Bahrain Polytechnic

EN7008 - power electronics

Power Electronics Basic Principles

Instructor: Dr. Zakareya Hasan

September 13, 2023
1 AC Power Analysis:

Figure 1: Power across a load

Let the voltage v(t) across the load in Figure 1 and the current i(t) passing into the
load equal to:

v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv )

i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi )
Where:
Vm : Voltage amplitude.
θv : Voltage phase angle.
Im : Voltage amplitude.
θi : Current phase angle.

The sinusoid time to phasor transformation are given in table (1)

Table 1: Time domain-Phasor Transformation

Time domain Phasor

Vm cos (ω t + θv ) Vm ∠θv
Vm sin (ω t + θv ) Vm ∠(θv − 90◦ )
Im cos (ω t + θi ) Im ∠θi
Im sin (ω t + θi ) Im ∠(θi − 90◦ )

There are three types of power in AC circuits:

• S: The apparent power in volt-ampere (VA).

• P : The real power in watt (W).

• Q: The reactive power in volt-ampere reactive (VAR).

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1.1 Real (Active) Power (P ):
The real power in watts (W), is the average value of the instantaneous power. The real
power is also known as active power. It represents the power that does the useful work (
The power turns the motor, produce the heat, produce the cooling, etc.) . The consumers
are billed monthly for the usage of this power. The active power P can be evaluated using

Vm Im
P = cos (θv − θi )
2

Figure 2: The active power P

Rules(useful for analysing electric circuits):

• P = 0 for pure (ideal) inductor or pure (ideal) Capacitor.

• Positive P means that the electrical element is absorbing the real power.

• Negative P means that the electrical element is supplying or delivering the real
power.

1.2 Reactive Power(Q):

The reactive power in vars (VAR), is the portion of power that flows into the load then
back to the supply. The reactive power has a non zero value (positive or negative) only if
the load contains reactive elements: L or C. Although Q does no useful work, it can not
ignored because of the extra current needed for generating it (which inherently available).
The reactive power can be determined using

Vm Im
Q= sin (θv − θi )
2
Rules:
• Q = 0 for pure (ideal) resistor (unity pf).

• Q is positive for inductive load lagging pf).

• Q is negative for capacitive load (leading pf).

• Positive Q means that the electrical element is absorbing the magnetizing vars.

• Negative Q means that the electrical element is supplying or delivering the magne-
tizing vars.

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1.3 Apparent Power(|S|):
The apparent power in volt-amperes (VA), is the product of the rms values of voltage
and current. The apparent power can be determined using

Vm Im
|S| = Vrms Irms =
2
Rules:

• |S| can never be negative.(|S| ≥ 0).

• |S| = P 2 + Q2
p

1.4 Power Factor(pf):

The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is
also the cosine of the angle of the impedance.

(a) Impedance triangle (b) Power triangle

Figure 3: Power factor angle

P
pf = cos (θv − θi ) =
|S|
Rules:

• For a ideal resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, so that (θv − θi ) = 0
and (pf= 1).

• For a ideal reactive load, (θv − θi ) = ±90 and (pf=0).

• lagging pf means that the current lag the voltage, which means inductive loads.

• Leading pf means that the current leads the voltage, which means capacitive loads.

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Complex Power(S):
The complex power in volt volt-amperes (VA), is the product of the rms voltage and the
complex conjugate of the current. It is also equal to the complex sum of real power and
reactive power. The complex power contains all the information of power absorbed or
generated by electrical element.

Figure 4: The complex power absorbed by the ac load.

Let V = Vm ∠θv and I = Im ∠θi , the complex conjugate of the current is I ∗ = Im ∠−θi .
The complex power can be determined using

Vm Im
S = Vrms Irms ∠(θv − θi ) = ∠(θv − θi ) = P + jQ
2
2
2 Vrms
S = Irms Z=
Z∗

Figure 5: Power triangle

Rules:

• S = |S| ∠(θv − θi )

• The apparent power |S| =

p
P 2 + Q2

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Conservation of AC Power:
The complex powers of the sources equal the respective sum of the complex powers of
the individual loads. The real powers of the sources equal the respective sums of the real
powers of the individual loads. The reactive powers of the sources equal the respective
sum of the reactive power of the individual loads.

