, smooth and so
on. So the child is becoming aware of himself or herself as an object which can be
experienced and which has properties.

Rogers’ Three Parts of Self-Concept

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is widely regarded as one of the most eminent thinkers in
psychology.’ He is best known for developing the psychotherapy method called client-
centered therapy and for being one of the founders of humanistic psychology?.
According to Rogers, self concept is a construct to describe the awareness of who we
are along with our perceptions of the world around us. He believed the self concept is
composed of three components:"

1. Ideal self
The ideal self is the person you want to be. This person has the attributes or qualities
you are either working toward or want to possess. It's who you envision yourself to be if you
were exactly as you wanted. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic.
2. Self-image
This pertains to how we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological
health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image On inner personality. At a simple
level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image
affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.
3. Self-esteem
Also known as Self-worth, It comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers
believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the
interaction of the child with the mother and father.

Self Actualization and Congruence

Rogers believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-
actualize or to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of human-beingness. A
person will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its
environment, in other words an individual will flourish and reach their potential if their
environment is good enough. In addition the potential of the individual human is unique,
and is meant to develop in different ways according to the individual's personality (McLeod,
2014).
Rogers believed that people are inherently good and creative. They become
destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing
process (McLeod, 2014). He believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they
must be in a state of congruence. This means that self-actualization occurs when a person's
“ideal self” or who they would like to be is congruent with their actual behavior or self-
image.

The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers describes an individual who is Self actualizing as a fully functioning person. It
is an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve, it is neither an end nor a
completion of life’s journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing (McLeod,
2014).
Here ‘are the five characteristics of a fully functioning person according to Rogers (McLeod,
2014):

1. Open to Experience - Person accepts both positive and negative emotions. Negative
feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense
mechanisms).
2. Existential Living - Person is in touch with different experiences as they occur in life,
avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the
present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for
the moment).
3. Trust Feelings - Person pays attention and trusts his own feelings, instincts, and gut-
reactions. People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves
to make the right choices.
4. Creativity - Creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person
does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek
new experiences.
5. Fulfilled Life - A person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.

Social Comparison Theory

It was first proposed in 1954 by psychologist Leon Festinger, he believed that people
have an innate drive to evaluate themselves, often in comparison to others.” The social
comparison process involves people coming to know themselves by evaluating their own
attitudes, abilities, and traits in comparison with others. There are two kinds of social
comparison:
1. Upward Social Comparison
It is when a person compares his/herself with those who he/she believes are
better than him/her. These upward comparisons often focus on the desire to improve
the individual’s current status or level of ability. One might compare his/her selves to
someone better ‘off and look for ways that he/she can achieve similar results.
2. Downward Social Comparison
It is when a person compares his/herself to others who are worse off than
him/her. Such downward comparisons are often centered on making oneself feel
better about his/her abilities or traits. A person might not be great at something, but
at least he/ she is better off than someone else.
Social comparison serves an understanding function and a self-enhancement
function. When individuals feel inadequate, they are likely to make downward
comparisons — with those who are less adequate or accomplished. If an individual is
seeking self-improvement, they are more likely to make an upward comparison to
someone slightly better than himself or herself on that particular domain, hence
inspiring them to improve. An individual desiring a realistic assessment of themselves
makes both upward and downward comparisons in an attempt to form a valid
assessment."

Multidimensional Self Concept

The multidimensional Self concept is developed by Bruce A. Bracken. He believed that
self-concept was multidimensional, consisting of six independent traits. These six aspects of
self-concept that are critical to the positive social and emotional adjustment of youth and
adolescents. These six traits are:

Academic - Individual's success or failure in school.

Affect - Person’s awareness of emotional states.
Competence - Person’s ability to meet basic needs.
Family - Person’s relationship with his/ her family unit.
Physical - Person’s personal idea of how he/she looks, his/ her health, physical condition,
and overall appearance.
Social - Individual’s ability to interact with others.

Self Leadership
 Self-leadership is the practice of intentionally influencing one’s personal thinking, feeling
and actions towards his/her personal objective/s.” It is the practice of understanding
who you are, identifying your desired experiences, and intentionally guiding yourself
toward them. It spans the determination of what we do, why we do it, and how we do
it." It is a comprehensive process of influence that-involves specific behavioral and
cognitive strategies. These strategies are designed to help an individual address not only
what he/she needs to do, but also why, and how he/she should do it." It highlights the
importance of both intrinsic motivation and effective cognitive processes (Neck, Manz,
and Houghton, 2016).

The term self-leadership first emerged from organizational management literature by

Charles C. Manz (1983), who later defined it as a comprehensive self-influence
perspective that concerns leading oneself toward performance of naturally motivating
tasks as well as managing oneself to do work that must be done but is not naturally
motivating.

SELF LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory
Both Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory were developed by Albert
Bandura. Albert Bandura (1925-2021) is an influential social cognitive psychologist who is
best known for his social learning theory, the concept of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo
doll experiments.
Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and
imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory
considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human
learning and behavior.” It explains how people can influence their own cognition, motivation,
and behavior. Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and
think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences. Observational
learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors
mediate in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) acknowledges the triadic interaction between our
thoughts, behavior, and socio-political environment.* There are three major constructs in
SCT that interact to influence behavior:

1. Personal Factors - Pertains to age, cognitions, previous experience with the behavior,
etc.
2. Environmental Factors - Refers to access to resources, safety, support from
family/friends, etc.
3. Aspects of the Behavior - refers to the vigor of the behavior, outcomes achieved as a
result of practicing the behavior, competence with the behavior, etc. .
Self-leadership explains how self leaders think and how they behave according to
cognitive, motivational, and behavioral strategies (Norris, 2.018).

Self Efficacy Theory

Self Efficacy Theory is another concept developed by Albert Bandura. Self-Efficacy is a
person’s particular set of beliefs that determine how well one can execute a plan of
action in prospective situations (Bandura, 1977). In other words, self-efficacy is a
person’s belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation.”’
An individual’s beliefs in his/her efficacy are developed by four main sources of
influence:

1. Mastery Experiences
Mastery experiences are the most influential source of efficacy information because
they provide the most authentic evidence of whether one can muster whatever it takes
to succeed. Success builds a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy. Failures undermine
it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly established.
Believing that one is capable of achieving tasks they set out for themselves is necessary
because part of the struggle of getting better at anything or learning something new is
making sure the person believes they are capable of carrying out said task successfully
(Garrido, 2020).

2. Vicarious Experiences
Vicarious experiences involve observing other people successfully completing a task.
According to Bandura (1977) Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort
raises observers’ beliefs that they too possess the capabilities to master comparable
activities to succeed.
Social role models including older siblings, older friends, camp counselors, parents, aunts
and uncles, grandparents, teachers, coaches, and employers. Ifa person has positive role
models in their life, especially those who display a healthy level of self-efficacy, then that
individual is more likely to absorb at least a few of those positive beliefs about the self
(Garrido, 2020).

3. Social Persuasion
Social persuasion involves encouragement and discouragement pertaining to an
individual’s performance or ability to perform by society. Receiving positive verbal
feedback while undertaking q complex task persuades a person to believe that they have
the skills and capabilities to succeed. Verbal persuasion works on any age, but the earlier
it is administered the more it is likely to encourage building of self-efficacy (Garrido,
2020).

4. Emotional and Physiological States

The emotional, physical, and psychological well-being of a person can influence how they
feel about their personal abilities in a particular situation. According to Bandura (1977) it
is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather
how they are perceived and interpreted.
People who have a high sense of efficacy are likely to view their state of affective arousal
as an energizing facilitator of performance, whereas those who are beset by self-doubt’s
regard their arousal as a debilitator. By learning how to manage anxiety and enhance
mood when experiencing challenging situations, individuals can improve their sense of
self efficacy (Garrido, 2020).

Self-Control Theory
Self-control theory, proposed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi in A General
Theory of Crime (1990), is a widely researched perspective in criminology focusing on
individual differences in attention to the consequences of one’s actions as a general
cause of delinquency, crime, and analogous behaviors.” Self-control refers to the ability
to forgo immediate or near-term pleasures that have some negative consequences”’ and
to the ability to act in favor of longer-term interests. It serves as an executive function
necessary for individual goal attainment. It is a cognitive process for self-regulating
behavior in pursuit of personal goals. This advanced executive process allows us to
inhibit ourselves from impulsive responses in behavior, favoring more appropriate,
context-specific behavior.
Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that those who learn early in life to exercise self-
control will have much less involvement in delinquency, crime, and other problem
behaviors such as substance abuse, accidents, and employment problems; later in life.
Those who develop high levels of self-control in childhood will be less likely to be
delinquent as adolescents and less likely to be arrested or convicted as adults; have
greater success in school; obtain more successful employment; attain higher incomes;
and even experience many and better health outcomes throughout life.
Self-Determination Theory
Self-Determination Theory links personality, human motivation, and optimal
functioning. It posits that there are two main types of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic)
and that both are powerful forces in shaping who we are and how we behave. According
to Deci and Ryan the two main types of motivations are:

1. Extrinsic Motivation is a drive to behave in certain ways based on external sources

and it results in external rewards. It includes grading systems, employee evaluations,
awards and accolades, and the respect and admiration of others.
2. Intrinsic Motivation is a drive that comes from within. There are internal drives that
inspire us to behave in certain ways, including our core values, our interests, and our
personal Sense of morality.
Other types of motivations includes:

 Autonomous motivation includes motivation that comes from internal sources

and includes motivation from extrinsic sources for individuals who identify with
an activity’s value and how it aligns with their sense of self.
 Controlled motivation consists of:

- External regulation is a type of motivation ) where an individual acts out of the desire
for external rewards or fear of punishment.

- Introjected regulation is motivation from partially internalized activities and values”

such as avoiding shame, seeking approval, and protecting the ego.
An individual that is driven by autonomous motivation, my feel self-directed and
autonomous; when the individual is driven by controlled motivation, they may feel
pressure to behave in a certain wa, and thus, experience little to no autonomy (Deci, and
Ryan, 2008)

Figure 1
Self Determination Continuum
Non Self Determined …………………………………………………………………..………………………….Self
Determined

Motivati Amotivati Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic

 on on Motivatio
n
Regulator Non- External Introject Identified Integrate Intrinsic
y Style Regulation Regulatio ed Regulatio d Regulatio
n Regulatio n Regulatio n
n n
Source of Impersonal External Somewh Somewha Internal Internal
Motivatio at t Internal
n External
Regulates Non Complian Self- Personal Con- Interest,
Motivatio Intentional, ce control, Importanc gruence Enjoymen
n non-valuing, External, Ego e, Awarenes t,
Incompeten Rewards, Involve- Conscious s, Inherent
ce lack of and ment, Valuing Synthesis Satisfacti
control Punishme Internal with Self on
nt Rewards
and
Punish-
ment

Self Determination Continuum

The Self determination continuum ranges from non self determined to self
determined based on motivation. At the left end of the continuum (See figure 1) is a
motivation. It is where an individual is completely nonautonomous, has no drive to
speak of, and is struggling to have any of _ - their needs met (Ackerman, 2022).

In the middle, are several levels of extrinsic motivation (Ackerman, 3022):

1. External regulation, in which motivation is exclusively external and regulated by

compliance, conformity, and external rewards and punishments.
2. Introjected regulation, in which the motivation is somewhat external and is driven by
self-control, efforts to protect the ego, and internal rewards and punishments.
3. Identified regulation, the motivation is somewhat internal and based on conscious
values and that which is personally important to the individual.

4. Integrated regulation, in which intrinsic sources and the desire to be self-aware are
guiding an individual’s behavior.
 At the right end of the continuum is where an individual is entirely motivated by intrinsic
sources. In intrinsic regulation, the individual is self-motivated and self-determined, and
driven by interest, enjoyment, and the satisfaction inherent in the behavior or activity he or
she is engaging in (Ackerman, 2022).

Three Basic Needs

According to the Self Determination Theory, people are driven by three innate and
universal psychological needs, and that personal well being is a direct function of the
satisfaction of these basic psychological needs:

1. Autonomy - It is the need to control the course of their lives. People have a need to
feel that they are the masters of their own destiny and that they have at least some
control over their lives; most importantly, people have a need to feel that they are in
control of their own behavior.
2. Competence - the need to be effective in dealing with the environment. This refers to
a person’s achievements, knowledge, and skills; people have a need to build their '
competence and develop mastery over tasks that are important to them.
3. Relatedness - also called Connection. It is the need to have a close, affectionate
relationship with others. People need to have a sense of belonging and connectedness
with others; each of us needs other people to some degree.

Deci and Ryan believe that individual differences in personality result from the varying
degrees to which each need has been satisfied or thwarted (Deci and Ryan, 2008). The two
main aspects on which. individuals differ include causality orientations and aspirations or
life goals. The three causality orientations are:

1. Autonomous - all three basic needs are satisfied.

2. Controlled - competence and relatedness are somewhat satisfied but autonomy is not.
3. Impersonal - none of the three needs are satisfied.
Aspirations or life goals are what people use to guide their own behavior. They generally
fall into one of the two categories of motivation mentioned earlier: intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic life goals include affiliation, generativity, and personal development. While extrinsic
life goals are wealth, fame, and attractiveness (Deci and Ryan 2008).
Significance of Self-leadership
Self-leadership is important because it helps an individual accomplish his/her
professional goals and to be a good leader to others. Good leaders must have the ability to
lead by example. It allows a leader to influence others to take action so that the goals of the
organization are met.
Self Leadership is important as a foundation for personal, team, business, and strategic
leadership; and it serves as a starting point to any organizational or leadership development
program. It helps a leader to think effectively, behave congruently, and relate empathetically
(Bryant and Kazan, 2012, p. 2).
In addition to helping an individual achieve your his/ her personal goals for their life and
career, benefits of self-leadership include:

1. Makes a person more efficient and productive

An individual with strong self-leadership skills also has the ability to manage
their time effectively and to stay organized in their work. This often results in the
company benefiting from increased productivity and high-quality work.
2. Keeps a person motivated and accountable
A person with a strong sense of motivation will push through challenges
when they arise, which can result in achieving more than a person thought he/she
could. Being accountable for one’s actions requires a person to be honest when
taking self-inventory and provides him/ her the opportunity to learn and develop
new skills.
3. Builds stronger relationships with co-workers
Co-workers will be more likely to view a person with strong self leadership as
someone they can count on to complete group tasks and projects, while supervisors
and managers will appreciate his/her ability to be productive without having to be
micromanaged.
4. Inspires others to follow a person’s lead
Great leadership begins with self-leadership skills. Supervisors and managers
typically have minimal oversight, if an individual is in a position of leadership it is
important for him/her to be able to plan and prioritize his/her own tasks and remain
dedicated to completing their work. Showing strong self-leadership skills have a
positive influence on encouraging coworkers to be more proactive and productive.

Development of Self-Leadership
Self-leadership can be understood as the process of identifying your desired
experiences and intentionally directing and motivating yourself toward them (Manz, 1986).
Developing self-leadership skills therefore requires understanding the concept itself and its
elements, developing self-knowledge, cultivating self-monitoring habits, and deliberate
practice.”
  Understanding the concept
Self-leadership determines what we do, why we do it, and how. It involves
self-knowledge, goal setting, and self management processes. Self-knowledge
implies insight into our values, strengths, personality, talents, skills, and passions.
Based on our self-knowledge, in particular our values, we can identify our desired
experiences and set , goals around them. Self-management can be understood as
strategies to facilitate behaviors that reduce discrepancies from standards (Manz,
1986).
 Developing self-knowledge
Understanding your personality traits provides insights: into your tendencies
to think and act in certain situations. Moreover, if you know your values, you
understand what matters most to you not in the sense of a particular outcome,
but rather in the sense of how you want to live (Neuhaus, 2012). Understanding
your values empowers you to make better decisions and implement them more
effectively.
 Understanding and identifying desired experiences
Having a solid understanding of yourself equips you to articulate goals about
experiences that truly matter to you. It enables you to pursue them in a way that
is easy and enjoyable and leaves you with a sense of meaning and purpose. This
means that your motivation will be stronger and. longer lasting, your chances of
achieving your goal will be greater, and you are more likely to feel truly satisfied
once you do so (Neuhaus, 2012).
 Cultivating self-monitoring habits
To fulfill the roles of both the leader and the one being led, one requires the
ability of metacognition®. During metacognition, the thinker takes a diffused
perspective of themselves as though they were observing themselves from a
distance. This allows them to monitor themselves and evaluate their actual
performance against their desired goal performance. It enables them to manage
themselves which is a process necessary throughout the self-leadership journey
(Neuhaus, 2012).
 Deliberate Practice
Like any other skills, the more these strategies and behaviors are practiced,
the more they will be cultivated. The key aspect of developing self-leadership
skills lies in continuous monitoring, evaluation, and adaptation of the relevant
strategies (N euhaus, 2012).

