MECHANICS OF

MATERIALS
(MECH 206)
F. Javidrad.

Spring 2024
Middle East Technical University
North Cyprus Campus
Some parts of the course materials have been taken from the following references.

(1) Beer, Johnston, Dewolf and Mazurek, Mechanics of

Materials, Seventh edition, Mc Graw-Hill, 2012.
(2) Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials, Sixth edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005.
(3) E.P. Popov, Engineering mechanics of solids,
Prentice hall, 1990.

2
 Chapter-5

Bending of beams

3
General
General
■ Beam theory is one of the fundamental theories in structural mechanics. Although the word
beam often resembles building and civil engineering structures, however, bending is a
major concept used in the design of many machine and structural components, such as
aerospace structures.

A beam is a prismatic member subjected to

equal and opposite moments M acting in the
same longitudinal plane (see Fig. 1). This is
considered pure bending.

An example of a beam component in structures is an

axle of a sport buggy as shown in Fig. 2. In this case,
the center part of the axle is subjected to a pure
Fig. 1
moment that tends to bend the axle.

4
General
It is seen that the weight of the structure is
transferred from two points of connection to
the wheels and from that to the ground. The
free-body diagram shows that the central part
of the axle is only subjected to pure bending.
The stress in this central part is axial and can
be determined using beam theory. Fig. 2

There are many applications that a slender member

carrying a combination of loads. Combining bending
moments and torsional twists is one example of such
case. In Fig 3, the shaft propeller of a boat is illustrated.
The shaft here carries a combination of bending and
twisting moments.
Fig. 4

5
General
■ There are also many applications in which a beam member carries axial loads together with
bending moments. An example of this can be the load applied to the bar clamp or the
eccentric load applied to a bar as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

6
Basics of bending of beams
■ Beam theory is a combination of assumptions and geometrical and statics equations that are
used to convert transverse loads and bending moments on slender members into stress.
■ In this chapter, a review of the beam theory is given first and then the calculation of stresses
in beams under bending in symmetrical conditions is explained.
5.1. Basics of bending of beams
The bending of beams consists of a problem in which a slender (or sometimes a relatively
thick) member is subjected to moments and transverse loads. An example is shown in Fig. 5.
However, the transverse loads and bending moments can be variable along the member. The
simplest case in bending is pure bending, in which a constant bending moment acts on a piece
of the member and causes it to bend symmetrically.

Fig. 5
7
Basics of bending of beams (Cont’d)
 There are several factors affecting the bending behavior of a beam:
(1) The shape of the cross-section,
(2) Loading,
(3) Geometry of the beam,
(4) Supports.
These factors are discussed briefly.
(1) Cross-section
The cross-section of the beam plays a very important role in the kinematics of the beam. The
cross-section of the beam may be symmetric (one axis or two axes symmetry), Built-in, and un-
symmetric. In addition to these cases, the cross-section of a beam may be open or closed
composed of thin-walled or thick-walled strips or panels (Fig. 6).

8
Basics of bending of beams (Cont’d)

2-axis Symmetric 1-axis Symmetric Built-in cross Un-symmetric Closed cross section Open cross section
cross section cross section section cross section

Fig.6

(2) Loading
A beam can be subjected to a variety of loads.
Such as concentrated force, concentrated
moment, distributed force, distributed moment,
body force, and every combination of them. In
Fig. 7
addition, the forces and moments can be
applied statically or dynamically (Fig. 7).