(a) Parallel (b) Series

Figure 6: Conservation of AC power

let’s assume that S, P , and Q are the supply apparent, active, and reactive power
respectively. In general, for a source connected to N loads:

S = S1 + S2 + ....... + SN

P = P1 + P2 + ....... + PN

Q = Q1 + Q2 + ....... + QN
The rules can be stated also as:
X
S=0

X
P =0

X
Q=0

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1.5 Passive sign convention
To preserve the conservation of energy concept, the sign of the electric complex power
when the current enters through the positive terminal of an element is positive (load) and
the The sign of the electric complex power when the current leave the positive terminal
of an element is negative (supply).

(a) Element absorbing power (S is positive) (b) Element supplying power (S is negative)

Figure 7: Passive sign convention

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2 Fourier Series:
It is a mathematical formulation of periodic non-sinusoidal signal f (t) that decompose it
into DC and AC sinusoidal signals with different frequencies called harmonics.
There are three mathematical forms of Fourier series used to represent f (t):

1. The Trigonometric Form. We will use this form frequently in the analysis and in
solving the circuits if the circuit has a non-sinusoidal periodic signal. It should be
noted that the preferred form is the amplitude phase form because it is easier to
solve the circuits using it.

∞
X
f (t) = a0 + (an cos(n ω0 t) + bn sin(n ω0 t))
n=1

2. The Amplitude-Phase Form:

There are two version used in the literature for the amplitude phase as shown in
equation (1) and (2). We will use both form frequently in the analysis and in solving
the circuits if the circuit has a non-sinusoidal periodic signal. The Fourier analysis
can be implemented using Multisim which use the form in equation (2).

∞
X
f (t) = a0 + An cos(n ω0 t + θn ) (1)
n=1

∞
X
f (t) = a0 + An sin(n ω0 t + Φn ) (2)
n=1

3. The Exponential Form:

∞
X
f (t) = Cn ejnω0 t
n=−∞

Figure (8),(9) and (??) shows a common periodic non-sinusoidal signals that can
represent either the voltage across the load, the current in a load or both. Using Fourier
series method, the non-sinusoidal signal can be modeled as sum of DC component and
infinite infinite series of scaled harmonic sinusoids.

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Figure 8: Common Non-Sinusoidal Functions

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Figure 9: Common Non-Sinusoidal Functions

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Figure 10: Common Non-Sinusoidal Functions

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Figure 11: Procedure to apply Fourier Series to find the steady state response of a circuit
to a non sinusoidal periodic power supply

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3 Power for Non-Sinusoidal Signals:
In this section, calculation of average power, apparent power, and power factor will be
presented for electric circuits with a periodic non-sinusoidal power supply (excitation).

3.1 Real (Active) Power (P) for Non-Sinusoidal signals:

Figure 12: Power across linear electric network

The average power across a linear circuit be calculated using.

1 T
Z
P = Pav = v(t) i(t) dt
T 0

The voltage v(t) and the current i(t) based on Fourier Series compose of DC and sinusoids
(using the amplitude-phase form) can be written as:
∞
X
v(t) = Vdc + Vn cos(n ωo t − θn )
n=1

∞
X
i(t) = Idc + In cos(n ωo t − Φn )
n=1

Which result in the important average power formula:

∞
1X
P = Vdc Idc + Vn In cos(θn − Φn )
2 n=1

Rules:

• This formula shows that the average power is zero if the voltage and current fre-
quency are not equal or different.

• The total average power is the sum of DC power and the power of each harmonic
of voltage and current (they have to have equal frequency in voltage and current or
the average power of that harmonic is zero).

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3.2 Apparent Power(|S|) for Non-Sinusoidal signals:

Figure 13: Power across linear electric network

The apparent power across a linear circuit can be calculated using.

|S| = Vrms Irms

The voltage v(t) and the current i(t) based on Fourier Series compose of DC and sinusoids
(using the amplitude-phase form) can be written as:
∞
X
v(t) = Vdc + Vn cos(n ωo t − θn )
n=1

∞
X
i(t) = Idc + In cos(n ωo t − Φn )
n=1

The RMS value for the voltage and current can be determine using:
v
u ∞
u 1X 2
Vrms = tVdc2 + V
2 n=1 n

v
u ∞
u
2 1X 2
Irms = tIdc + I
2 n=1 n

Note:

• The power factor can be calculated using:

P
PF =
|S|
.