Simple Ways to Lead Yourself ;

There are three categories in improving Self Leadership: cognitive, behavioral, and
motivational strategies. Here are some of the strategies that can help you lead yourself and
improve your self leadership (Neuhaus, 2012).
 1. Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive self-leadership strategies enable you to identify ways to implement goal
behaviors and efficiently find solutions to overcome obstacles and setbacks. This includes
(Neuhaus, 2012):

 Establishing a connection between your values and self-leadership;

 Identifying your strengths and weaknesses;
 Identifying desired experiences;
 Challenging limiting beliefs;
 Identifying cognitive dissonance and attempts to eliminate it;
 Practicing ongoing positivity;
 Visualizing goal behavior:
 Cultivating the ability to make good decisions:
 Identifying and managing emotional triggers;
 Developing a growth mindset; and
 Setting clear intentions.

2. Behavioral Strategies
Behavioral self-leadership strategies allow you to implement the relevant plethora of
management actions - required to pursue your desired outcome. This includes (Neuhaus,
2012):

 Cultivating self-efficacy;
 Building habits;
 Harnessing environmental resources;
 Setting and optimizing goals;
 Establishing goal plans:
 Self-cueing;
 Frequently reviewing progress; and
 Establishing accountability from yourself and others.

3. Motivational strategies
Motivational strategies facilitate a continuous drive toward goal behaviors and sufficient
capacity for them. This includes (Neuhaus, 2012):

 Identifying internally rewarding actions to pursue your goals;

 Maximizing autonomy, competence, and sense of relatedness for your goals;
 Managing Willpower,
 Cultivating a process focus;
  Identifying and celebrating wins; and
 Cultivating grit.

CHAPTER 2
CONCEPT AND THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP :

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Define Leadership;
2. Explain the evolution of the concept of Leadership;
3. Enumerate some Theories of Leadership;
4. Differentiate the Great Man Theory and Spencer's Leadership Theory;
5. Explain the Leadership Trait Theory;
6. Identify some of Leadership Traits;
7. Explain the Behavioral Theory;
8. Describe the Three Classical Leadership Styles;
9. Explain the Two Dimensions of Leadership Behavior;
10. Discuss the Contingency Theory of Leadership; and
11. Explain the Situational Leadership Theory.

Concept of Leadership
Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to influence and guide
followers or other members of an organization. is vital to communication, teamwork and
collaboration. Criminal justice relies on this kind of integrated leadership to coordinate the
efforts of multiple disciplines toward shared goals.

Evolution of the Concept of Leadership

To understand fully the meaning of the concept of leadership we'll look into some of the
definitions of leadership over the past years.“

1900
 Definition of Leadership emphasizes the control and centralization of power with a
common theme of domination (Northouse, 2018, p. 2): Leadership was defined as the ability
to impress the’ will of the leader on those led’ and induce obedience, respect, loyalty, and
cooperation. The definition clearly shows that leadership was perceived at the early stage as
a tool for dominating the led, and doing the bidding of just the leader, without due
consideration for. needs and expectations of the followers.

1930's
The definition of leadership emphasizes the “traits”, influence rather than domination.
The factor of influence signifies seeing leadership from the perspective of the qualities or
traits of the leader. Leadership was viewed as the interaction of an individual’s specific
personality traits with those of a group (Northouse, 2018, p. 2). It views leadership as a
result of one group member modifying the motivation and competencies of others in the
group, a behavior that can be exhibited by any other group member not just by the leader.
Leadership is the ability to facilitate and influence superiors, peers, and subordinates to
make recognizable efforts towards shared or unshared objectives. It is not limited to the
usual leader-subordinate relationship alone, -it transcends job titles, responsibilities and
roles.

1940's
The definition of leadership emphasizes the idea of a “group”, at this period the idea of
leadership by persuasion was distinguished from leadership by coercion (Northouse, ~ 2018,
p. 3). Leadership is defined as the behavior of an individual while involved in directing a
group activities.

1950’s
The three themes that dominated the definition of leadership during this period were
(Northouse, 2018, p. 3):
Group theory viewed leadership as what leaders can do in a group.
Shared Goal viewed leadership as a relationship that develops shared goals, it is based
on the behavior of the leader.
Efficiency viewed leadership as the ability to influence overall group effectiveness.

1960’s
The definition of leadership emphasizes the idea of “shared goal”. Leadership is a
behavior that influences people towards a shared goal (Northouse, 2018, p. 3). Leadership.
occurs in groups that are bound by common goals. It is about influencing others to
understand and agree with what needs to be done, how to do it and the process of helping
individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.

1970's
The definition of leadership emphasizes the idea of organizational behavior. Leadership is
initiating and maintaining groups or organizations to accomplish group or organizational
goals. During this period leadership was viewed as the reciprocal process of mobilizing by
person with certain motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources, in
context of competition - and conflict, in order to realize the goals independently or mutually
held by both leaders and followers. Leadership is about responsibility, and involves the use
or deployment of organizational resources in order to achieve better organization outcomes.

1980's
The following are the important themes of leadership during this period (Northouse, 2018,
p. 3):

 Do as the Leader Wishes Leadership is getting followers to do what the leader

wants to be done.
 Influence Leadership is noncoercive influence.
 Traits Leadership is based on trait orientation, ‘ particularly that of leader/s. It
also advocates the leadership-as-excellence movement.
 Transformation Leadership is a transformational process. It occurs when one or
more people engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise
one another to higher levels of motivation and morality (Burns, 1978, p. 83).

1990's to 21st Century

The following are the approach in leadership that was developed during this period:

 Authentic Leadership - It is a style of leadership that focuses on transparent and

ethical leader behavior and encourages open sharing of, - information needed to
make decisions while accepting followers’ inputs.
 Adaptive Leadership It defines leadership as an _ act of mobilizing a group of
individuals to handle ’ tough challenges and emerge triumphant in the end.
Leaders encourage the followers to adapt by confronting and solving problems,
challenges, and changes.
 Discursive Leadership - Leadership is created not so much through the leader’s
traits, skills, and behaviors, but through communication a practice that are
negotiated between the leader and followers.
  Followership It’s a reciprocal process of leadership that refers to the willingness
to follow ‘ within a team or organization.
 Servant Leadership It focuses primarily on the growth and well-being of people
and the communities to which they belong. It puts the needs of others first and
helps people develop and perform as highly as possible.
 Spiritual Leadership it is a leadership that utilizes value and sense of calling and
membership to motivate followers (Northouse, 2018, p. 4).

Theories of Leadership
There are as many different views of leadership as there are characteristics that
distinguish leaders from non-leaders. The following are some of the theories about
leadership.

Great Man Theory

The Great Man Theory was established in the i9th century by , Thomas Carlyle, who
put forth the idea that the world’s history is nothing more than a collection of biographies
belonging to great men,*4 and the capacity for leadership is innate. It posited the idea that
great leaders are born, not made. These individuals come into the world possessing _ certain
characteristics and traits not found in all people.
These abilities enable them to lead while shaping the very pages of history. Under
great man theory, prominent leaders throughout the course of history were born to lead and
deserved to do so as a result of their natural abilities and talents. At the heart of the theory
is the notion that there are only few and very rare individuals in any society at any time with
the rare characteristics to rewrite human history. The theory was given a masculine
connotation with the use of the term “great man”, because the concept was thought of
primarily as military leadership.
Spencer’s Leadership Theory
Introduced by the philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer, in his book The
Study of Sociology,*” he opposed the idea of the Great Men theory that leaders are born
not made. Spencer claims that attributing historical successes to individual decisions was
primitive and unscientific, and that the so-called “great men” were solely products of their
social environment. Before a “great man” could shape and build his society, the same society
had to shape and build him.

Leadership Trait Theory

 Trait theory of leadership claims that certain individuals have special innate or
inborn characteristics or qualities that makes them leaders, and that it is these same
qualities that differentiate them from non leaders (Northouse, 2018, p. 7).
The trait theory came out of the work of Francis Galton (18221911) through the
extension of the work of Thomas Caryle. Galton investigated the hereditary background of
leaders and assessed the probability of great men having great relatives. Galton was one of
the first experimental psychologists, and the founder of the field of enquiry now called
Differential Psychology, which concerns itself with psychological differences between people,
rather than on common traits.
It attempts to identify physiological (appearance, height, and weight), demographic
(age, education and socioeconomic _ background), personality (self-confidence, and
aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge), task-
related (achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social characteristics (sociability
and cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader effectiveness.

Leadership Traits
Recent study outlined behavioral traits that separated lower-level supervisors from
higher-level supervisors." According to the researchers, the traits most commonly associated
with great leadership include:

 Adaptability and Flexibility Effective leaders don’t get stuck in a rut. They are
able to think outside of the box and adapt quickly to changing situations.
 Assertiveness great leader is able to be direct ‘and be assertive without
coming off as overly pushy or aggressive.
 Capacity to Motivate People A great leader knows how to inspire others and
motivate them to do their best.
 Courage and Resolution The best leaders are brave and committed to the
goals of the group. They do not hide from challenges.
 Creativity Great leaders not only possess their own creativity, but they are
also able to foster creativity among members of the group.
 Decisiveness A great leader is capable of making a decision and is confident
in his or her choices.
 Eagerness to Accept Responsibility Strong leaders take on responsibility and
don’t pass the blame on to others. They stand by their success and take
ownership of their mistakes.
 Emotional Stability In addition to being dependable overall, strong leaders
are able to control their emotions and avoid overreactions.
 Intelligence and Action-Oriented Judgment Great leaders are smart and
make choices that move the group forward.
  Need for Achievement Strong leaders have a need to succeed and help the
group achieve goals. They genuinely care about the success of the group and
are committed to helping the group reach these milestones.
 People Skills Excellent interpersonal skills are essential for leading effectively.
Great leaders know how to interact well with other leaders as well as with
team members.
 Perseverance Strong leaders stick with it, even when things get difficult or the
group faces significant obstacles.
 Self-Confidence Many of the best leaders are extremely self-assured. They
are confident in themselves, followers often begin to share this self-belief.
 Task Competence A great leader is skilled and capable. Members of the group
are able to look to the leader for an example of how things should be done.
 Trustworthiness Group members need to be able to depend upon and trust
the person leading them.
 Understanding their Followers and Their Needs Effective leaders pay
attention to group members and genuinely care about helping them succeed.
They want each person in the group to succeed and play a role in moving the
entire group forward.

Behavioral Theory
The behavioral theory states that individuals can learn to become effective leaders
through training and observation. The theory focuses on the actions of leaders rather than
on their personal qualities. It helps to identify behaviors that separates leaders from
ineffective leaders. The theory assumes that a leader s behavior is the best predictor of his
leadership influences which in turn determines his leadership success, and reminds leaders
that they act based on task level and relationship level. Therefore, while they need to be
more task oriented in some Situations, they need to be relationship oriented in others.
Invariably, leaders make impact based on the task they perform and the relationships they
are built (Akpa, Asikhia, and Adedeji, 2022).

Three Classical Leadership Styles

A leadership style refers to a leader's characteristic behaviors whey directing,
motivating, guiding, and managing groups of people. In 1939 a group of researchers led by
psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles of leadership. The three leadership
styles are:

1. Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic)

Authoritarian leaders, also known as autocratic leaders, provide clear
expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should
be done. This style of leadership is strongly focused on both command by the leader
 and control of the followers. There is also a clear division between the leader and the
members. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently, with little or no input
from the rest of the group (Cherry, 2021).
Authoritarian leadership is suitable for situations where there is little time for
group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of
the group. It works when the situation calls for rapid decisions and decisive actions.
However, it tends to create dysfunctional and even hostile environments, often
pitting followers against the domineering leader (Cherry, 2021).

2. Participative Leadership (Democratic)

The most effective leadership style is participative leadership, also known as
democratic leadership (Lewin, Lippitt, and White, 1939). Democratic leaders offer
guidance to group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input
from other group members. They encourage group members to participate, but
retain the final say in the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in
the process and are more motivated and creative. Democratic leaders tend to make
followers feel like they are an important part of the team, which helps foster
commitment to the goals of the group (Cherry, 2021).

3. Delegative Leadership (Laissez-Faire)

Delegative leadership, also known as. laissez-faire leadership, were the least
productive of all three groups (Lewin, Lippitt, and White, 1939). Delegative leaders
offer little or no guidance to group members and leave the decision-making up to
group members. While this style can be useful in situations involving highly qualified
experts, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation (Cherry, 2021).
Laissez-faire leadership tended to result in groups that lacked direction and members
who blamed each other for mistakes, refused to accept personal responsibility, made
less progress, and produced less work (Lewin, Lippitt, and White, 1939).

Two Dimensions of Leadership Behavior

The two important dimensions of leader’s behavior that were identified in Ohio State
Leadership Studies in 1945 are:
1. Initiating Structure
It involves the extent to which a leader is able to define his or her role and
that of the group member in attaining goals. This includes behaviors that prioritize
organizing work, defining work relationships and goals.
 2. Consideration
It involves the extent to which a leader is able to build work relationships that
are marked by mutual trust and respect for the subordinates’ contributions and how
they feel.
The study found that a leader high in both initiating structure and
consideration was able to achieve more in terms of productivity of the group
members, who are also more satisfied. However, the high task performance and high
member satisfaction were found not in all situations (Kahn and Katz, 1960).

Figure 2
Ohio State Leadership Studies: Dimension of Leader Behavior

Two Distinct Styles of Leader’s Behavior

The University of Michigan Studies carried out at the same time with the Ohio State
studies, was intended to isolate the behavioral characteristics of leaders that are tied to
performance effectiveness. They identified two dimensions of leadership behavior in
similarity with the Ohio State studies; they are.
1. Employee-oriented Leadership
It emphasizes interpersonal relations, taking a personal interest in the needs
of their employees and accepting individual differences among team members. The
employee orientation behavior of leaders sees employees as human beings,
appreciates their uniqueness and gives special attention to their needs (Akpa,
Asikhia, and Adedeji, 2022). oe oriented leader’s characteristics are (LaMasters,
2015):
 Has a different approach that develops others and strengthens the team
beyond a single task.
 Employees are valued as an integral part of -the success.
 See’s diversity on the team as beneficial.
 Values input and feedback from each team member.
 The team is more important than the individual.
 Goal and Vision are motivating driving factors.

1. Production-Oriented Leadership
It emphasizes the technical or task aspects of the job and sees the team
members as a means to an end. Production Oriented leader behavior pays close
attention to subordinates’ work, explains work procedures and is keenly interested in
performance. Production Oriented leader’s characteristics are (LaMasters, 2015):
 Members are replaceable
 Motivating factors drive team interaction and operations.
 Low leadership development of team members.
 Individual achievement is more important than team success.

Figure 3
Michigan Studies Leadership Behavior Continuum
Contingency Theory of Leadership
Fred E. Fiedler, an Austrian-American Psychologist, introduced the contingency
theory of leadership. The theory assumes that no single leadership style is appropriate for all
situations, and that the best style is contingent on the context faced by the leader. Effective
leadership is dependent on the extent of fit between the leadership qualities, the leadership
style and the specific situation faced by the leader. It focuses on variables related to the
environment that might dictate the right leadership style suited for a particular work
situation.
According to Fielder, a leaders ability to succeed rests on two factors:
1. Natural Leadership Style
a. It is either:
i. Task-oriented – it is great at building relationships, facilitating team
synergy, and managing interpersonal conflict.
ii. Relationship-Oriented – is skilled at organizing projects and teams to
accomplish tasks efficiently and effectively.
b. Fiedler developed the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale to help determine
leadership style. The scale asks a participant to describe the coworker they least
prefer to work with.

2. Situational Favorableness
b. It has three distinct factors:
i. Leader-Member Relations – it involves the amount of trust and
confidence that your team members have in you. If you are trusted and
well-liked by your entire team, your influence will increase and your
workplace will become a more favorable situation.
ii. Task Structure – it relates to whether the tasks your team completes are
clear and structured or vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks do
not have a well-specified plan of action and would be considered
unfavorable.
iii. Leader’s Position Power – refers to the amount of power a leader has over
their team and involves whether or not they have the authority to give
out rewards or punishment. Typically, the more power you have, the more
favorable your situation.

Figure 4
Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
Note: After filling out the test, add up every number that is marked to calculate LPS score.
Interpret the score as follows:

 If scored 73 and above (a high LPC score), you are a relationship-oriented leader.
 If scored 54 and below (a low LPC score), you are a task-oriented leader.
 If scored between 55 and 72, you have the qualities of both a relationship-oriented
and a task-oriented leader. Deciding which style fits you better will take further
exploration through other leadership theories.