9
Basics of bending of beams (Cont’d)
In addition, bending loads can be applied in
various planes to produce bending relative to
various planes (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

(3) Geometry of the beam

Beams can have constant or variable
shapes along their length. For example in
an airplane wing spar, normally height and
thickness of the built-in parts change from
the wing tip or root.
Moreover, a beam can be straight or
curved. (Fig. 9 and 10). Fig. 9

10
Basics of bending of beams (Cont’d)

Fig. 10
(4) Supports
The support of a beam can be very diverse.
Fixed, roller, and free-edge supports are
commonly used in the modeling of beams. The
Number of supports may be such that the beam
is statically determinate or indeterminate (Fig.
11). (Recall that indeterminate structures are
those in which the number of unknown support
reactions is greater than the available
equilibrium equations.) Fig. 11
11
Pure symmetric bending
5.2. Pure symmetric beam bending
We first concentrate on pure bending in beams with at least one axis of cross-sectional
symmetry. The condition of pure bending is:
(1) The piece of the beam is initially straight.
(2) The piece of the beam is subjected to only
bending moments.

Examples of pure bending are a cantilevered

beam subjected to a concentrated moment at the
tip and a portion of a beam between two
concentrated point loads. Fig. 1 repeated

In the theory of bending, to establish a relation between the applied loads, cross-
sectional properties, and internal forces and deformations the following procedure is
followed:

12
Pure symmetric bending
(1) Assuming a global deformation function (kinematics)
(2) Relating stresses to strains
(3) Imposing equilibrium requirements for external and internal forces

Fig. 12

Now consider a beam with a cross-section having at least one axis of symmetry. The axis passes
through the centroid (x-axis). This axis is called the beam axis (Fig. 12).
13
Pure symmetric bending
In pure bending theory, the fundamental assumption is that a piece of the line along the
axis of the beam after deformation turns into a circular arc. The assumption requires
that the transverse plane of the beam after deformation just tilts without experiencing
warping deformation. In other words, every plane perpendicular to the beam axis
remains planar after deformation (Fig. 13).
As given in Fig. 13, the beam axis on the
small prismatic element of the beam
becomes an arc with radius r and partial
angle of dq. Therefore, the length of the
fiber ef would be
ds  r dq (5.1)

Fig. 13

14
Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
dq 1
 k (5.2)
ds r
Where k is called curvature. In pure bending analysis both r and k are constants.

The length of any fiber like gh can be found similarly. The difference between the length of
the fibers ef and gh which is designated by du can be determined as

du *  ( r  y )dq  r dq   ydq (5.3)

However, because in this theory deflections and rotations are assumed to be small, the
projection of du* (which is along the circular arc) into the horizontal axis gives virtually the
same length. Therefore du* can be replaced by du.

du   ydq (5.4)

15
Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
Dividing both sides of Eq. 5.4 by ds gives

du dq
 y   yk (5.5)
ds ds
e x   yk (5.6)

Equation (5.6) represents the basic kinematic

hypothesis of the bending theory.

5.2.2. Stress-strain relations Fig. 13

It is assumed in this theory that every fiber of the beam undergoes

axial deformation. Therefore, by assuming a one-directional stress-
strain relation, stress in fiber with ex-strain can be written as

  Ee x   Ek y (5.7)

16
Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
In Eq. (5.7), y can be positive or negative, resulting in tensile
or compressive stresses. This relation, therefore, gives a
linear distribution of the normal stress along the depth of the
beam as shown in Fig. 14.
5.2.3. Equilibrium equations
To relate the stresses with the load M, equilibrium equations
must be used. Two equations of equilibrium can be stated.
(1) Summation of forces along the horizontal direction is zero. Fig. 14.
(2) Summation of bending moments about a point on the beam axis is
zero.
6.2.3.1 Equilibrium of forces

Fx  0, A  x dA  0 (5.8)

 Ek A y dA  0 (5.9)

17
Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
By definition,

A y dA  yA (5.10)

Where ȳ is the distance from the origin to the centroid of an area.

Because the Integral of Eq. 6.9 must be zero and A is not zero, then from Eq. 6.10, ȳ must be
equal to zero. This means that the z-axis must pass through the centroid of a section.