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Note:(Proofs are not included in the exams)

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Note:(Proofs are not included in the exams)

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4 Performance Parameters:
Performance parameters in power electronics are used to measure the distortion on the
electrical waveforms as a result of using power electronics switching devices compared
with a sinusoidal waveform.

4.1 Input Power Factor:

Define as the ratio of the input active or average power to the apparent power.

Input Active Power P I1(rms)

PF = = = cos( θ1 )
Input Apparent Power |S| Is(rms)
• I1(rms) : The fundamental rms component of the input current.
• Is(rms) : The rms value of the input current.
• θ1 : The angle difference between the fundamental components of the input volt-
age and the fundamental components of the input current. Since the supply is a
sinusoidal, θ1 = θVs − θI1 .

4.2 Displacement Factor:

Define as the cosine of the angle between the source voltage and the fundamental com-
ponents of the input current.

DFθ = cos ( θ1 )
Note:
• The displacement Factor is the power factor of a pure sinusoidal power supply.

4.3 Distortion Factor:

Define as the ratio of the rms of the fundamental components of the input current to the
rms of the total input current.
I1(rms)
DFi =
Is(rms)

4.4 Total Harmonic Distortion:

Define as the ratio of the rms value of harmonics components of the electrical waveform
(voltage or current) to the rms value of the fundamental component of the electrical
waveform.
qP q
∞ 2 2 2
i=2 X i(rms) Xrms − X1(rms)
THD = =
X1(rms) X1(rms)
• Xi(rms) : It is the rms value of the harmonic component i of the voltage or current.
• X1(rms) : It is the rms value of the fundamental component of the voltage or current.

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4.5 Crest Factor:
It is the ratio of the peak value of the electrical waveform (voltage or current) to the rms
value of the electrical waveform.
Xp
CF =
Xrms

• Xp : It is the peak value of the voltage or current.

• Xrms : It is the rms value the voltage or current.

4.6 Form Factor:

It is the ratio of the rms value of the electrical waveform (voltage or current) to the DC
value (average) of the electrical waveform. The form factor represents a measure of the
shape of the waveform.
Xrms
FF =
Xav

• Xav : It is the average value (DC value) of the voltage or current.

• Xrms : It is the rms value the voltage or current.

4.7 Ripple Factor:

It is the ratio of the rms value of the AC component of the electrical waveform (voltage or
current) to the DC value (average) of the electrical waveform. The ripple factor represents
a measure of the ripple content in the electrical waveform.
p
Xac(rms) 2
Irms 2
− Iav p
RF = = = (FF)2 − 1
Xav Iav

• Xav : It is the average value (DC value) of the voltage or current.

• Xac(rms) : It is the rms value the AC component of the voltage or current.

4.8 Transformer Utilization Factor:

It is the ratio of the DC output power to the rms voltage and rms current of the trans-
former secondary.
Pdc
TUF =
Vs(rms) Is(rms)

• Pdc : It is the The output dc power.

• Is(rms) : It is the rms value of the transformer secondary current.

• Vs(rms) : It is the rms value of the transformer secondary voltage.

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Example 1. Determine the supply average power, the supply apparent power, and the
supply power factor for the circuit shown in Figure 14. The voltage and current are equal
to:
v(t) = 30 cos(ωo t)

i(t) = 3 + 2.5 cos(ωo t + 30◦ ) + 0.75 cos(3 ωo t + 70◦ )

Figure 14: Example 1

Solution:

The average power is equal to:

∞
1X
P = Vdc Idc + Vn In cos(θn − Φn )
2 n=1

1 1
P =0×3+ × 30 × 2.5 cos(−30) + × 0 × 0.75 cos(−70) = 32.48 W
2 2
The apparent power is equal to:

|S| = Vrms Irms

30
Vrms = √ = 21.21 V
2

v
u ∞
u
2 1X 2
Irms = Idc +
t I
2 n=1 n
r
1
Irms = (3)2 + ((2.5)2 + (0.75)2 ) = 3.52 A
2

|S| = 21.21 × 3.52 = 74.66 VA

P 32.48
PF = = = 0.44 leading
|S| 74.66
.