Situational Leadership Theory

Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed the situational leadership model in 1969
while working on Management of Organizational Behavior. The situational theory proposes
that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational factors; different
situations require different leadership styles.
Situational Leadership Styles
Hersey and Blanchard suggested that there are four primary leadership styles:
1. Telling (S1) – in this leadership style, the leader tells people what to do and how to
do it.
2. Selling (S2) – this style involves more back-and-forth between leaders and followers.
Leaders “sell” their ideas and message to get group members to buy into the process.
3. Participating (S3) – in this approach, the leader offers less direction and allows
members of the group to take a more active role in coming up with ideas and making
decisions.
4. Delegating (S4) – this style is characterized by a less involved, hands-off approach to
leadership. Group members tend to make most of the decisions and take most of the
responsibility for what happens.

Figure 5
Situational Leadership Styles
Follower’s Maturity Levels
The right style leadership depends greatly on the maturity level (i.e., the level of
knowledge and competence) of the individuals or group. Hersey and Blanchard’s theory
identifies four different levels of maturity, including (Hersey, and Blanchards, 1977):
1. M1: Group members lack the knowledge, skills, and willingness to complete the
task.
2. M2: Group members are willing and enthusiastic, but lack the ability.
3. M3: Group members have the skills and capability to complete the task, but are
unwilling to take responsibility.
4. M4: Group members are highly skilled and willing to complete the task.
Matching Styles and Levels
Figure 6
Follower’s Maturity Levels and Leadership Styles

Telling Selling

Participating Delegating

Note: Leadership styles may be matched with follower’s maturity levels. The Hersey-
Blanchard model suggests that the following leadership styles are the most appropriate for
these maturity levels:

 Low Maturity (M1) – Telling (S1)

 Medium Maturity (M2) – Selling (S2)
 Medium Maturity (M3) – Participating (S3)
 High Maturity (M4) – Delegating (S4)

CHAPTER 3
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Define Organizational Leadership:

2. Identify the Four Factors of Leadership;
3. Define the concept of a Leader;
4. Enumerate and explain the Roles of a Leader in an organization;
5. Identify and Appreciate the Importance of Organizational Leadership;
6. Identify the Important Keys to Effective Leadership;
7. Explain and enumerate each of the Leadership Principles; and
8. Differentiate the Six Types of Power for Leaders.

Organizational Leadership
Organizational leadership refers to the overarching field of person (the leader) strategically
guiding and managing a group & people (the organization) to meet a common goal.” It is a
management approach in which leaders help set strategic goals for the organization , while
motivating individuals within the group to successfully carry out assignments in service to
those goals. It emphasizes on developing leadership skills and abilities that are relevant
across the organizations _ It means the potential of the individuals to face the hard times in
the industry and still grow during those times.”

Four Factors of Leadership

The success of the leader: is dependent on how the leader is effectively able to
communicate and motivate followers to perform desired tasks using the appropriate
leadership style best suited for the given situation. There are four major factors in leadership
called Leader, Follower, Communication, and Situation; interdependencies and dynamics of
these four factors of leadership must be considered bya leader to be effective.

1. The Leader
As discussed in the previous chapter, leadership is a process where an individual influences a
group of individuals to achieve a common goal. It is a transactional event that takes place
between leaders and subordinates. It affects both the leader and the subordinates in the
process of interaction. It Is not a one-way event, but it is an interactive event. Leaders are
expected to influence people to form a group by bringing members together, induce a
purpose and inspire followers to aspire for it, put life in the purpose; make it operational by
defining the steps on how to achieve the common goal, and provide direction during the
course of achievement.

2. Followers
Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a new hire requires
more supervision than an experienced employee does. A person who lacks motivation
requires a different approach than one with a high degree of motivation. It is the followers,
who determine if the leader is successful by providing their support and accomplishing the
needed tasks. Leadership is not about doing things themselves but motivating the followers
to work towards business objectives (US. Army, 1983).
If followers do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they wil] be uninspired. To be
successful the leader must know his people, must convince his followers that he is worthy of
being followed. The general working conditions which are conducive to effective leadership
from the angle of subordinates are grouped as leadership conditions that (TechnoFunc,
2020):

 Provide for the Security of Subordinates

Include an atmosphere of approval (.the freedom to make a mistake and allowing for an
honest mistake), knowledge of subordinates (that is letting subordinates know in clear terms
about procedures, rules, regulations, duties, responsibilities overall policy of the
organization, performance evaluation’ procedure, personal peculiarities of his/her superior)
and finally the consistency of discipline indicating clearly both desirable and undesirable
behavior.

 Provide Independence for Subordinates.

This includes opportunity for participation, responsibility and the right to appeal.

3. Communication
The leader leads through two-way communication. He has to set an example and
communicate to them that he would not ask them to perform anything that he would not be
willing to do. Leaders establish vision and mission and set the direction for the organization,
communicate the vision to the people in the organization and synchronize them with the
organizational vision and mission, thereby inspiring the people to translate the goals, vision,
and mission into reality (TechnoFunc, 2020).
Leaders demonstrating communication skills are both good speakers and listeners. The
leader listens closely to people at work and organizes and clearly presents information both
orally and in writing. Through their words, they can help keep the workforce motivated and
committed. They also listen to their followers and ask questions when they want to make
sure they have a good understanding of what is being expressed. Any message leader
communicates either positively builds or negatively harms the relationship between the
leader and his employees. Good leaders communicate with all personnel with a sense of
mutual’ understanding and mutual loyalty to generate enthusiasm for projects and inspire
working towards their completion (US. Army, 1983).

4. Situation
All situations are different. A ‘methodology or approach that is successful in one situation
will not always work in another. The leader must use his judgment to decide the best course
of action and the leadership style needed for each situation. A good leader is sensitive to the
influences in various situations and they are in a position to determine the right style of
leadership to be followed in handling various situations. We all know that each situation
elicits a different behavior in people, thus for each opportunity that is presented the leader
must use his/ her judgment to decide the best course of action and the leadership style
needed for each situation (TechnoFunc, 2020).
The situational forces which affect the style of leadership include the style of the leader’s
supervisors, complexity and demands of the job, and pressure of time, for instance;
emergency or crises vs. normal. Lastly, the forces in the organization system which
determine the style and effectiveness of the leadership include division of work,
organization structure, and the production technology being adopted by the organization.
The structure of the organization may determine the kind of leadership to be adopted. For
instance, some organizations may put a heavy emphasis on the leader’s abilities to work
effectively with people. At other times, the social, economic, and political pressures that an
organization faces prompt certain styles of leadership to be followed (TechnoFunc, 2020).

The Leader and its Role

Leader is a person who leads or a person who has commanding authority or influence.® A
leader is someone who does more than just lead people. They have to be driven by the right
motivation and make a positive impact on the people around them. A leader is someone
who can see how things can be improved and who rallies people to move toward that better
vision. Leaders can work toward making their vision a reality while putting people first. Just
being able to motivate people isn’t enough, leaders need to be empathetic and connect with
people to be successful. Here are some of the roles of a leader on an organization:
1. Leaders Provide Direction
Leaders need to make sure that all followers understand, embrace, and work toward
achieving those objectives. They’ also provide momentum, sharing and celebrating progress
toward achieving company goals, setting new targets, and providing needed resources.
Leaders need to provide followers a well-defined strategy for the company’s future growth,
communicating that strategy to all team members, and helping everyone to fully understand
their unique role in helping the company achieve its strategic objectives. They also need to
identify, develop, and nurture future leaders ty ensure continuity and stability of leadership.
(Hodges, 2018)

2. Leaders Create Structure

Leaders need to create and maintain the organizationa} structure, job roles, decision-making
authority, and processes that enable team members to do high-quality work. Instead of
creating a “command and control” environment, great leaders learn from followers what’s
needed to enable those followers to do superior work, and leaders then focus on:
supporting the teams that produce the company’s products and do the company’s work
(Hodges, 2018).

3. Leaders Build Trust

Leaders have an obligation to ensure that everyone in the company has the skills necessary
to perform their work, understands how their work serves the company’s objectives, and
knows how the outcomes of their work are measured. Once those things are in place,
leaders trust team members to be accountable for their own performance. Because leaders
can’t know or observe everything that everyone in the organization does, trust is essential,
and it is liberating for team members who are trusted to do great work. Building a culture of
trust begins with creating a working environment where all members of the organization
treat one another with respect, dignity, and encouragement. The foundation of trust is the
leader’s belief that their followers are committed to the same goals, are competent to do
their work, and are committed to doing their very best. The leader’s role is to establish the
environment in which people can thrive, be respected, and be trusted to do great work
(Hodges, 2018).

4. Leaders Inspire Hope

Leaders are optimistic and hopeful. They can visualize the company’s future and infuse their
followers with hope by providing encouragement, by sharing successes and progress toward
achieving company goals, and by helping followers create their own future with the
company. They provide clear direction based on a set of values and principles, create and
share a comprehensive strategy for the company’s future, and build the organizational
structure and processes to ensure successful execution (Hodges, 2018).
Importance of Organizational Leadership
Organizational leadership is the ability to lead groups of individuals towards the fulfilling an
organization’s mission. It is important because it:

 Motivates Followers
Followers tend to be motivated to mirror the growth mindset for their teams and
themselves, knowing that they can personally contribute to the forward momentum of the
organization as a whole.

 Allows for a Problem-solving and Decision-making Mindset

Exponential growth is possible when a leader entrusts the individuals hired into their roles
to develop solutions and make decisions. Great ideas can emerge in an environment where
people are not afraid to speak up.

 Promotes Communication, Ethics, Inclusion, and Respect

The leader shares the organization’ s values and models the communication, ethics,
inclusion, and respect expected of each individual. Since every role is vital to the
organization’s forward movement as a whole, therefore it is imperative for a leader to
communicate in all ways, that every employee's contributions are respected.

 Allows Organizational Leaders to Remain Goal-oriented

The leader may focus on the bigger picture since his followers were empowered to fulfill
their roles and develop innovative solutions.

Important Keys to Effective Leadership

Having a successful leader in a crucial aspect of every organization, truly effective leaders
are hard to find. Here are some of the key elements of highly effective leaders:

1. Ability to Delegate Tasks

The key to leadership success is to learn to effectively delegate both the responsibility for
completing assignments and the authority required to get things done. By delegating tasks
to others, the workload is shared and team spirit thrives. It is important to note that the
right task must be assigned to the right person, so that it can be completed correctly,
effectively, and in a timely manner (Kell, 2016).
2. Excellent Communication
An effective leadership is one who communicates well across a variety of different media
such as email, telephone, and face-to-face. Staff need to be able to grasp the purpose, the
directions, and the end goal of any project in order for it to be completed successfully.
Without excellent communication skills, managers will have an extremely difficult time
establishing and maintaining a productive work environment (Bell, 2016),
Becoming a good listener is essential to becoming a good communicator. Listening is an
active exercise. It involves using not only your ears, but your eyes and heart as well. Be
empathetic and consider the message from the perspective of the person who is delivering it
(MSU, 2020).
3. Confidence
Leaders are expected to be the company’s backbone by being strong and confident.
Managers are expected to support and carry an organization through both the good times
and the bad, while still displaying an assertive and positive demeanor (Bell, 2016). No one
will follow a leader that isn’t self-assured, and people can see through a facade of
confidence. Confident leaders are generally happier, create better relationships, remain
open to risks, accept feedback, think for’ themselves, recognize success, and are more
motivated (Florida Tech, n.d.).
4. Honesty
When a leader makes a statement or takes a particular decision, all team members must be
able to believe that the leader will follow through and keep his or her word. If the followers
feel that their leader is dishonest without due explanation, an environment of distrust is
fostered; this can lead to high employee attrition, and further problems and expense for the
organization (Bell, 2016).
5. Creativity
Unexpected events occur that require adjustments to be made to previous decisions that
were made, or current plans of action. At these times, leaders must be able to step up to the
plate quickly, and think creatively to come up with stable solutions, as staff turn to them for
support and guidance (Bell, 2016).
6. Innovation
Innovation typically means always seeking ways to improve the organization. An innovative
leader emphasizes quality over quantity in their own work and takes initiative in looking for
ways to improve in all areas of their organization, from human resource management to
supply chain efficiency to customer service. They proactively create a culture of innovation
by being open to others’ ideas. They recognize that an innovative idea can come from
anyone within the organization (MSU, 2020).

7. Vision
One of the tasks of organization’s leaders is to set and cleay communicate that vision and to
invite others to share and implement it Visionary leaders provide the spark that inspires
others to work towary the same goals. They also provide the tools to help them get there.
They paint a picture of how their vision will affect the organization as a whole as well as each
individual. It is also imperative for effective leaders trust their teams with the vision, as
trusting can be a sign of strength, (MSU, 2020).
8. Inner Values
Top organizational leaders emphasize strong family values. They recognize the values they
were given by their families, and that work-life balance is essential to success. The ability to
focus on the organization when at work, and, in turn, spend quality time with family when at
home, is essential to effective leadership. Knowing your strengths, as well as your
weaknesses, is an essential aspect of honoring your inner values. Once you've identified
your strengths, it’s possible to nurture and use them to your fullest potential. This is
essential to developing your leadership style and building a strong organization (MSU, 2020).
9. Inspiration
Effective leadership inspires their followers in many ways. They make an effort to know them
and ask them for their input and ideas. Inspiring leaders expound the notion that there are
no failures, only opportunities for learning and growth. When followers are inspired by their
leaders, they are more confident, they know what’s expected, and they feel empowered to
make decisions and work toward their goals (MSU, 2020).
10. Transparency
Effective leadership uses transparency to help those around them embrace change, which
can be accomplished with a combination of communication, informed debate, shared
decision-making, reaching 4 consensus, and using social media. People should know why
and how a leader has come to a decision and in what ways it will affect them (Florida Tech,
n.d.).
11. Decisiveness
Effective leadership weighs: a decision carefully, but once they make up their mind, they are
not easily put off course. This shows commitment, which breeds consistency, both of which
are traits that pay off well in leadership (Florida Tech, n.d.).

Leadership Principles
Leadership principles are a framework of actions you can take as a leader to inspire others to
work together toward a common goal; they are the foundation for success. These are set of
actions or guiding beliefs that leaders can implement to move them toward success. The
following leadership principles are commonly seen as vital to success:

 Lead by Example
 A good leader models excellent behavior and must be able to motivate and
encourage people. The most successful companies and organizations have leaders
who help their staff understand the value in their vision and show them how
everyone can work together to achieve that goal in their role (IET, 2021).

 Leadership is About People

Interpersonal and communication skills are essential to any leader. Without being
able to communicate one’s vision to others, leadership will be challenging. A leader
should have the best possible relationship with each member of the team. This
means not only relating to those people in top-level management but also the
people who work in the lowest-level positions and everyone in between (IET, 2021).

 Focus on Change
The foundation of every leadership plan is transformation. Change for the better
should be the focus, not just making changes for financial gain. Focus on the overall
vision and have the ambition to bring about change (IET, 2021).

Be Human and Admit Mistakes

Everyone makes mistakes, but it can be beneficial for other people to see a leader
acknowledge their mistakes as it can help them be more relatable. A wise leader learns from
each experience and uses it to teach their employees and themselves what areas they need
to focus on to grow as an organization (IET, 2021).

Understand the Value of Listening

There are two levels of human understanding: intellectual and emotional. When a person
understands what someone is saying, this is the intellectual level. The emotional level of
understanding means that a person knows how they are feeling. A good leader should
understand both. People feel valued and respected when a leader takes the time to listen
and process what they are saying (IET, 2021).

Develop Leadership Skills

A leader is defined by their behavior and actions, and a good leader has specific skills and
characteristics that help them lead effectively. It is important to constantly work on
leadership skills and always strive to improve them because they determine how successful
one’s leadership style will be (IET, 2021).
Promote Diversity
A leader should embrace diversity and harness the strengths that it can confer on a
company. A diverse workforce encourages innovation and new ideas, which in turn increases
the likelihood of success (IET, 2021).

Work Together to Achieve More

Cooperation and collaboration. can happen between organizations without affecting healthy
competition. A leader should embrace the benefits working collaboratively can bring.
Collaboration is the act of working with others to share information, strategies and
successes, and every great jeader understands its importance (IET, 2021).

Have Solid Values

People typically want to work with a leader who understands their values and needs and has
authentic values they follow themselves. An effective leader must have a clear vision and
solid values so they can inspire their followers and motivate them (IET, 2021).

Use Technology and Innovation

A leader should take advantage of the benefits that technology can bring to the organization.
Technology can help in the operation of a business, increase productivity, help movement
into new markets and facilitate in achieving the company vision. Communication across the
world is easier using new technologies, which helps with collaboration. Teams can now work
together even if they are based in different countries (IET, 2021).

Help to Develop Future Leaders

Part of being a great leader is to make sure there is someone else who can take over the
leadership role among the followers when necessary. Thinking about the future in this way is
a strong leadership trait. The organization will benefit from having a plan in place that leaves
no time gap when people have no leader to look to. When employees are . educated on how
to become leaders, they are motivated to take ownership of their work (IET, 2021).