ȳ equal zero implies that both normal stress and normal strain
must be zero along the z-axis. The z axis is called the neutral
axis (N.A.) of a beam. Thus, the neutral axis of any beam
cross section can be determined by finding the centroid of
that cross section.
As it is shown in Fig. 15, in any section, the direction of stress
above and below the neutral axis have opposite directions. The
direction of normal stress can be determined by considering
the direction of the applied moment at that section. Fig. 15

18
Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
5.2.3.2 Equilibrium of bending moments
The equilibrium of bending moments implies that the sum of externally applied moments and
internal resistance moments must vanish. Positive bending moments were chosen
counterclockwise (CCW).
M o  0 (5.11)

M z  y   dA  0 (5.12)
A

M z   y  Ek y dA  0 (5.13)
A
The negative sign in Eq. 5.13 is necessary because the Fig. 16
direction of stress in positive y for positive bending moment
(CCW) is compressive (Fig. 16 and Fig. 17). Simplifying Eq.
5.13 gives
M z  Ek  y 2 dA  0 (5.14)
A

I z   y 2 dA (5.15)
A
Fig. 17 19
 Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
Where Iz is the second moment of the cross-sectional area.
M
k z (5.16)
EI z
Eq. 5.16 is the basic equation for pure bending. Now, substituting k from Eq. 5.7, the elastic
beam bending formula is obtained.
M z y
x  (5.17)
Iz
Where the maximum stress in a cross-section is in the maximum of y. Therefore, the farthest
fibers carry the largest stress (both tensile and compressive stress).
 M z ymax
( x ) max  (5.18)
Iz
If ymax is denoted by c, Eq. 6.18 can be written as
M z c M M
( x ) max    (5.19)
Iz ( I z / c) S
Where S is called the elastic section modulus.
20
Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
■ For example, for a rectangular cross section (Fig. 18), S can be defined as
bh3 h
Iz  , c ,
12 2
I z 2 bh3 bh 2 1 h
S     Ah (5.20)
c h 12 6 6 N.A.
For clarity, the sign convention for the
derivation of Eq. 5.17 is given in Fig. 19. b
If the beam has a doubly symmetric
cross-section with the coordinates Fig. 18
shown, the normal stress can be written
as
M yz
x  (5.21)
Iy
Fig. 19
21
Pure symmetric bending (Cont’d)
5.2.4. Second Moment of area
In applying flexural formula, the second moment of area, which is the integral of y²dA over the
cross sectional area A, must be calculated. The moment of area is a pure geometry property and
should be determined by integration about the axis passing through the centroid of the cross section.
5.2.4.1. Parallel axis theorem can be used to translate I between parallel axes.
In Fig. 20, suppose the second moment of area about zc -zc is
known, the second moment of area about the z-z axis, can be
determined by the following equation.
I zc  zc   yc2 dA (5.22)
A

I z  z  I zc  zc  Ad z2 (5.23)
Fig. 20
For beam sections contributing several parts, Izc for each part is first determined about
its geometric center and then translated to the beam N.A. (which passes through the
center of the whole cross-section). Finally, by summing these translated second
moments of areas, I for the whole cross-section of the N.A. is determined.
( I z ) whole  ( I zc  Ad z2 ) (5.24)
22
Pure symmetric bending (example)
Example 1
For the cross sections shown, first find the location of N.A. for bending about the z-axis and then
calculate the second moment of area about the N.A. for each of them.
a
a t y
h
h h
t1 z
b b b