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Example 2. Determine the supply average power, the supply apparent power, and the
supply power factor for the circuit shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15: Example 2

Solution:

The rms current from the Figure (8) is equal to:

I(rms) = Im = 15 A
The Fourier expansion to the 5th harmonics of the current:
2π 2π
ωo = = = π rad/sec
T 2

i(t) = 19.10 sin (π t) + 6.37 sin (3π t) + 3.82 sin (5π t)

The average power is equal to:
∞
1X
P = Vdc Idc + Vn In cos(θn − Φn )
2 n=1

1 1 1
P = 0×0+ × 120 × 19.10 cos(0) + × 0 × 6.37 cos(0) + × 0 × 3.82 cos(0) = 1146 W
2 2 2
The apparent power is equal to:

|S| = Vrms Irms

120
|S| = √ × 15 = 1272.79 VA
2
P 1146
PF = = = 0.9 lag
|S| 1272.79
.

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Example 3. Determine the input power factor, the displacement factor, the distortion
factor, the THD in the current, the form factor in the current, and the ripple factor in
the current for a non-linear load supplied by voltage vs and the result is a non-sinusoidal
current is .

vs (t) = 100 sin(4t)

is (t) = 5 + 2.5 sin(4t − 30◦ ) + 0.5 sin(8t − 60◦ )

Solution:

The rms value of the is :

s
2.5 2.5
Is(rms) = 52 + ( √ )2 − ( √ )2 = 5.32 A
2 2

The rms value of the fundamental component I1(rms) :

2.5
I1(rms) = ( √ ) = 1.77 A
2
The input power factor is equal to:
I1(rms) 1.77
PF = cos( θ1 ) = cos 30 = 0.29 Lag
Is(rms) 5.32

The displacement Factor is equal to:

DFθ = cos ( θ1 ) = cos 30 = 0.87

the distortion factor is equal to:
I1(rms) 1.77
DFi = = = 0.33
Is(rms) 5.32
Total harmonic distortion is equal to:
0.5
√
2
THD = 2.5 = 0.2
√
2

The form factor is equal to:

Irms 5.32
FF = = = 1.06
Iav 5
The ripple factor is equal to:
p p
RF = (FF)2 − 1 = (1.06)2 − 1 = 0.35

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Example 4.

Solution:
The average voltage from the Figure (8) is equal to:
Vm 169.71
Vo(av) = (1 + cos α) = (1 + cos (10◦ )) = 107.22 V
π π
The rms voltage from the Figure (8) is equal to:
r
Vm α sin (2α)
Vo(rms) = √ 1− +
2 π 2π
r π
169.71 10 180 sin (2(10))
Vo(rms) = √ 1− + = 119.94 V
2 π 2π
The power absorbed by R is equal to:
2
Vo(rms) (119.94)2
P= = = 143.86 W
R 100
The form factor is equal to:
Vrms 119.94
FF = = = 1.12
Vav 107.22
The ripple factor is equal to:
p p
RF = (FF)2 − 1 = (1.12)2 − 1 = 0.5

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Example 5.

Solution:
The average current from the table of Figure (8) is equal to:

Io(av) = 0 A
The rms current from the Figure (8) is equal to:

Io(rms) = Im = 23 A
The power absorbed by R is equal to:

2
P = Io(rms) R = (23)2 (70) = 37030 W
The period is equal to:
1 1
T= = = 5 ms
f 200

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Total harmonic distortion is equal to:
q
2 2
Io(rms) − Io1(rms)
THD =
Io1(rms)
The Io1(rms) current from the Figure (8) is equal to:
4 Im 4 × 23
Io1(rms) =√ = √ = 20.71 A
π 2 π× 2
p
(23)2 − (20.71)2
THD = = 0.48
(20.71)

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