The Six Types of Power for Leaders

An effective leader understands how to wield power and what it means when he/she does
so. The use of power is one of many tools at a leader's disposal. Power in itself is neither
good nor bad as it is the wielder that determines if power is used to serve or to undermine a
company’s goals. It is a necessary tool for enacting change within your sphere of influence .
If used effectively, the use of power will gain respect and achieve results. If used improperly,
the misuse of power can hamstring an organization and lead to stagnation.”
According to John French and Bertram Raven (1959) in their wo, entitled The Bases of Social
Power, they introduced five distinct type, of power.” They later added a sixth. All six of these
types of power ay, part of the fundamental knowledge that all leaders must possess to },
effective These are(Prescott, 2015):
1. Coercive Power
Coercive Power is forcing someone to do something against their will or setting up
“consequences” to employee actions. It relies on threats, bullying, and “or-else” language to
“motivate” those that are beneath them. This type of behavior often leads to fear,
dissatisfaction, and resentment (French and Raven, 1959). Coercive Power is often the least
effective but most employed and abused type of power in the corporate world (Prescott,
2015).
2. Reward Power
Reward Power is the concept of “do this and get that” or “if you do this, you will receive
something in return”. Reward Power is useful as long as the reward is perceived as having
value. Giving away a gold-star or a gift card may be nice if it is something that is rare, but if
overused the effect may be weakened. It is another widely used method in business today.
Its results are mixed and it is therefore the second - weakest form of power. (Prescott, 2015).
3. Legitimate Power
Legitimate Power is the power of position or role. This is the typical “command and control”
structure that is employed by the Military world. It acts as a formalized way of ensuring that
there is someone to make a decision (good or bad) and that someone is responsible. People
are influenced by legitimate power and they will do what they are told due to the rules of
society and the workplace (Prescott, 2015). Legitimate power is fickle though. If someone
loses their position, they often quickly lose their power.”
4. Referent Power
Referent Power is the “cult of personality”. This is the power and ability for an individual to
attract others and to build loyalty within them. It is also the power of respect. This can occur
through time if a leader is successful and has a well known track-record of success. It is
based on being liked and respected as an individual. It’s derived from an individual’s
perceived value, worth or attractiveness (Prescott, 2015).
5. Informational Power
Informational Power is the newest addition to the types of power by French and Raven. It is
the power of having information that another does not have, or, the distribution of
information as a means of effecting change. This could be positive or negative propaganda,
knowledge ofan opponent’s strategy, or detailed information that is used in decision
support. It can be used to measure and improve tasks, processes, and strategies (Prescott,
2015).
6. Expert Power
Expert power derives from an individual's expertise. Their level of skill, competence and
experience helps make them trustworthy and influential to others. It is derived from
personal traits and is wholly independent of a position in an organization. Expert power only
lasts as long as an. expert keeps getting good results and is not acting purely for personal
gain (Prescott, 2015).
Figure 7
French and Raven’s 6 Forms of Power and their Differences
CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Explain and differentiate some of the Organizational Leadership Typologies;

2. Define Ethical Leadership;
3. Explain the The 4-V Model of Ethical Leadership;
4. Differentiate the Transformational Leadership from Transactional Leadership;
5. Explain Authentic Leadership;
6. Explain Spiritual Leadership;
7. Identify the Characteristics of Charismatic Leadership; and
8. Explain Servant Leadership.

Ethical Leadership
Ethical leadership is the demonstration of normatively appropriate, conduct through
personal actions and interpersonal relationships and the promotion of such conduct to
followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making. It is a form
of leadership in which individuals demonstrate conduct for the common good that is
acceptable and appropriate in every area of their life means that individuals behave
according to a set of principles and value, that are recognized by the majority as a sound
basis for the common good. Such as integrity, respect, trust, fairness, transparency, and
honesty.

Elements of Ethical Leadership

Ethical leadership encompasses six main elements, they are (Villirilli, 2021):

1. Honesty It involves committing to presenting facts as they are, playing fair with
competitors, and communicating honestly with others.
2. Justice To be fair means treating everyone equally, offering opportunities with no
favoritism, and condemning improper behaviors and manipulations, as well as any other
actions that could harm someone.
3. Respect This includes listening to each stakeholder, fostering inclusion, and value diversity.
It disrespecting others around them, regardless of their position or identifying
characteristics.
4. Integrity It entails aligning consistently the values, words, | and actions of the
organization. It is not enough to talk the talk, one has to walk the walk to demonstrate
integrity.
5. Responsibility It means accepting the leadership role, embracing the power and duties
that come with it, and always responding and being present in challenging situations.
6 Transparency It involves keeping an open dialogue, " accepting feedback, and disclosing
the information others need to deliver their work.

Moral Components of Ethical Leadership

Ethical Leadership is primarily an integration of leadership and moral development theory.%
As James Rest (1994) asserts that the process of understanding and resolving an ethical
dilemma involves four distinct psychological processes”, they are:

1. Moral Awareness Also known as Moral Sensitivity. It refers to the capacity of a leader or
an individual to recognize that one has encountered a moral dilemma. It is possible that a
person is already involved in a moral dilemma-and is oblivious of that fact. Therefore, it is
the first task of a leader to increase his/ her awareness of the ethical dilemmas in their midst
(Grace, 1998, p. 9).
2. Moral Judgment Also known as Moral Reasoning, it occurs after the leader/ individual
becomes aware of the moral dilemma happening in their group or organization. It is where
the leader considers the choices available while in the midst of a moral dilemma (Grace,
1998, p. 9).
3. Moral Intention Also known as Moral choosing, it is where . the leader or an individual
made a choice after considering: the options available to him/ her while in the midst of a
moral dilemma. It provides the leader a choice between satisfying one’s self, the social order
or one’s principles (Grace, 1998, p9).
4. Moral Action It is the last step, and it is distinct from the first three. The first 3
components are entirely on a cognitive level of the leader, while Moral actions call for the
leader to act or to do something in actuality (Grace, 1998, p. 10).
Rest asserts that, when confronted with an ethical dilemma, individuals engage in a
decision-making process that involves working, through these four components. Individuals
move from mor awareness, the recognition of a moral situation, to moral judgment, the
evaluation of choices and outcomes, to moral intention, choosing how one intends to act,
and lastly to moral action, the actual behavior in the Situation. A failure at any step in the
process could result in a failure tg make an ethical decision (Rest, 1994).
The 4-V Model of Ethical Leadership
Sometimes knowing what is right is not a guarantee that a person will do what is right. There
is a gap between knowing the right thing and doing the right thing, in order to bridge the
gap a leader needs to have moral courage (Grace, 1998, p. 10). Moral courage involves the
willingness to speak out and do what is right in the face of forces that would lead a person to
act in some other way.” The 4V Model of Ethical Leadership helps leaders to cross the bridge
of moral courage which leads to moral action (Grace, 1998, p. 10).

Values
In order to develop good Ethical Leadership, the leader needs to first go in search of his own
core values and develop the discipline to integrate them into his/ her daily lives. Service
pertains to activities that a person is doing in relation to other individuals around him/ her;
specifically those who are in need. It connects Values to Vision, for it is only through the
service of others a leader can yield the latent vision within his own values.

FIGURE 8
Bill Grace's 4-V Model of Ethical Leadership

Vision
Itis about the leader’s ability to implement his actions in sucha way that they lead to a
certain goal (vision). Polis refers to politics. It indicates that an organization deals with the
art of politics when the vision has to be communicated to public groups. Vision leads to
Voice as the leader seeks to take public action related to his/ her vision.

Voice
The ethical leader must have a voice, in order to formulate the vision for others and to make
it clear in a way that motivates them to act. Renewal stands for innovation. Although the
voice can be expressed in different ways, the ethical leader will have to regularly consider
whether actions are in accordance with values and vision.
Virtue
It is at the center of the model and it stands for the Common Good Ethical leaders are role
models because of their virtuous behavior aha will strive to do the right things and act
appropriately. They need i reflect further on how his/ her values, vision, and voice are in
Keeping, with the Common Good. :

Transformational Leadership
James MacGregor Burns (1978) conceptualized leadership as either, transactional or
transformational.’ According to Burns, transforming leadership is a process in which “leaders
and followers help each other ty advance to a higher level of morale and motivation.

Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in

individuals and social systems. Transformational leaders are those who stimulate and inspire
followers to both achieve extraordinary outcomes and in the process, develop their own
leadership capacity. They help followers grow and develop as leaders by responding to
individual follower’s needs by empowering them and by aligning the objectives and goals of
the individual followers, the leader, and the organization.'”

Four I’s of Transformational Leadership

Bernard M. Bass (1985) expanded upon Burns’s original ideas to develop what is today
referred to as Bass’s Transformational Leadership Theory. According to Bass,
transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers.’
Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect, and admiration from their
followers.’ According to Bass there were four different components of transformational
leadership.
1. Individualized Consideration - Refers to the degree to - which the leader attends to each
follower’s needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to the follower's
concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open and
places challenges before the followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and
celebrates the individual contribution that each follower can make to the team. The
followers have a will and aspirations for self development and have intrinsic motivation for
their tasks.

2. intellectual Stimulation —Refers to the degree to which the leader challenges

assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers’ ideas. Leaders with this style stimulate and
encourage creativity in their followers. They nurture and develop people who think
independently. For such a leader, | Jearning is a value and unexpected situations are seen as
opportunities to learn. The followers ask questions, think deeply about things and figure out
better ways to execute their tasks.

3. Inspirational Motivation - Refers to the degree to which the Leader articulates a vision
that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge
followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide
meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are
to be motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group
forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication skills that
make - the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging. The followers are willing
to invest more effort in their tasks, they are encouraged and optimistic about the future and
believe in their abilities.

4. Idealized Influence - Refers to the degree in which the leader provides a role model for
high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains respect and trust.
Transactional Leadership

James MacGregor Burns (1978) conceptualized leadership transactional(ortransformational)

(Bassand Riggio, 2006), Transactions leadership refers to the bulk of leadership models,
which focuses , the exchanges that occur between the leader and their follower. According
to Burns, transactional leaders are those who lead through, social exchanges. For example;
politicians lead by exchanging one thing for another: jobs for votes, or subsidies for
campaign contribution, (Burns, 1978).
Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership focuses on the role of
supervision, organization, and group performance Leaders who implement this style focus
on specific tasks and use reward, and punishments to motivate followers.’ It follows a
managerial philosophy of reinforcement and exchanges, managing employees _ by
establishing specific goals and then offering a reward for achieving _ them. Effective
transactional leaders recognize and reward a follower’s accomplishments in a timely way.
Basic assumptions of Transactional

Leadership are:

 People perform their best when the chain of command is definite and clear.
 Rewards and punishments motivate workers.
 Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the primary goal of the
followers.
 Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that expectations are met.

Three Components of Transactional Leadership

The three components of Transactional Leadership are (Bass and ‘o, 3006):
1. Contingent Reward (CR) - It involves the leader assigning or obtaining follower’s
agreement on what needs to be done with the promise or actual rewards offered in
exchange for satisfactorily carrying out the assignment.
2. Management-by-Exception Passive (MBE-P)It implies waiting passively for deviance,
mistake, and errors to occur and then taking a corrective action.
3. Management-by-Exception Active (MBE-A)It is where the leader arranges to actively
monitor deviances from standards, mistakes, and errors of the follower’s assignments and to
take corrective actions as necessary.
FIGURE 9
Full Range of Leadership

In Figure 8, it shows the full range of Leadership which includes the 4I's of transformational
Leadership, 3 components of Transactional Leadership, and Laissez Faire Leadership Style
(LF). The leader with an optimal profile (effective and active) displays higher frequency of
transformational leadership than transactional, and Laissez faire leadership.
Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership is a style of leadership that focuses on transparent and ethical leader
behavior and encourages open sharing of information needed to make decisions while
accepting followers inputs. It works on the principle that a leader can prove their legitimacy
by nurturing sincere relationships with their subordinates and giving importance to their
input.”
Authentic leaders are individuals who are deeply aware of how think and behave and are
perceived by others as being aware of their ow, and others’ values/moral perspective,
knowledge, and strengths; away of the context in which they operate; and who are
confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, and high on moral character.”
Four Components of Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership has four major components:

1. Self-Awareness Authentic leaders assess their own weaknesses, strengths and values in
order to be more authentic with team members. Practicing self-awareness may also include
self-reflection, asking for feedback and an awareness of employees’ feelings.
2. Unbiased Processing Authentic leaders must take into account both supporting and
opposing opinions when making decisions. This type of processing encourages employees to
share their opinions and experiences and helps avoid potential conflicts (Indeed Editorial
Team, 2021).
3. Relations Transparency - Authentic leaders must be willing to be transparent in their
workplace relationships as well as remain honest when sharing their own thoughts and
feelings. This may include offering constructive feedback to team as well as admitting when
they’re in the wrong. By doing so, an authentic leader leads by example and fosters
transparency among the team and organization (Indeed Editorial Team, 2021),
4. Internalized Moral Perspective - Authentic leaders resolve moral issues and dilemmas
own internal moral standards rather than being bound by external moral standards,
regulations and rules (Barling, 2014, Dp. 13).

Spiritual Leadership
Spiritual leadership comprises the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are
necessary to intrinsically motivate one’s self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual
survival through calling and membership and is inclusive of the religious-and ethics and
values-based approaches to leadership. It involves the application of spiritual values and
principles to the workplace. The spiritual leader understands the importance of employees
finding meaning in their work and demonstrates a genuine concern for the “whole” person,
not just the employee. Spiritual leadership tries to assist others in finding meaning in their
work.”
Spiritual leadership should not be confused with religious leadership, which is
essential, but also different from spiritual leadership as the latter is more diffuse and less
tied to an official capacity. While a religious leader can manifest spiritual leadership, a
spiritual reader may not necessarily have religious leadership in any official capacity.
Spiritual leadership, on the other hand, may receive authentication through more
charismatic and visionary forms of leadership and followership.
Six Behaviors of a Spiritual Leader
The definition and application of spiritual leadership ;,, behaviors that promote spiritual
practices in the workplace.

1. Respect for others’ values,

2. Fair treatment,
3. Expressing care and concern,
4. Listening actively and responsively,
5. Showing appreciation for others’ contributions, and
6. Reflective practices, which include managing emotions.

Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership theory was first mentioned in the book, The Three Types of
Legitimate Rule, published by Max Weber in 1958. Leaders who follow the charismatic
leadership theory can inspire their followers and motivate them. In turn, they win the
devotion of their employees. Charismatic leadership is a type of leadership that combines
charm, interpersonal connection, and persuasiveness to motivate others. It is a form of
professional guidance or management built on a foundation of strong communication skills,
persuasiveness, and maybe even a little bit of charm to help them get the most out of
everyone that works for them.
Charismatic leaders are seen to have inspiring visions, being able to enthuse their
followers and get them to identify with the vision through their powers of persuasion and
ability to influence the emotions of followers.

Characteristics of Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders stand out from the crowd. Their behavior qs others and their
thinking help them grab the attention of the people around them. The following are the
characteristics of a charismatic Leader (Waters, 2021):
1 Excellent Communication Skills - A charismatic leader can clearly communicate duties and
goals to their team. They can speak openly, in a professional way, and convey their exact
thoughts without speaking too little or too much. They also allow open communication
between everyone. They encourage their employees to speak freely without fear of
repercussions. They also have good listening skills so that their employees feel heard
(Waters, 2021).
2. Emphatic and Compassionate - Charismatic leaders are open to their followers’ concerns
and passions, willing to understand their feelings. They have high emotional intelligence.
Because of this skill, they become well-liked among their employees as great listeners and
confidants (Waters, 2021).
3. Confident - Proper posture and the right body language, such as maintaining eye contact,
create an image of confidence. The idea of charisma often brings along the idea of self-
confidence. A charismatic leader can confidently take control when issues arise, or problems
are found (Waters, 2021).
4. Humble - A charismatic leader understands that they aren’t perfect. They are willing to
accept their mistakes and take on mistakes from their team as their own. They understand
they can improve and strive to do so for the sake of their team (Waters, 2021).
5. Self Aware - A charismatic leader focuses on understanding themselves and their roles
within their team (Waters, 2021).
6. Mature - A charismatic leader can develop and drive a team toward the organizations’’
goals due to their expertise and experience. They can accomplish this with a wise mindset
when approaching everything they do. They are the leader who directs and commands
(Waters, 2021).
7. Optimist - A charismatic leader can build a Positive attitude for everyone around them by
always looking on the brighter side. They don’t give up easily. They’re committed to facing
and finding solutions in the most difficult of situations, That aren't afraid to take risks even
when the stakes are high (Waters, 2021).
8. Passionate - A charismatic leader always shows a great deal op passion in everything they
do. They show great enthusiasm for their work, genuinely. This passion should also bleed
into other employees through clear communication and how they act (Waters, 2021).