(b) y (c)
(a)
Solution part (a)
dy
The rectangle has two axes of symmetry, Therefore, h/2
N.A. passes through the center of the rectangle.
z N.A.
h/2
I z   y 2 dA
A
b
23
Pure symmetric bending (example)
h /2 h /2
I z   y (b.dy )  b  y 2 dy
2

 h /2  h /2

b h h3  bh3
h /2
1 3 
3
Iz  b  y     ( )  
 3   h /2 3  8 8  12
Solution part (b)
The cross-section has only one axis of symmetry. So, ZC is equal to zero.
The section is divided into three sub-sections, one rectangle, and two triangles as shown.
A y 2 Atr yC ,tr  Are yC ,re
yC  i i yC  y
Ai 2 Atr  Are a
1 ba (b  a )h 1
Atr  h  , yC ,tr  h
2 2 4 3
1 h
Are  a  h, yC ,re  h
2
ba 2 a 2 b
( )h  h z
6 2 (b  2a )h
yC  
ba 3(a  b)
( )h
2 24
 Pure symmetric bending (example)
For determination of the second moment of area about the
N.A., it is convenient to determine first IBB and then a
translate that to the N.A.
I BB   y 2 dA h N.A.
ba yC
dA  2 x dy  (b  2 y tan  )dy  (b  2 y. )dy
y 2h B b B
dA  (b  (b  a ) )dy
h
h y h y3
I BB   y (b  (b  a ) )dy   (by  (b  a ) )dy
2 2

0 h 0 h
2x
b 3 b  a 4 h b 3 b  a 4 h3
I BB  [ y  y ]0  [ h  h ]  (b  3a )
3 4h 3 4h 12 y.tan()

h3 ab 2a  b 2 dy
I N . A.  I bb  Ay  (b  3a )  (
2
h)( h) h y
3(a  b)
C
12 2
3h3 (b  3a )(a  b)  2(2a  b) 2 B b B
I N . A.  I bb  Ay 
2

36(a  b)
C

h3 (4ab  a 2  b 2 ) 
I N . A. 
36(a  b)
25
 Pure symmetric bending (example)
The given I-section has two axes of symmetry. N.A. passes a
through the intersection point of two axes of symmetry.
The simplest way to calculate of N.A. location for this I-section is t
first finding N.A. for a rectangle with the width a and height of
(h+2t), and then subtracting two rectangles with the width of (a-
t1)/2 and height of h from that. C
h N.A.
I N . A.  ( I N . A. )1234  2( I N . A. )5678 t1
a
a (h  2t )3 t
( I N . A. )1234 
12
3 4
(a  2t1 )h3
( I N . A. )5678  8
12 7
C
(h  2t )a (a  2t1 )h3 h N.A.
I N . A.   2
12 12
5 6

1 2
26
 Pure symmetric bending (example)
Example 2
For the inverted T-section shown, determine the second
moment of area about centroidal axes x.
The area has a single plane of symmetry
Calculation of centroid (from AB axis)
1 2
yC   Ai yi
A i 1
108
yC   3 in
36
Calculation of I about the horizontal centroidal axis
2 2
( I z ) N . A.   ( I z )i   Ai di2
i 1 i 1
1 3 1
( I z )1  bh  (9)(2)3  6 in 4
12 12
1 1
( I z ) 2  bh3  (3)(6)3  54 in 4
12 12
( I z ) N . A.  60  144  204 in 4
27
Pure symmetric bending (example)
Example 3
A steel bar of 0.8×2.5 in. rectangular cross-section is subjected to two equal and opposite
couples acting in the vertical plane of the symmetry of the bar (as shown). Determine the value
of the bending moment M that causes the bar to yield. Assume y=36 ksi.
Since the N.A. must pass through the centroid C of the cross-section,
then c =1.25 in. On the other hand, the centroidal moment of the area
of the rectangular cross-section is
bh3
I
12
1
I (0.8)(2.5)3  1.042 in 4
12
S  I / c  1.042 /1.25  0.8336 in3
M
 max 
S
M  S   max
M all  S   Y  0.8336  36 103  30 103 lb  in.
28
Pure symmetric bending (example)
Example 4
The rectangular tube shown is extruded from an aluminum
alloy for which Y=40 ksi, ult=60 ksi, and E=10.6×10^6
psi. Neglecting the effect of fillets, determine (a) the
bending moment M for which the factor of safety will be 3
and (b) the corresponding radius of curvature.
The section has two axes of symmetry. Therefore, the
N.A. must pass through the center of the section.
Calculation of second moment of
area about the N.A.
1 1
I N . A.  (3.25)(5)3  (2.75)(4.5)3
12 12