Servant Leadership
The Servant Leadership is based on the idea that leaders prioritize. Serving the greater
good. Leaders with this style serve their team and organization first. They don’t prioritize
their own objectives. It seeks to achieve a vision by providing strong support to employees.
In turn, this allows employees to learn and grow while bringing their own expertise and
vision to the table. This hinges on building influence and authority rather than using control
and toxic leadership tactics (Gomes, 2021).
The theory of servant leadership is thought to have been coined by Robert Greenleaf (1970),
a twentieth-century researcher. Greenleaf considered that the leader should put the
emphasis on their team members so that they can become autonomous and free-thinking.
Servant leadership is a mindset that reflects a servant-first mentality rather than a leader-
first mentality.
Characteristics of Servant Leadership
Here are the 10 characteristics of a Servant leader (Barling, 2014, p. 15):
1. Listening - Servant leaders don’t just speak but listen to what their team has to say. They
give ample opportunity for all members to be heard, and then, listen carefully to what is
being said and potentially what is not being said. They give others their full attention, notice
coworkers’ body language, avoid interrupting and give constructive feedback.
2. Empathy - Servant leaders understand that when their team feels happy and fulfilled in
their personal lives, it contributes to success in their professional lives. They value other
perspectives and approach situations with an open mind (IET, 2022).
3. Healing - Effective servant leaders understand the ’ importance of fixing problems before
moving on to new goals and projects. They make sure their team has the knowledge,
support and resources to do their jobs effectively (IET, 2022).
4. 'Awareness - Effective servant leaders are aware of themselves ’ and their teams. Through
self-awareness, servant leaders accept and grow from their own weaknesses. While being
aware of their team’s individual strengths and weaknesses to help them grow and learn (IET,
2022).
5. Persuasion - Effective servant leaders guide and persuade team members. They seek to
convince the team as a whole and build a consensus (IET, 2022).
6. Conceptualization - Effective servant leaders can think beyond small tasks and
communicate larger goals and why they are important to their teams. They help their team
understand their roles and stay motivated while focusing on the company’s long-term
objectives and goals (IET, 2022).
7. Foresight - Effective servant leaders understand the importance of learning from past
mistakes and successes and using lessons learned to productively evaluate present
decisions. They identify what’s happening now and understand the consequences of their
decisions and then help their team do the same.
8. Stewardship - Effective servant leaders acknowledge and understand the importance of
their responsibilities. They protect and uphold the trust and confidence given them in their
role and communicate this to their team. They lead by example, demonstrating the values
and behaviors that they want to see in others.
9. Commitment - Effective servant leaders motivate their teams to grow. They are
committed to helping their teams develop professionally. Servant leaders help their team
members become leaders themselves by leading by example and providing their team with
opportunities to grow and develop.
10. Building Community - Effective servant leaders encourage collaboration and
engagement within their organizations. | They value the opinions of everyone on their team
and encourage them to share those opinions and to actively contribute to the team
regularly.
CHAPTER 5
UNDERSTANDING MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Define Management;
2. Explain the relationship between Leadership and Management;
3. Differentiate the concept of Leadership and of Management;
4. Enumerate and explain the Principles of Management According to Fayol;
5. Identify the 5 Functions of Management,
6 Explain Spiritual Leadership;
7. Define Planning;
8. Explain the Basic Principles of Organizing;
9. Explain the Components of Staffing,
10. Identify and explain the Elements of Directing; and
11. Explain the Components of Controlling.

What is Management?
Management is a set of principles relating to the functions g planning, organizing,
directing, and controlling, and the applications of these principles in harnessing physical,
financial, human, and - informational resources efficiently and effectively to achieve
organizational goals. It is a problem-solving process of effectively achieving organizational
objectives through the efficient use of scarce resources in changing environment.
All organizations such as business, political, cultural or social are involved in
management because it is management which helps and directs the various efforts towards
a definite purpose. It is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally
organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people can perform and
individuals and can cooperate towards attainment of group goals. There are many
definitions of management, however it can be observed that the definitions of management
converge on the concept of accomplishing goals and objectives through the efforts of
people.

Leadership and Management ,

Leadership as discussed from the previous chapter, is the ability to influence or guide
people within an organization or business, while management is the ability to control day-to-
day processes and keep employees on track to achieve company goals. Management
consists of controlling a group or a set of entities to accomplish a goal, Leadership refers to
an individual's ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward
organizational success.
Leadership and management are terms that are often considered synonymous. It is
important to understand that leadership is an essential part of effective management. As a
crucial component of management, remarkable leadership behavior stresses upon building
an environment in which each and every employee develops and excels. This influence may
originate from formal sources, such as that provided by acquisition of managerial positions
in an organization. A manager must have traits of a leader, and develop that build and
sustain competitive advantage. Organizations require robust leadership and robust,
management for optimal organizational efficiency.

Figure 10
Difference between Leadership and Management

Leadership Management
Focuses on People Focuses on things
Articulates a vision Executes plan
Trusts & develop Direct and coordinates
Creates change Manage change
Uses influence Uses authority
Authority comes from personal relationship Authority stems from position in the
organization
Thinks strategically Determines long-term objectives and
strategies
Delegates responsibility Acts decisively
Appropriate risk taking and innovation Decides how to use personnel and other
resources

Difference Between Leadership and Management

Some leadership and management skills overlap, it’s important to know the
distinctions between these two roles. Effective leaders are invested in motivating and
inspiring their teams, often by setting q good example for employees to follow and defining
the expectations of the company for its employees. Managers are more occupied with the
daily tasks that meet leadership goals and are responsible for effectively delegating work
and ensuring their employees are meeting company deadlines and expectations. (IET, 2022).
Here are some of the key differences between Leadership and Management:

 Differences in Vision
Managers set out to achieve organizational goals by implementing processes, such as
budgeting, organizational structuring, and staffing. Managers’ vision is bound to the
implementation strategies, planning, and organizing tasks to reach the objectives set
out by leaders. Leaders on the other hand, are considered as visionaries. They set the
pathways to excel in: organizational growth. They always examine where their
organization stands, where they want to go, and how they can reach there by
involving the team. Both of these roles are equally important in the context of
business environments and necessitate associative efforts (Duggal, 2022).
 Organizing vs Aligning
Leaders are more focused on how to align and influence people rather than how to
assign work to them. They achieve this by assisting individuals in envisioning their
function in a wider context and the possibility for future growth that their efforts
may give. While, managers achieve their goals by using coordinated activities and
tactical processes. They break down long-time goals into tiny segments and organize
available resources to reach the desired outcome (Duggal, 2022).
 Differences in Queries
A leader asks what and why, whereas a manager focuses on the questions of how
and when. To do justice to their duties as a leader, one might question and challenge
the authority to reverse decisions that may not be in the better interests of the team.
If a firm has a stumbling block, a leader will be the one to step up and ask, ‘What did
we learn from this?’ and ‘Why has this happened?’ While, managers are not required
to assess and analyze failures. Their job description emphasizes asking How and
When, which assists them in ensuring that plans are carried out correctly. They
prefer to accept the status quo and make no attempt to change it (Duggal, 2022).
 Position vs Quality
A manager is a role that frequently refers to a specific job within an organization’s
structure, whereas the term leader has a more ambiguous definition. Leadership
emerges as a result of your actions. An individual is a leader if he/she acts in a way
that inspires others to do their best. It makes no difference what his/ her title or
position is. On the other hand, a manager is a job title that comes with a fixed set of
responsibilities.

Principles of Management
 Henry Fayol (1841 - 1925) was a French coal-mine engineer, also known as the father
of modern management theory. His scientific management theory forms the base for
business administration and Business management. He introduced a general theory that can
be applied to all levels of management and every department.

The fourteen principles of management created by Henri Fayol are:

1. Division of Work
The objective of division of work is to produce more and better work with the same
effort. It leads to specialization, and specialization helps to increase efficiency and
efficiency which results in improvements in the productivity and profitability of the
organization (Fayol, 2016).

2. Balancing Authority and Responsibility

Authority is the right to give orders and power to exact obedience. While
responsibility is a corollary of authority, it is its natural consequence and essential
counterpart, and wherever authority is exercised responsibility arises. There should
be a balance between Authority (Power) and Responsibility (Duties). If the authority
is more than responsibility then chances are that a manager may misuse it. If
responsibility is more than authority then he may feel frustrated (Fayol, 2016).

3. Discipline
Discipline means respect for the rules and regulations of the organization. Discipline
may be Self-discipline, or it may be Enforced discipline. It is an outward mark of
respect in accordance with formal or informal agreements between a firm and its
employees. The workers must respect the rules that run the organization. To
establish discipline, good supervision and impartial judgment are needed (Fayol,
2016).

4. Unity of Command
A subordinate (employee) must have and receive orders from only one superior (boss
or manager). A subordinate must report to only one superior. It helps in preventing
dual subordination. Dual subordination can cause havoc in the organization, since
authority is undermined, discipline is jeopardized, order is disturbed and stability
threatened (Fayol, 2016).

5. Unity of Direction
It is expressed as “one head and one plan for a group of activities having the same
objective. It is essential for unity of actions, coordination of strengths and focusing of
effort (Fayol, 2016).

6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest

 The interest of one individual or one group should not prevail over the general good.
The general interest should be given the most importance. If not, the organization
will collapse. The interest of the organizational goal should not be sabotaged by the
interest of an individual or of the group (Fayol, 2016).

7. Remuneration of Personnel
Remuneration of personnel is the price of the services rendered. It should be fair and
affords satisfaction to both the personnel and the firm. If an organization wants
efficient employees and best performance, then it should have a good remuneration
policy. This policy should give maximum satisfaction to both employers and
employees. It should include both financial and non-financial incentives.
Compensation should be based on a systematic attempt to reward good performance
(Fayol, 2016).

8. Centralization
In centralization, the authority is concentrated only in a few hands. While
decentralization has the authority distributed to all the levels of management. There
should be a balance between centralization and decentralization. The degree to
which centralization or decentralization should be adopted depends on the specific
organization, but managers should retain final responsibility but should give
subordinates enough authority to do the tasks successfully (Fayol, 2016).

9. Scalar Chain
The chain of command, also known as the scalar - chain, is the formal line of
authority, communication, and responsibility within an organization. The chain of
command is usually depicted on an organizational chart, which identifies the superior
and subordinate relationships in the organizational structure. It is the line of
authority from top to bottom of the organization. This chain implements the unity-of-
command principle and allows the orderly flow of information. Under the unity of
command principle, the instructions flow downward along the chain of command
and accountability flows upward (Fayol, 2016).

10. Order
There must be an orderly placement of the resources such as Men and Women,
Money, Materials, etc in the organization. Human and material resources must be in
the right place at the right time. Misplacement will lead to misuse and disorder.
Order for things is called Material Order, it’s a place for everything and everything in
its place. While, order for people is called Social Order, which refers to the selection
of the “right man in the right place” (Fayol, 2016).

11. Equity
 Equity is a combination of kindness and justice. It creates loyalty and devotion in the
employees toward the organization. The equity principle suggests that the managers
must be kind as well as equally fair to the subordinates (Fayol, 2016).

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel

The employees should have job security because instability leads to inefficiency.
Successful firms usually had a stable group of employees. Employees need to be
given sufficient time to settle into their jobs. They need time to learn their job and to
become efficient (Fayol, 2016).

13. Initiative
Initiative gives satisfaction to the employees and brings success to the organization.
Management should encourage initiative. They should encourage the employees to
make their own plans and to execute these plans. It allows the subordinates to think
out a plan and do what it takes to make it happen (Fayol, 2016).

14. Esprit De Corps

Esprit de Corps means Team Spirit, the management should create unity, co-
operation, and team-spirit among the employees. They should avoid dividing and
rule policy. Harmony, cohesion among personnel. It’s a great source of strength in the
organization. Itisa quality in every successful business (Fayol, 2016).

Figure 11
Five Functions of Management
Functions of Management
In general, there are five basic functions of Management they are:

1. Planning
Planning is the first task of a manager, and forms the basis of Which all other
tasks are derived. Management decides the future of organization, by planning,
strategizing and implementing plans. Planning is the continuous process of
making present entrepreneurial decisions systematically and with best possible
knowledge of their future, organizing systematically the efforts needed to carry
out these decisions and measuring the results of these decisions against the
expectations through organized and systematic feedback.

An effective planning program incorporates the effect of both:

A. External Factors
This includes shortages of resources; both capital and material, general economic
trend as far as interest rates and inflation are concerned, dynamic technological
advancements, increased governmental regulation regarding community
interests, unstable international political environments, etc.

B. Internal Factors
This includes limited growth opportunities due to saturation requiring
diversification, changing patterns of the workforce, more complex organizational
structures, decentralization, etc

Characteristics of Planning
The following are the characteristics of Effective Planning (Shinde, 2018, p. 46-50):

 Planning is goal oriented it is made to achieve the desired objectives of an

organization. The goals established should be accepted by the majority otherwise
individual efforts and energies will go misguided and misdirected. Planning identifies
the action that would lead to desired goals quickly and economically (Shinde, 2018,
p. 46).

 Planning is looking ahead - It is done for the future. It is . based on forecasting. It isa
mental predisposition for things to happen in the future (Shinde, 2018, p. 46).
 Planning is an intellectual process - it is a mental exercise which involves creative
thinking, sound judgment, and imagination. It is always based on goals, facts, and
considered estimates (Shinde, 2018, p. 46).

 Planning involves choice and decision making - It essentially involves choice among
various alternatives. A manager is surrounded by a number of alternatives. He/she
has to pick the best depending upon the requirements and resources of the
organization (Shinde, 2018, p. 47).

 Primacy of planning - It lays a foundation for other functions of management. All

functions of management are performed within the framework of plans laid out
(Shinde, 2018, p. 47).

 Planning is a continuous process - It is a never ending function due to the dynamic

business environment. Plans are prepared for a specific time and at the end of that
period, plans are subjected to re-evaluation and review in the light of new
requirements and changing conditions (Shinde, 2018, p. 47).

 Planning is all pervasive - It is required at all levels of the organization and in all of its
departments. The scope of planning may differ from one level to another. Top level
may be concerned about planning the organization as a whole whereas the middle
level may be more specific departmental plans, and the lower level plans
implementation of the same (Shinde, 2018, p. 48).
 Planning facilitates coordination - it revolves around the organizational goals, and all
activities are directed towards common goals. There is an integral effort throughout
the organization within its various departments and groups. I(t avoids duplication of
efforts (Shinde, 2018, p. 49).

 Planning encourages innovation - In the process of planning, managers have the

opportunities of suggesting ways and means of improving performance. It is basically
a decision making function which involves creative thinking and imagination that
ultimately leads to innovation of methods and operations for growth and prosperity
of the enterprise (Shinde, 2018, p. 50).

2. Organizing
Organizing is the process of creating structure for the organization that will
enable the various players to work together effectively towards its objectives
(Shinde, 2018, p. 61). It requires a formal structure og authority and the direction
and flow of such authority through which work subdivisions are defined,
arranged and coordinated so that each part relates to the other part in a united
and coherent manner So as to attain the prescribed objectives (Kerekja, n.d.).
Organizational Structure is the basic framework of forma] relationship among
responsibilities, tasks, and people in the organization. It can be seen as the
 division of activities into manageable units where everyone knows their roles and
parts, which in turn removes confusion and conflict (Shinde, 2018, p. 61).

Basic Principles of Organizing

Effective organizations are guided by the following principles (Shinde, 2018, p. 63):

 Division of work and specialization - It involves dividing the total workload into tasks
that can be logically and effectively performed by individuals with specialized
knowledge.
 Departmentation - It refers to the logical groupings into manageable sizes of
organizational activities that belong together. The departments created constitute
the organization’s structure and appear on organizational charts.
 Coordination - It refers to the process of integrating departments both horizontally
and vertically. It is achieved through authority relationships, which involve allocation
of responsibility and authority to each position in the organizational structure.
 Chain of Command -it defines the reporting lines of individuals and groups in the
organizations.
 Unity of Command - It implies that each subordinate must have only one manager to
report to.
 Span of Control - it refers to the number working under one manager. of
subordinates

3. Staffing
Staffing, also known as Human resource, is the function of hiring and retaining a
suitable work-force for the enterprise both at managerial well as non-managerial
levels. It involves the process of recruiting, training, developing, compensating and
evaluating employees and maintaining this workforce with proper incentives and
motivations. since the human element is the most vital factor in the process of
management, it is important to recruit the right personnel.
Components of Staffing ;
Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through
proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles
assigned in the structure. Staffing involves”:

 Manpower Planning
 -it involves the estimation of manpower in terms of searching, choosing the person
and giving the right place.

 Recruitment, Selection & Placement

- Recruitment is the process of identifying the sources for prospective candidates to
stimulate them to apply for jobs in the organization.
- Selection is the process of choosing from among the candidates the most suitable
person for the current position or for the future position.
- Placement may be defined as the determination of the job to which a selected
candidate is to be assigned, and his assignment to the job.

 Training & Development

These are educational activities within an organization that are designed to improve
the job performance of an individual or group. These programs typically involve
advancing a worker’s knowledge and skill sets and instilling greater motivation to
enhance job performance.

 Remuneration
Remuneration is any type of compensation or payment that an individual or
employee receives as payment for their services or the work that they do for an
organization or company. It includes whatever base salary an employee receives,
along with other forms of payment that accrue during the course of their work,
which includes expense account funds, bonuses, and stock options.

 Performance Appraisal
A performance appraisal is a regular review of an employee’s job performance and
contribution to a company. Organizations use performance appraisals to determine
which employees have contributed the most to the company’s growth, review
progress, and reward high-achieving workers.

 Promotions & Transfer

Promotion is defined as the movement of an employee from one position to another
position of a higher pay grade or salary.
Transfer is defined as the movement of an employee from one position to another
position at the same pay grade level or similar salary.
 4. Directing
Directing is a managerial function which actuates the organizational method to work
efficiently to achieve organizational goals. It’s the life spark of any enterprise which
sets in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and human
resources are the mere preparations for doing work. Direction is the inert-personnel
aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising,
motivating to achieve the organization’s goals (Lavinas, 2019).

Elements of Directing
Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with
influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating subordinate for the achievement of
organizational goals (Juneja, n.d.). The following are the elements of directing as
management function:

 Supervision - It implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is

the act of watching & directing work & workers.
 Motivation - It involves inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the subordinates with
zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for
this purpose.
 Leadership It is a process by which a manager guides and influences the work of
subordinates in desired direction.
 Communications - It is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc
from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

5. Controlling
Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of
subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans
desired to obtain them as being accomplished The task of control is to assure
accomplishment of objectives by detecting potential or actual deviation from
plans early enough to permit effective corrective action. The more control
approaches and techniques detect and illuminate the causes of potential or
actual deviations from plans with the minimum of costs or other unsought
consequences, the more efficient these controls will be (Koontz and O’ Donnell,
1968).

Components of Controlling
The controlling as managerial function involves:

 Establishment of Standard Performance

 - Performance standards are the expression of management-approved performance
thresholds, expectations, and requirements that are to be met so that the employees
are eligible for appraisal.
- It consists of a proper plan or pointers so that employees will have guidance about
the organization's journey. The performance standards vary by rules - of the
employee, organization, industry, etc. An essential element is established at the
beginning of the year or quarter so that the employee can plan accordingly to
achieve the goals.
- Performance standards are objective, realistic, measurable, and transparent.
Ambiguous performance standards are not at all good for the employee and the
organization.

 Measurement of Actual Performance

- Performance should be measured based on an employee’s overall impact, cost
efficiency, effectiveness, and ability to implement best practices.
- Once performance standards are set, the next step is the measurement of actual
performance. : Performance should be measured in an objective and reliable
manner. There are several techniques for the measurement of performance. These
include personal observation, sample checking, performance reports, etc.

Comparison of Actual Performance with the Standards and Finding out Deviation
- Comparing actual performance with standards or . ‘ goals involves accepting
or rejecting the product or _ outcome.
- This comparison of the actual performances with the standards will make
known the differences and deviations. This compares the degree of difference
between the actual performance and the standard. In real case scenarios,
these numbers almost never match up completely. It is completely necessary
to evaluate deviations to determine why the standard is not being met when
performance falls short of the standard (QS Study, 2022).
- Analyzing deviations involves determining whether more control is necessary
or if the standard should be changed.

Taking Corrective Action

- The final step of the control process. If the deviations in the third:step are in an
unacceptable range, then the firm needs to improve their performances.
- The management must take action to get better the actual performance of the firm
in those problem areas. After the reasons for deviations have been indomitable,
managers can then build up solutions for issues with meeting the standards and
make changes to processes or behaviors (QS Study, 2022).
Timing of Controls
Controls can be categorized according to the time in which a process or activity occurs. The
three categories are:

1. Feedback Controls
- It occurs after an activity or process is completed. It is reactive.
- For example, feedback control would involve evaluating a team’s progress by
comparing the production standard to the actual production output.
- If the standard or goal is met, production continues. If not, adjustments can be
made to the process or to the standard.
- Feedback control is more suited for processes, behaviors; or events that are
repeated over time.

2. Proactive Controls
- Also known as preliminary, preventive, or feed-forward control, involves anticipating
trouble, rather than - waiting for a poor outcome and reacting afterward. It is about
prevention or intervention.
- An example of proactive control is when an engineer performs tests on the braking
system of a prototype vehicle before the vehicle design is moved on to bé mass
produced. .
- Proactive control looks forward to problems that could reasonably occur and devises
methods to prevent the problems.

3. Concurrent Controls
- Monitoring takes place during the process or activity.
- Concurrent control may be based on standards, rules, codes, and policies.
-An example of concurrent control is fleet tracking. Fleet tracking by GPS allows
managers to monitor company vehicles. Managers can determine when vehicles reach -
their destinations and the speed in which they move between destinations.
CHAPTER 6

MANAGER, UNDERSTANDING DECISION MAKING AND ADMINISTRATION

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1.Define Manager;
2. Identify the Qualities and Roles of Manager in an Organization;
3. Differentiate the Levels of Management;
4. Explain the Concept of Decision Making;
5. Enumerate the steps to Effective Decision Making; 6. Identify and explain the types and
categories of Decision;
7. Explain the Approaches in Decision Making;
8. Define Administration;
9. Differentiate Administration and Management; and
10. Identify the Essential Skills of an Administrator.

What Is a Manager?
The noun “manager” comes from the verb “to manage”, which came to-the UK around 1560.
It came from Italian “maneggiare” which means “to handle” or “to control a horse”. The
Italian word came from the Latin noun “manus” or hand. The English word was also
influenced by French “manége” or “horsemanship”.
A manager is a professional who takes a leadership role in an organization and manages a
team of employees. He/ She is an individual within an organization who is in charge of
coordinating the efforts of -individuals or the allocation of resources. As such, a manager is
one who undertakes management activities. He/ She oversees the activities of others to
achieve objectives (Gordon, 2022)..

Qualities of Manager
Here are some of the quality of a good Manager:

1. Caring - Good managers take time to get to know the individuals in their team:
They’re genuinely interested in a team member’s success and personal wellbeing.
They regularly check in with people about their lives, both at work and outside it
(Culture Amp, 2022).

2. Good Coach - Good Managers focuses on developing the people they work with as
well as getting the job done. They ensure they have regular 1-on-1 meetings with
team members and encourage them to present solutions to problems, rather than
solving problems for them (Culture Amp, 2022).

3. Great Communicators - Good Managers become great communicators by being good

listeners. They allow time for others to speak. They have a clear understanding of the
organization's vision and share it with the people in their team in a way that
motivates them (Culture Amp, 2022).

4. Pro Employee-Development - Good Managers who show a genuine interest in

employees’ career development acknowledge improvement and not just
deliverables. They take time to discuss their direct report’s long-term career
aspirations and help them understand potential career paths within (and potentially
outside) the organization (Culture Amp, 2022).

5. Emotional Resilience - Good Managers who are aware of how their mood affects
others. They remain calm and productive under pressure and cope well with change
(Culture Amp, 2022).

6. Fairness - Good Managers who value fair treatment will allocate tasks and set
schedules keeping in mind people’s capacity and development goals. They
acknowledge good work. They build a diverse and inclusive team and encourage
diversity of thought (Culture Amp, 2022).
7. Innovative - Good Managers empowers their teams to make decisions is how
managers can inspire and learn from failures and achievements. They don’t
micromanage people. They encourage innovative ideas and approaches and help
people to implement them (Culture Amp, 2022).

8. Empowering and Motivational - Good Managers help people stay motivated to do

their best work. They make the people they manage feel valued, supported, and
empowered. They feel they’re successful when the employees they manage are
successful (Culture Amp, 2022).

9. Results Oriented - Good Managers ensure performance standards are maintained.

They work with team members to help remove blockades and get the team workable
outcomes from team meetings (Culture Amp, 2022),

10. Technically Capable - Good Managers add value to their teams. They can roll up their
sleeves and work alongside the team when necessary. They empathize with the
challenges the team faces and have the necessary skills to help devise solutions
(Culture Amp, 2022).

11. Visionary - Good Managers ensures the organization’s vision and strategy are
translated into an actionable vision and strategy for the team. They help their reports
understand how their role contributes to the organization’s success (Culture Amp,
2022).

Role of Manager in an Organization

A manager’s daily responsibilities may vary depending on the | Organization where they
belong. However, some common responsibilities, of managers across different sectors
can include (IET, 2021):

 Leading a Team - A key responsibility of a manager is leading their team. They give
direction to their employees and answer their questions. They also delegate tasks to
specific employees and ensure that projects stay on track (IET, 2021).
 Training Employees - Managers act as mentors to their employees and teach them
skills that they can use as they advance their careers. They are often responsible for
training their employees to perform their job duties and learn new skills (IET, 2021).
 Managing Conflicts - Managers usually exercise conflict resolution skills and mediate
workplace conflicts.. This can help them maintain a positive work environment for
their team (IET, 2021).
 Managing their Department’s Budget - Managers can sometimes take responsibility
for their department’s budget and use finance and accounting tools. They may meet
 with other professionals to create budgets. They can also determine how much
funding their department needs to operate (IET, 2021).
 Conducting Performance Reviews - Another major responsibility of managers is
conducting performance reviews for their employees. Usually, performance reviews
occur on a periodic basis. In performance reviews, managers give their employees
feedback and suggestions on how they can improve. They might also help their
employees set goals or track their progress on meeting goals (IET, 2021).

 Hiring New Employees - Managers also frequently work with their company’s human
resources department to hire new employees. They may identify job candidates,
conduct interviews and extend job offers (IET, 2021).
 Making Decisions - managers make difficult decisions, so it’s important for them to
have a strong decision-making process. This can help them make the best possible
decisions for the success of their departments (IET, 2021). .

The Levels of Management

Segmenting the management of an organization into levels is vital to maintaining the
productivity and work performance of employees. There are three levels of management
found within an organization, where managers at these levels have different roles to perform
for the organization to have a smooth performance, and the levels are:

1. Top-level Managers
These include the board of directors, president, vice-president, and CEO. These
managers are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They
develop goals, strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the direction of
the business. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of
outside resources. Top-level managers are accountable to the shareholders and general
public (Lumenlearning.com, n.d.).

2. Middle-level Managers
These include general managers, branch managers, and department managers are all
examples of middle-level managers. They are accountable to the top management for
their department's function. Middle-level managers devote more time to organizational
and directional functions than top-level managers (Lumenlearning — com, n.d.). Their
roles can be emphasized as:

 Executing organizational plans in conformance with the company’s policies and

the objectives of the top management;
  Defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower
management; and most importantly
 Inspiring and providing guidance to low-level managers towards better
performance.

Some of their functions are as follows:

 Designing and implementing effective group and intergroup work and

information systems;
 Defining and ‘monitoring group-level performance indicators;
 Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among work groups;
 Designing and implementing reward systems supporting cooperative behavior.

3. Low-level Managers
These include supervisors, section leads, and foremen are examples of low-level
management titles. These managers focus on controlling and directing
(Lumenlearning.com, n.d.). Low-level managers usually have the responsibility of:

 Assigning employees tasks;

 Guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities;
 Ensuring the quality and quantity of production; Making recommendations and
suggestions; and
 Upchanneling employee problems.

Also referred to as first-level managers, low-level managers are role models for employees.
These managers provide:

 Basic supervision;
 Motivation;
 Career planning;
 Performance feedback; and
 Staff supervision.

Concept of Decision Making

Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative resolutions. Management is nothing but a continuous
process of decision-making. It is the responsibility of managers to make operational
decisions and ensure that their teams execute the tasks. In fact, the success of every
manager depends largely on her decision-making skills.
A decision-making process is a series of steps taken by an individual to determine the best
option or course of action to meet their needs. It is a set of steps taken by managers in an
enterprise to determine the planned path for business initiatives and to set specific actions
in motion. Ideally, business decisions are based on an analysis of objective facts, aided by
the use of business intelligence and analytics tools (Brush 2020).

Steps to Effective Decision Making

Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help a manager | make more deliberate,
thoughtful decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. This
approach increases the chances that the manager will choose the most satisfying alternative
possible (UMass, 2022).

Step 1: Identify the Decision - This is the very important step, it is where the manager
realizes that he/she needs to make a decision. He/She need, to clearly define the nature of
the decision he/she must make (UMass 2022).

Step 2: Gather Relevant Information - This is where the manager needs ty collect some
pertinent information such as what information is needed the best sources of information,
and how to get it; before he/she makes a decision; This step involves both internal and
external “work.” Some information is internal, that needs to be sought through a process of
self, assessment. Other information is external that can be found online, in books, from
other people, and from other sources (UMass, 2022).

Step 3: Identify the Alternatives - After the manager collects information, He/ she will
identify several possible paths of action, or alternatives. The manager can also use his/her
imagination and additional information to construct new alternatives. In this step, the
manager will list all possible and desirable alternatives (UMass, 2022).

Step 4: Weigh the Evidence - Manager draws on his/her information and emotions to
imagine what it would be like if he/she carried out each of the alternatives to the end.
Manager needs to evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would be met or resolved
through the use of each alternative. As the manager goes through this difficult internal
process, he/she will begin to favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher
potential for reaching the organization’s goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority
order, based upon the manager’s personal value system (UMass, 2022).
Step 5: Choose Among Alternatives - After the Manager weighs all the evidence, he/she is
ready to select the alternative that seems to be the best one for him/her. The manager may
even choose a combination of alternatives. The choice in Step 5 may very likely be the same
or similar - to the alternative placed at the top of the list at the end of Step 4 (UMass, 2022).

Step 6: Take Action – This is where the manager will make some positive action by beginning
to implement the alternative he/she chose in Step 5 (UMass, 2022).

Step 7: Review of the Decision & its Consequences - The final step is where the manager
considers the results of his/her decision and evaluates whether or not it has resolved the
need identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need, the manager may
want to repeat certain steps of the process to make a new decision, For example, the
manager might want to gather more detailed or somewhat different information or explore
additional alternatives (UMass, 2022).

Types of Decisions
Programmed Decisions - refers to decisions that do not have major consequences or even
require a lot of thought. These are decisions that occur frequently enough that we develop
an automated response to them. The automated response we use to make these decisions is
called the decision rule (UMn, 2010). For example, before you come to class, you make
simple and habitual decisions such as what to wear, what to eat, and which route to take as
you go to and from home and school.
Non-programmed Decisions - refers to decisions that are unique and important that require
conscious thinking, information gathering, and careful consideration of alternatives (UMn,
2010). Problems or situations that don’t have a concrete set of rules or guidelines to follow
rely on non-programmed decision-making. These are complex and have a long-term impact.
Some examples of non-programmed decisions include adopting and adapting to new
technology, acquiring another organization and improving brand image.

Three Categories of Decision Making

Decision making can also be classified into three categories based on the level at which they
occur (UMn, 2010). They are:
1. Strategic Decisions - It sets the course of organization. These are the decisions that
are concerned with the whole environment in which the organization operates, the
entire resources and the people who form the organization and the interface
between the two. It contributes directly to the achievement of common goals of the
 enterprise. It has long-term implications on the organization. Such decisions are
taken at the higher level of management.

2. Tactical Decisions - These are decisions about how things will get done. These
decisions relate to the implementation of strategic decisions. They are directed
towards developing divisional plans, structuring workflows, establishing distribution
channels, and acquisition of resources such as men, materials and money. These
decisions are taken at the middle level of management (Chand, n.d.).

3. Operational Decisions - These are the decisions that employees make each day to
run the organization. They have a short-term horizon as they are taken repetitively.
These decisions are based on facts regarding the events and do not d require much
of a business judgment. Operational decisions are taken at lower levels of
management (Chand, n.d.).

Characteristics of Decision Making

The following are the characteristics of a decision making:

Selective It is a selective process in which the optimal alternative is opted,

among the various alternatives. The selection of the alternative is
done, only after evaluating all the alternatives against the objectives.
Cognitive Decision making encompasses the application of intellectual abilities,
such as analysis, knowledge, experience, awareness and forecasting, it
is a cognitive process.
Dynamic It is a dynamic activity in the sense that a particular problem may have
different solutions, depending upon the time and circumstances.
Positive or A decision is not always positive, sometimes even after analyzing all
Negative the points a decision may turn out as a negative one.
Ongoing An organization has a perpetual succession and various decisions are
process taken daily by different levels of management to keep it going. These
decisions are taken, keeping in mind the objectives of the organization.
Evaluative Evaluation of the possible alternatives using critical appraisal methods,
is a part of the decisions-making process.