I N . A.  12.97 in 4

29
 Pure symmetric bending (example)
Allowable stress
 ult 60
 all   20 ksi
F .S . 3
Since all is less than Y=30 ksi, then with this allowable stress the
material remains in the elastic region.
Solution of Part (a)
S  I / c  12.97 / 2.5  5.188 in3
M M
 max  
S 5.188
M  5.188  max
M all  5.188  all  5.188  20 103  103.76 103 lb  in
Solution of Part (b)
1 M all

r EI
1 103.76 103
  0.755  103 1/ in.
r (10.6 10 )(12.97)
6

r  1325 in.
30
Pure symmetric bending (Example)
Example 4
A 300 by 400 mm wooden cantilever beam weighing 0.75 kN/m carries an upward concentrated
force of 20 kN at the end, as shown. Determine the maximum bending stresses at a section 2 m
from the free end.

The weight of the beam is applied by a uniform

distributed load of 0.75 kN/m.
Free body diagram of the section (AB) and calculation
of shear force and bending moment in this section
VAB  20  (0.75  2)  18.5 kN
M AB  (20  2)  (0.75  2 1)  38.5 kN .m
The second moment of area about the N.A.
300  4003 Distributed load is
I  16  108 mm 4 used to model the
12
weight load.
Maximum distance from the N.A.
c  h / 2  20 mm
31
Pure symmetric bending (Example)
Examining the sense of the bending moment
at the cross-section AB, the top fiber of the
beam is in compression and the bottom one in
tension.
Maximum tensile stress (at point B)

Mc 38.5 106 (200)

   4.81 MPa
I 16 108
Maximum compressive stress (at point A)

Mc 38.5 106 (200)

   4.81 MPa
I 16 108

Example 5
Find the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
acting normal to sections A-A of the machine
bracket shown. Assume the applied force is 8 kips.

32
 Pure symmetric bending (Example)
Shear force and bending moment at the section A-A.
V  8 kips 
M  8  16  128 kips.in CW
Calculation of the centroid of the cross-section for locating the neutral axis

Area 2 ȳ

Ai yi 17
y   1.7 in y
Ai 10
Calculation of the second moment of inertia with respect Area 1
to the N.A. Area 3
I  ( I o  Ad 2 )

33
 Pure symmetric bending (Example)
bh3 4(1)3
Area 1 Io    0.3333 in 4
12 12
A  4 in 2 , d  1.7  0.5  1.2 in
Areas 2 and 3 bh3 1(3)3
Io    2.25 in 4
12 12
A  3 in 2 , d  2.5  1.7  0.8 in

Total second moment of area relative to the neutral axis

I  (0.3333  4(1.2) 2 )  2(2.25  3(0.8) 2 )
Area 2
ȳ
I  14.4333 in 4

Calculation of maximum tensile stress

Mc1 y
( mac )t  , c1  1.7 in
I
128 103 1.7
( max )t   15.076 103 psi
14.4333 Area 1
( max )t  15.076 ksi Area 3
34
Pure symmetric bending (Example)
Determination of maximum compressive stress
Mc2
( max )c  , c2  2.3 in
I
128 103  2.3
( max )c   20.3969 103 psi  20.4 ksi
14.4333

35
Eccentric axial loading
5.4. Eccentric axial loading in a plane of symmetry
■ It is emphasized in Chapter 1 that when an axial load acts on a slender member, the load
must be centric (i.e. pass through the center of the cross-sectional area) to produce uniform
axial stress. However, there are many cases in which the load does not pass through the
centroid of the cross-section. Such loads are called eccentric (see Fig. 4).