Approaches in Decision Making

There are several approaches or models in decision making, some of them are as follows:

1. Rational Approach
Rational approach assumes that the organization aims to make logical choices
and do what makes the most sense; this process will be managed by an objective
and fully aware decision-maker. The rational decision-making model describes a
series of steps that decision makers should consider if their goal is to maximize
 the quality of their a outcomes (UMn, 2010). Rational decision-making is
selecting among alternatives in a form that appropriately accords with beliefs of
an individual or group decision making the main foundation of this approach
based on decision theory. The steps in rational decision-making model are (UMn,
2010}:
 Identify the problem,
 Establish decision criteria,
 Weigh on decision criteria,
 Generate alternatives,
 Evaluate the alternatives,
 Choose the best alternative,
 Implement the decision, and
 Evaluate the decision.

2. Bounded Rational Approach

The bounded rational decision-making model holds that humans make decisions
based on limited information, including their minds’ cognitive and rational limits.
For example, the finite amount of time available for making a particular decision.
Because humans lack the ability and resources to arrive at the optimal solution
given resource constraints, they instead apply their rationality to a set of choices
within their understanding and opportunity set. These represent a narrowed
down set of options under the absence of complete information and unlimited
resources.

3. Heuristics Approach
Heuristics approach posits that judgment under uncertainty often rests on a
limited number of simplifying heuristics rather than extensive algorithmic
processing. Heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems
and make judgments quickly and efficiently. These - rule-of-thumb strategies
shorten decision-making time and allow people to function without constantly
stopping to think about their next course of action.

Three Kinds of Heuristics

Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky identified three different kinds of heuristics; each type
of heuristic is used for the purpose of reducing the mental effort needed to make a decision,
but they occur in different contexts. They are:

Availability Heuristic
  It is a mental shortcut for making frequency or probability judgments based on “the
ease with which instances or occurrences can be brought to mind (Kahneman and
Tversky, 1974).
 It involves making decisions based upon how easy it is to bring something to mind.
When an individual is trying to make a decision, he/she might quickly remember a
number of relevant examples. Since these are more readily available in his/her
memory, that individual will likely judge these outcomes as being more common or
frequently occurring (Cherry, 2022).

Representativeness Heuristic

 It is a probability judgment about the likelihood that an object or event arises from
some category based on the extent to which the object or event in question is similar
to the prototypical example of that category (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974).
 It involves making a decision by comparing the present situation to the most
representative { mental prototype. When an individual is trying to decide if someone
is trustworthy, he/she might compare aspects of the individual to other mental
examples he/she holds (Cherry, 2022).

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

 It describes how, when -estimating a certain value, a person tends to give an initial
value,. then adjusts it by increasing or decreasing our estimation. However, we often
get stuck on that initial value (anchoring) which results in us making insufficient
adjustments. Thus, our adjusted value is biased in favor of the initial value, which we
have anchored on (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974).
 It involves the tendency to be overly influenced by the first bit of information we
hear or learn. This can make it more difficult to consider other factors and lead to
poor choices (Cherry, 2022).

4. Intuition Approaches
Intuition is Supra-logic that cuts out the routing process of thought and leaps straight
from the problem to the answer. Intuitive decision-making is making decisions based on
experience, feelings, and accumulated judgment. This approach complements both
rational and bounded rational decision-making, and they argue about how we harness
and enhance our intuition to make a better decision. The intuitive decision-making
model refers to arriving at decisions without conscious reasoning (UMn, 2010).
Intuitive decision-making ability is also known as ‘sixth sense’ and involves being able to
gather information that other individuals may miss. It is the opposite of rational decision
making, which is when individuals use analytics, facts, and a step-by-step process to
come to a decision.
 5. Naturalistic Approaches
The Naturalistic Approaches of decision-making aim to capture and demonstrate human
cognitive performance by researching how humans, individually or in teams, take the
decisions and real-world context. Naturalistic scholars highlight the role of the human
experience decision on making effectiveness.'® It proposes that better decisions can be
achieved by strengthening intuition through experience, which results in sharper
perceptual skills and richer mental models (Nemeth and Klein, 2010).
For the Naturalistic Decision Making community, intuition is an expression of experience
stored as patterns or prototypes that enable people to rapidly assess situations and
make decisions without comparing options (Nemeth and Klein, 2010). An individual
needs to acquire thousands of patterns in order to be expert. These patterns are not
generic tools, however, they are specific accumulations of direct and vicarious
experiences.

What is Administration?
Administration is the activities that relate to running an organization; or a group of
people who manage the way an organization functions. According to Theo Haimann (1974),
Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives, the
identification of general purposes, and laying down of broad programmes and projects.
Administration is a systematic process of administering the management of an
organization, its main function is the formation of plans, policies, and procedures, setting up
of goals and objectives, enforcing rules and regulations, etc. It lays down the fundamental
framework of an organization, within which the management of the ‘organization functions.
The nature of administration is bureaucratic. It is a broader term as it involves
forecasting, planning, organizing and decision-making functions at the highest level of the
enterprise. Administration represents the top layer of the management hierarchy of the
organization.

Administration and Management

It is common to get confused between the term administration and management as both
terms refer to controlling or managing an organization. As discussed from the previous
chapter, Management is a set of principles relating to the functions of planning, organizing,
directing, and controlling, and the applications of these principles in harnessing physical,
financial, human, and informational resources efficiently and effectively to achieve
organizational goals. There are three levels of management found within an organization:
Top Managers, Middle Managers and Lower Managers. While, administration is a process of
administering the activities or organization and to prepare rules and policies for it. The
members of administration consist of people who get the return on the investment, such as
the owner of the organization or the shareholders of the organization.
Difference between Administration and Management Although both Administration and
Management refer to controlling or managing an organization, there are considerable
difference between both of them. The table below shows the difference between
administration and Management (Bhasin, 2019).

Figure 12
Difference between Management and Administration

Management Administration
The management has a middle level and The administration is the top-level
lower level authority. authority.
The management of an organization The administration of an organization has
works under the administration. full control over the activities and policies
of an organization.
The skills required for management are The skills required for administration are
technical and human skills. conceptual and human skills.
The management of an organization is The administration of an organization is
connected with the implementation of concerned with the formulation of the
the policies. policies.
The management of an organization The administration of an organization
makes decisions like who should do the makes decisions like what should be
work? Or how a work should be done? done? And when should it be done?
The management is usually seen in The administration is applicable in
business or profit making organization like organizations like educational
hotels, restaurants, etc. organizations, government, offices,
religious organizations, government
offices, hospital, business enterprises,
and military clubs etc.
The focus of management is on managing The focus of the administration is on the
the work in the best possible way. allocation of resources available to the
organization.
Management is usually done by the The administration consists of people
people hired by the organization on who own the organization and the people
remuneration. who get the return on the investment.
The function of management is governing The function of administration is
and executing. determinative and legislative.
The key person in management is a The key person in administration is an
manager. administrator.
Essential Skills of an Administrator
An administrator is a person who directs the activities of their team or employees and
undertakes the responsibility to achieve the objectives of a particular organization or
business. The following are the essential skills of an administrator:

1. Technical skills - A successful administrator needs to understand and be proficient in

the relevant technologies for their specific segment. This means that the
administrator must understand technology and know how to use and apply it within
their particular discipline (IET, 2021).
2. Human skills - It is related to working with people. This skill encompasses how an
administrator interacts with their subordinates, equals, and superiors. A good
administrator has the skills to understand the people they work with, be receptive to
their point of views and perceptions, understand their expectations and identify their
strengths and areas of weakness. It also includes the ability to communicate well and
to understand and be sensitive to the needs and feelings of the people you work with
or manage (IET, 2021).

3. Conceptual skills - This is the ability to see an organization and know how each part
works and how it relates to other functions. This helps the administrator monitor
proper coordination, since the proper running of one process depends on other
processes. It also allows the administrator to better understand where they fit in the
industry, the economic and market forces that affect their segment, and the role
political and social forces can play towards the success or failure of their organization
(IET, 2021).
CHAPTER 7
POLICE ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Define Police Organization;
2. Identify the Powers and Functions of PNP:
3 Explain and appreciate the Organizational Structure of the PNP;
4 Enumerate the PNP Rank Classifications;
5. Define Police Administration;
6 Explain the acronym POSDCORB;
7 Define Police Management;
8. identify and explain the Principle of Efficient Management;
9. Enumerate some of the functions of DILG;
10. identify the functions of NAPOLCOM; and
11 Determine the components of the organizational structure of NAPOLCOM.

Police Organization
Police are part of the Law Enforcement pillar of the criminal justice system in the
Philippines. Their work consists of prevention and control of crimes, enforcement of laws,
and effect the arrest of offenders including the conduct of lawful searches and seizures to
gather necessary evidence so that complaints may be filed in courts.
The word “POLICE” has originated from the Greek word POLITEIA which means “a
government of a city,” the Romans borrowed the word modifying it to POLITIA, adopting its
meaning. It was used by the Middle French word PORICE, which means “public order
assured by the State” Modern usage of “police ‘’ as the “civil force responsible for
maintaining public order and enforcing the law” came only into recorded use in the English
language in 1798 when the Marine Police was established to protect merchant shipping on
the River Thames in London.”
Police Organization is a group of trained personnel in the field of : public safety
administration engaged in the achievement of goals and objectives that promotes the
maintenance of peace and order, protection of life and property, enforcement of the laws
and the prevention of crimes. These functions are known as policing. Police are often also
entrusted with various licensing and regulatory activities.

The Philippine National Police .

Philippine National Police (PNP) is the civilian national police force of the
Philippines.’” It is a community and service oriented agency responsible for maintaining
peace and order and public safety. It is organized to ensure accountability and uprightness in
police exercise 0 discretion and achieve efficiency and effectiveness of its members an units
in the performance of their functions.

Mission, Vision, and Philosophy of the PNP .

The following are the vision, mission, Philosophy, and core values - of the PNP as a law
enforcement institution in the Philippines.

Vision
Imploring the aid of Almighty God, by 2030, WE shall be a highly capable, effective, and
credible police service working in partnership with a responsive community towards the
attainment of a safer place to live, work, and do business.

Mission
Enforce the law, prevent and control crimes, maintain peace and order, and ensure public
safety and internal security with the active support of the Community.

Philosophy
Service, Honor, and Justice.

Core Values
Maka Diyos, Makatao, Makabayan at Makakalikasan

Powers and Functions of PNP

The PNP have the following powers and functions:

 Enforce all laws and ordinances relative to the protection of lives and properties;
 Maintain peace and order and take all necessary steps to ensure public safety;
 Investigate and prevent crimes, effect the arrest of criminal offenders, bring
offenders to justice and assist in their prosecution;
 Exercise the general powers to make arrest, search and seizure in accordance with
the Constitution and pertinent laws;
 Detain an arrested person for a period not beyond what ig prescribed by law,
informing the person so detained of all his rights under the Constitution;
 Issue licenses for the possession of firearms and explosives in accordance with law;
 Supervise and control the training and operations of security agencies and issue
licenses to operate security agencies, and to security guards and private detectives,
for the practice of their professions; and
 Perform such other duties and exercise all other functions as may be provided by law.

Organizational Structure of the PNP

In order to accomplish the mission, powers and functions of the PNP, its structure was
provided for as follows (Official Gazette, n.d.):

1. The PNP Command Group is headed by the Chief PNP (Police General) who is vested with
the power to command and direct the PNP. He is also assisted by two Deputy Chiefs
(Lieutenant Generals) assigned to the administration of the PNP and one for operations.

2. The Chief of the Directorial Staff serves as the Chief Operations Officer of the PNP. He
coordinates, supervises, and directs the Directorial Staff and the PNP units in the
performance of their respective functions.
3. The Internal Affairs Service (IAS) is headed by an Inspector General who assists the Chief
PNP in ensuring operational readiness and investigates infractions of the regulations
committed by the members of the PNP.

4. The Human Rights Affairs Office (HRAO) is headed by a senior police commissioned
officer who serves as a manager: of the facility that will supervise the implementation of the
guidelines and policies on human rights laws.

5. The Center for Police Strategy Management (CPSM) Serves as the Central facility of the
PNP in coordinating and integrating all strategy management processes, sustaining its
strategy execution and management, and instilling in in the organization a culture of strategy
focus.

6. The Directorial Staff is composed of 16 directorates. Every Director in each unit has also
his defined function in line with his specialization as follows:

a. The Directorate for Personnel and Records Management (DPRM). The director optimizes
the utilization of personnel resources both from the PNP uniformed and non-uniformed
personnel.,
b. The Directorate for Intelligence (DI). The director manages the gathering/collating of
intelligence objectives through effective management of all intelligence and
counterintelligence activities of the. PNP. He also serves as the linkage of all foreigners with
official transactions with the chief PNP.
c. The Directorate for Operations (DO). The director exercises the command, the control,
the direction, the coordination and the supervision of all activities on PNP operations such
as deployment and employment of personnel.
d. The Directorate for Logistics (DL). The director administers and manages material
resources needed for the PNP operations.
e. The Directorate for Plans (DPL). The director plans and programs strategic PNP
operations. He also represents the PNP in the inter-agency and international affairs on peace
and order.
f. The Directorate for Comptrollership (DC). The director administers and manages the fiscal
financial resources.
g. The Directorate for Police-Community Relations (DPCR). The director formulates and
implements community -related activities, programs and projects. He also supervises the
PNP Salaam Police Center to undertake close monitoring, networking and liasioning
activities with the Muslim communities in addressing terrorism and lawless violence in their
respective areas to guarantee that the Muslims are not discriminated, oppressed or singled-
out.
h. The Directorate for Investigation and Detective Management (DIDM). The director
coordinates, Controls and supervises all investigation activities,
i. The Directorate for Human Resource and Doctrine Development (DHRDD). The director
formulates policies on matters pertaining to human resources and doctrine development.
j. Five (5) Directorates for Integrated Police Operations (DIPOs). The Directors of the
clustered areas for Integrated Police Operations, namely: Eastern Mindanao, Western
Mindanao, Visayas, Southern and Northern Luzon are given the responsibility to direct and
to supervise the ‘conduct of integrated anti-criminality, internal security, counter-terrorism
operations, to promote inter-operability with the Armed Forces of the Philippines, and to
provide a system to promote regional socio-economic development.

7. National Support units of the PNP

a. National Administrative Support Units (NASU)
i. Logistics Support Service (LSS) Provides logistical support services to all PNP units.
ii. Information Technology Management Service (ITMS) Provides information technology
services to all PNP units.
iii. Finance Service (FS) Responsible for PNP funds’ disbursement and performs other fiscal
functions.
iv. Health Service (HS) Provides medical and dental services to PNP personnel and their
dependents.
v. Communication and Electronic Service (CES) - Provides communication electronic services
and support to all PNP units.
vi. Chaplain Service (CHS) - Provides spiritual and other counseling services for PNP
personnel and their dependents.
vii. Legal Service (LS) - serves as the legal arm of the PNP.
viii. Headquarters Support Service (HSS) - Provides administrative and technical support to
National headquarters.
ix. Engineering Service (ES) - Implements PNP engineering programs, land utilization, and
housing activities.
x. Training Service .(TS) - Conduct training courses geared towards skills enhancement,
intellectual advancement, and moral transformation of PNP personnel.
xi. PNP Retirement and Benefits Administration Service (PRBS) - Administers the
retirement, separation, and death benefits of PNP personnel.
b. National Operational Support Units (NOSUs)

i. Maritime Group (MG)-: This group is responsible to perform all police functions over
Philippine Territorial waters, lakes, and rivers along coastal areas to include ports and
harbors and small islands for the security and the sustainability development of the
maritime environment.
ii. Intelligence Group (IG) - This group serves as the intelligence and counterintelligence
operating unit of the PNP.
iii. Police Security ‘and Protection Group (PSPG) - This group provides security to
government vital installations, government officials, visiting dignitaries and private
individuals authorized to be given protection.
iv. Criminal Investigation and Detection Group (CIDG) - This group monitors, investigates,
prosecutes_ all crimes involving economic sabotage, and other crimes of such magnitude
and extent as .to indicate their commission by highly placed or professional criminal
syndicates and organizations. It also conducts organized crime control, all major cases
involving violations of the revised penal Code, violators of SPECIAL LAWS assigned to them
such as Anti-hijacking, Anti-Carnapping and Cyber’ crimes among others and atrocities
committed by Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP)/New People’s Army (NPA)/National
Democratic Front (NDF).
v. Special Action Force (SAF) - This group is a mobile strike force or a reaction unit to
“augment regional , provincial, municipal and city police force for civil disturbance control,
internal security operations, hostage-taking rescue operations, search and rescue in times of
natural calamities, disasters and national emergencies and other special police operations
such as _ant-hijacking, anti-terrorism, explosives and ordnance disposal. On a special note,
the PNP Air Unit is placed under the supervision of SAF.
vi. Aviation Security Group (AVEGROUP) - This group provides security to all airports
throughout the country.
vii. Highway Patrol Group (HPG) - This group enforces the traffic laws and regulations,
promote safety along the highways, enhances traffic safety consciousness through
interagency cooperation concerning Police Traffic Safety Engineering, Traffic Safety Education
and Traffic Law enforcement’ functions and develops reforms in the crime prevention aspect
against all forms of lawlessness committed along National Highway involving the use of
motor vehicles.
viii. Police-Community Relations Group (PCRG) - This group undertakes: and orchestrates
Police Community Relations program and activities in partnership, with concerned
government agencies, the community, and volunteer organizations in order to prevent crime
and attain a safe and peaceful environment.
ix. Civil Security Group (CSG) - This group regulates business operations and activities of all
organized private detectives, watchmen, security guards/ agencies and company guard
forces. It also supervises the licensing and registration of firearms and explosives.
x. Crime Laboratory (CL) - This group provides scientific -and technical, | investigative aide
and support to the PNP and other investigative agencies. It also provides crime laboratory
examination, - evaluation and identification of physical evidence gathered at the crime scene
with primary emphasis on medical, biological and physical nature.
xi. PNP Anti-Kidnapping Group (PNP-AKG) - This Group serves as the primary unit of the
PNP in addressing kidnapping menace in the country and in handling hostage situations.
xii. PNP Anti-Cybercrime Group (PNPACG) - This Group is responsible for the
implementation of pertinent laws on cybercrimes and anti-cybercrime campaigns of the
PNP.

8. For the main PNP operating units, there are seventeen (17) Police Regional Offices
nationwide which correspond to the _ Regional subdivisions of the country. Directly under
the Police Regional Offices are seventeen {17) Regional Public Safety Battalions (RPSB),
eighty (80) Police Provincial Offices which correspond to the number of Provinces in the
country and twenty (20) City Police Offices (CPOs) in highly urbanized and independent cities
, which are equivalent to a Provincial Police Office.

PNP Rank Classifications

The PNP also has a significant feature in line of its rank classifications. It adopts a different
structure for purposes of attaining a more efficient administration, supervision, and control
as compared to the Armed Forces. The table below shows the PNP rank classification and
AFP rank counterparts; these distinct considerations serve as bases for comparison between
the ranks of the PNP and ranks of AFP (Official Gazette, n.d.).

Figure 13
PNP Rank Classification and AFP Rank Counterparts

PNP Ranks AFP Ranks

Police Commissioned Officers Commissioned Office
Director General General
Deputy Director General Lieutenant General
Director Major General
Chief Superintendent Brigadier General
Senior Superintendent Colonel
Superintendent Lieutenant Colonel
Chief Inspector Major
 Senior Inspector Captain
Inspector 1sr annd 2nd Lieutenant
Police Non-Commissioned Officers Non-Commissioned Officers
Senior Police Officer IV Master Sergeant
Senior Police Officer III Technical Sergeant
Senior Police II Staff Sergeant
Senior Police I Sergeant
Police Officer III Corporal
Police Officer II Private First Class
Police Officer I Private

Police Administration
Police Administration refers to the control and operation of law enforcement agencies, and
the subsequent discharge of policies that keep the peace, increase public safety, and prevent
crime. It involves setting agency policy and making operational decisions that best achieve
the aforementioned goals without violating the law or the public trust. It also involves
making ethical and lawful decisions related to the hiring, management, retention, discipline,
and termination of law enforcement personnel.

Police Administrative Functions

The functions of police administration follow the POSDCORB. It paper is an acronym
which means Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting which was first coined in a paper on administrative management that was written
for the Brownlow Committee by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (1916).
9. Planning - It is the determination of what is to be accomplished (goals) and
how it is to be accomplished. It is deciding the direction in which all the
efforts and all the manpower of the organization will be directed over a fixed
tenure of time in order to strive for a predetermined outcome.
10. Organizing - It is the application of organizational principles in determining
the department's formal organizations, including chain of command, job
specialization, and how various units are coordinated. It involves formally
classifying, defining and synchronizing the various sub-processes or
subdivisions of the work to be done. It makes sure that the activities and
timelines in the first step of planning are refined and organized further so that
the right people can be staffed to execute these tasks (Bhasin, 2020).
11. Staffing- This involves recruiting and selecting the right candidates for the job
and facilitating their orientation and training while maintaining a favorable
work environment. It is the personnel function focusing on recruitment,
training, placement, and promotion (Bhasin; 2020).
12. Directing- Administrators provide direction to employees in terms of policies
and orders. After the plans have been laid out; necessary materials have been
 sorted and employees hired to perform the jobs; the administrator has to
direct their efforts towards the ultimate goals of the organization by dividing
those ultimate strategic goals into small, workable, time-bound targets
(Bhasin, 2020).
13. Coordinating- Administrators would have to take steps to coordinate the
efforts by various departments so as to ensure that they are moving in
tandem with each other. If one department moves out of sync, the efforts of
all the departments will collapse (Bhasin, 2020).
14. Reporting-Keeping everyone informed regarding operations through verbal
and written directives, records, and inspection. It refers to keeping the
channels of communication open both ways throughout the organization.
This helps in reporting the progress of the work to the superior authorities
and lets them make modifications to the plan if required (Bhasin, 2020).
15. Budgeting- It includes fiscal planning, accounting, and control to ensure the
department has the resources necessary to pursue goals and objectives.
Appropriate and consistent account of every peso spent is crucial for the
survival and prosperity of any organization. Resources such as man, money,
material and time; should be allocated to each and every work center or
project in advance and the employees responsible should be held
accountable for their stipulated usage (Bhasin, 2020).
Police Management
Police management includes the administrative activities of coordinating, controlling and
directing police resources, activities and personnel. It's the everyday act of running the
police department. 182 It is important to note that police work involves many different
duties and responsibilities, including patrolling, responding to calls, investigating complaints,
conducting interviews and interrogations, performing searches, gathering evidence,
documenting case files and testifying in court. It takes a lot of coordination, and a lot of
people, in order to fulfill these duties. Therefore, successful police management is key
(Dugger,
2014).

Principles of Efficient Management

1. Division of Work-It is the separation of a work process into a number of tasks, with
each task performed by a separate person or group of persons. 183 This principle of
management is based on the theory that if workers are given a specialized task to do,
they will become skillful and more efficient in it than if they had a broader range of
tasks. Therefore, a process where everyone has a specialized role will be an efficient
one. 184 Work specialization can increase efficiency with the same amount of effort.
 2. Authority and Responsibility- Authority is the legal right to give the command, order
or instruction and compel the subordinates to do a certain act. While Responsibility
is the outcome of authority. It entails the obligation of the subordinate, who has
been assigned the duty by his superior. 185 There are two types of authority: Official
Authority and Personal Authority. Official Authority is the authority which gives the
manager power to command his subordinates, by virtue of his designation in the
organization. Personal authority indicates the ability by which a person influences the
behavior of other persons in an organization (Surbhi, 2018). The obligation is the
kernel of responsibility. It originated from the superior-subordinate relationship,
formed in an organization. Hence, the manager can get the tasks done from his
subordinates, by virtue of their relationship, as the subordinate is bound to perform
the tasks assigned (Surbhi, 2018). One can not have authority without responsibility.
3. Discipline - It means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority & observance of rules
and regulations of the enterprise (Fayol, 2016). Organizational rules, philosophies,
and structures need to be met. In order to have disciplined workers, managers must
build a culture of mutual respect and motivation. It is necessary for an organization
to function effectively, however, the state of the disciplinary process depends upon
the quality of its leaders.
4. Unity of Command- It provides that an employee is responsible to only one
supervisor, who in turn is responsible to only one supervisor, and so on up the
organizational hierarchy.186 A subordinate should not receive instructions from
more than one person because of the following reasons:
 It undermines authority
 Weakens discipline
 Divides loyalty
 Creates confusion
 Delays and chaos
 Escaping responsibilities
 Duplication of work
 Overlapping of efforts
5. Scalar Chain - The hierarchy of authority is the order of ranks from the highest to the
lowest levels of the organization. Shows the vertical hierarchy of the organization
which defines an unbroken chain of units from top to bottom describing explicitly the
flow of authority. Hierarchy represents the formal relationship among superiors and
subordinates in any given organization. Serves as the framework for the flow of
authority downward and obedience upward, through the department. This relates to
the principle of a clear chain of communication existing between employees and
superiors. The chain should be respected, unless speedy communication is vital, in
which case the chain may be bypassed if all parties consent.

Department of the Interior and Local Government

 The Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) is responsible for
promoting peace and order, ensuring public safety and strengthening local government
capability aimed towards the effectiveness of basic services to the citizenry. 188 It was
created through the reorganization of the Department of Local Government under the
Republic Act No. 6975 or the Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990.
Powers & Functions of DILG
The following are the powers and functions of DILG:189
1. Assist the President in the exercise of general supervision over local governments;
2. Advise the President in the promulgation of policies, rules, regulations and other
issuances on the general supervision over local governments and on public order and
safety;
3. Establish and prescribe rules, regulations and other issuances implementing laws on
public order and safety, the general supervision over local governments and the
promotion of local autonomy and community empowerment and monitor
compliance thereof;
4. Provide assistance towards legislation regarding local governments, law enforcement
and public safety;
5. Establish and prescribe plans, policies, programs and projects to promote peace and
order, ensure public safety and further strengthen the administrative, technical and
fiscal capabilities of local government offices and personnel;
6. Formulate plans, policies and programs which will meet local emergencies arising
from natural and man-made disasters;
7. Establish a system of coordination and cooperation among the citizenry, local
executives and the Department, to ensure effective and efficient delivery of basic
services to the public;
8. Organize, train and equip primarily for the performance of police functions, a police
force that is national in scope and civilian in character.

Figure 14
Organizational Structure of DILG
 Note: Department of Internal and Local Government. (2022). Organizational
Structure of DILG [Chart]. www.Dilg.Gov. Ph. https://www.dilg.gov.ph/page/
Organizational-Structure/22

The National Police Commission

The National Police Commission (NAPOLCOM) is the agency mandated by the 1987
Constitution and the Major Police Reform Laws, Republic Act No. 6975 and 8551 to
administer and control the Philippine National Police.
Under R.A. 8551, otherwise known as the "Philippine National Police Reform and
Reorganization Act of 1998" The Commission's authority over the PNP was strengthened
and expanded to include administration of police entrance examinations, the conduct of
charge investigation of police anomalies and irregularities, and summary dismissal of erring
police officers.
Powers and Functions of NAPOLCOM
The following are the powers and functions of the NAPOLCOM in accordance to the
Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998:
1. Exercise administrative control and operational supervision over the Philippine
National Police which shall mean the power to:
a. Develop policies and promulgate a police manual prescribing rules and
regulations for efficient organization, administration, and operation, including
criteria for manpower allocation, distribution and deployment, recruitment,
 retirement of selection, promotion, and personnel and the conduct of qualifying
entrance and promotional examinations for uniformed members;
b. Examine and audit, and thereafter establish the standards for such purposes on a
continuing basis, the performance, activities, and facilities of all police agencies
throughout the country;
c. Establish a system of uniform crime reporting;
d. Conduct an annual self-report survey and compile statistical data for the accurate
assessment of the crime situation and the proper evaluation of the efficiency and
effectiveness of all police units in the country;
e. Approve or modify plans and programs on education and training, logistical
requirements, communications, records, information systems, crime laboratory,
crime prevention and crime reporting;
f. Affirm, reverse or modify, through the National Appellate Board, personnel
disciplinary actions involving demotion or dismissal from the service imposed
upon members of the Philippine National Police by the Chief of the Philippine
National Police;
g. Exercise appellate jurisdiction through the regional appellate boards over
administrative cases against policemen and over decisions on claims for police
benefits;
h. Prescribe minimum standards for arms, equipment, and uniforms and, after
consultation with the Philippine Heraldry Commission, for insignia of ranks,
awards, and medals of honor. Within ninety (90) days from the effectivity of this
Act, the standards of the uniformed personnel of the PNP must be revised which
should be clearly distinct from the military and reflective of the civilian character
of the police;
i. Issue subpoena and subpoena duces tecum in matters pertaining to the discharge
of its own powers and duties, and designate who among its personnel can issue
such processes and administer oaths in connection therewith;
j. Inspect and assess the compliance of the PNP on the established criteria for
manpower allocation, distribution, and deployment and their impact on the
community and the crime situation, and thereafter formulate appropriate
guidelines for maximization of resources and effective utilization of the PNP
personnel;
k. Monitor the performance of the local chief executives as deputies of the
Commission; and
l. Monitor and investigate police anomalies and irregularities.

2. Advise the President on all matters involving police functions and administration;
3. Render to the President and to the Congress an annual report on its activities and
accomplishments during the thirty (30) days after the end of the calendar year, which
shall include an appraisal of the conditions obtaining in the organization and
administration of police agencies in the municipalities, cities and provinces
throughout the country, and recommendations for appropriate remedial legislation;
 4. Recommend to the President, through the Secretary, within sixty (60) days before the
commencement of each calendar year, a crime prevention program; and
5. Perform such other functions necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act and as
the President may direct."

Figure 15
Organizational Structure of NAPOLCOM
Organizational Structure of NAPOLCOM
The NAPOLCOM as a collegial body is composed of an ex-officio Chairperson, four (4)
regular Commissioners, and the Chief, PNP as ex-officio member, one of whom is appointed
by the President as the Vice- Chairperson. The DILG Secretary is the ex-officio Chairperson,
while the Vice-Chairperson serves as the Executive Officer of the Commission (RA 8551,
1998, Sec10).
The ex-officio Chairperson and four (4) Commissioners constitute the Commission Proper
which serves as the governing body thereof.
The Staff Services of the Commission are as follows (RA 8551, 1998, Sec10):
1. Planning and Research Service (PRS) provides technical services to the Commission
in areas of overall policy formulation, strategic and operational planning,
management systems or procedures, evaluation and monitoring of the Commission's
programs, projects and internal operations; and conducts thorough research and
analysis on social and economic condition affecting peace and order in the country.
2. Legal Affairs Service (LAS) provides the Commission with efficient and effective
service as legal counsel of the Commission; draft or studies contracts affecting the
Commission and submit appropriate recommendations pertaining thereto; and
render legal opinions arising from the administration and operation of the Philippine
National Police and the Commission.
3. Crime Prevention and Coordination Service (CPCS) undertakes criminological
researches and studies; formulates a national crime prevention plan; develops a
crime prevention and information program; and provides editorial direction for all
criminology research and crime prevention publications.
4. Personnel and Administrative Service (PAS) performs personnel functions for the
Commission; administers the entrance and promotional examinations for policemen,
provides the necessary services relating to records, correspondence, supplies,
property and equipment, security and general services, and the maintenance and
utilization of facilities; provides services relating to manpower, career planning and
development, personnel transactions and employee welfare.
5. Inspection, Monitoring and Investigation Service (IMIS) conducts continuous
inspection and management audit of personnel, facilities and operations at all levels
of command of the PNP; monitors the implementation of the Commission's
programs and projects relative to law enforcement; and monitors and investigates
police anomalies and irregularities.
6. Installations and Logistics Service (ILS) reviews the Commission's plans and
programs and formulates policies and procedures regarding acquisition, inventory,
control, distribution, maintenance and disposal of supplies and oversees the
implementation of programs on transportation facilities and installations and the
procurement and maintenance of supplies and equipment.
 7. Financial Service (FS) provides the Commission with staff advice and assistance on
budgetary and financial matters, including the overseeing of the processing and
disbursement of funds pertaining to the scholarship program and surviving children
of deceased and/or permanently incapacitated PNP personnel.

Disciplinary Appellate Board

The NAPOLCOM has a formal administrative disciplinary appellate machinery
consisting of the National Appellate Board (NAB), and the Regional Appellate Boards (RABS).
The following are the specific functions of the Appellate Boards (RA 8551, 1998, Sec10):

 The National Appellate Board decides cases on appeal from decisions rendered by
the Director General of the Philippine National Police (PNP), where the penalty
imposed is demotion in rank or dismissal from service.
 Regional Appellate Boards:
o Decide/resolve all cases on appeal from decisions of the PLEBS and PNP
Regional Directors where the penalty is forced resignation, demotion in rank
or dismissal, and those of the Mayors in cases falling within their respective
jurisdictions.
o Decide appeals from decisions of the Regional Directors on claims for police
benefits.

NAPOLCOM Regional Offices

NAPOLCOM established seventeen (17) Regional Offices (ROS) strategically located in
the different regional divisions of the country. These offices implement the policies and
programs of NAPOLCOM in their respective regions and likewise perform the functions of
investigation and adjudication of death and permanent and temporary disability benefit
claims, and scholarship grants, subject to standards set by the Commission (RA 6975,1990,
Section 21).
The ROS, through the office of the legal counsels, act as legal consultants of the
PLEBS and provide, whenever necessary, legal services, assistance and advice to the PLEBS in
hearing and deciding cases against officers and members of the PNP, especially those
involving difficult questions of the law.