Consider a member AB carrying an axial load P

with eccentricity d as shown in Fig. 22. If we cut
the member at some point along the length of the
member (say point C), a force and a moment must
exist at the cut section to satisfy equilibrium.

FP (5.37)
M  P.d (5.38)
Fig. 22
36
Eccentric axial loading
■ If we assume that the material behaves linearly, the superposition of stresses may be used
to find the combined action of axial force F and the bending moment F.d along the
straight portion of the member.
■ The axial load F gives a uniform stress distribution across the cross-sectional area, and
the bending moment results in a linear stress distribution as shown in Fig. 23.

Fig. 23

 x  ( x ) axial  ( x )bending (5.39)

37
Eccentric axial loading
P
( x ) axial  (5.40)
A
My
( x )bending   (5.41)
I
The minus sign in Eq. 5.41 is because of the sign convention: a positive bending moment that
makes compression in positive y values. By addition of Eq. 5.40 and Eq. 5.41, the distribution of
axial stress across the cross sectional area due to eccentric load may be written as
P My
x   (5.42)
A I
■ Eq. 5.42 shows that the distribution of stress across the section is linear but not uniform, as
it is shown in Fig 23.
Depending on the load magnitudes, geometry, and cross-section of the beam, the stress distribution in
eccentric loading can be all tensile, a combination of tensile and compressive stress, and all compressive
stresses. However, in the case of a combination of tensile and compressive stresses, the line with x=0
defines the N.A. of the beam under eccentric loading (Fig. 24).
38
Eccentric axial loading

Fig. 24

Example 10
A structural member with a rectangular cross section 10 in.
wide by 6 in. deep supports a 30 kip concentrated load as
shown. Determine the distribution of normal stresses on section
a-a of the member and the location of the N.A.
Section properties

39
Eccentric axial loading (example)
The section has double symmetry planes. The centroid is then
located at the intersection of these two axes.
A  (10)(6)  60 in 2
1 3 1
I bh  (6)(10)3  500 in 4
12 12
Axial stress in y direction due to the axial load
F 30 103
 axial    500 psi
A 60
Maximum bending stress in y direction due to the bending load
Mc (30 103 )(8)(5)
 bending ,max    2.4  103 psi
I 500
Combined stresses
 H   axial   bend  500  2.4  103  1900 psi  1.9 ksi
 K   axial   bend  500  2.4  103  2900 psi   2.9 ksi
Location of the N.A.
40
Eccentric axial loading (example)
By using similar triangles (x is
measured from the point H)
1.9 x
 x  3.958 in
2.9 10  x
Example 11
The C-clamp shown is made of an alloy with
a yield strength of 324 MPa in either tension
or compression. Determine the allowable
clamping force that the clamp can exert if a
factor of safety of 3.0 is required.
Section properties
A  (4 12)  (4 12)  96 mm 2

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 Eccentric axial loading (example)
(48  6)  (48 14)
y  10 mm
96
1 1
I  [ (4)(12)3  48  (10  6) 2 ]  [ (12)(4)3  48  (10  14) 2  2176 mm 4
12 12

Axial stress due to axial load F

F P
 axial  
A 96
Maximum bending stresses occur
at the two uppermost points.
Bending stress at point H
McH ( P  46)(6) P
 bending , H   
I 2176 7.88
Bending stress at point K
Mc ( P  46)(10) P
 bending , K   K   
I 2176 4.73
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Eccentric axial loading (example)
Combined stress at H
P P
 combined , H    0.1373P
7.88 96
Combined stress at K
P P
 combined , K     0.201P
4.73 96
Maximum allowable force according to the stress limitation at H
Y P 
324
 786.6 N
0.1373Pall 
3  0.1373
all
F .S .
Maximum allowable force according to the stress limitation at K
 Y
0.201Pall 
F .S .
324
Pall   537.3 N
3  0.201
The maximum allowable force for this C-clamp is 537.3 N.

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