Geometry over F1

Reeshad Arian

January 2023

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 1 / 25

Introduction

Any field has characteristic a prime number (e.g. F2 ) or 0 (e.g. C).

We can consider categories of objects over fields (e.g.
vector/affine/projective spaces, varieties, schemes).
A field must have at least an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative
identity 1 which are distinct elements, so a field with characteristic 1
is a meaningless concept.
However, we can still consider categories of objects over F1 .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 2 / 25

Introduction

Any field has characteristic a prime number (e.g. F2 ) or 0 (e.g. C).

We can consider categories of objects over fields (e.g.
vector/affine/projective spaces, varieties, schemes).
A field must have at least an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative
identity 1 which are distinct elements, so a field with characteristic 1
is a meaningless concept.
However, we can still consider categories of objects over F1 .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 2 / 25

Introduction

Any field has characteristic a prime number (e.g. F2 ) or 0 (e.g. C).

We can consider categories of objects over fields (e.g.
vector/affine/projective spaces, varieties, schemes).
A field must have at least an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative
identity 1 which are distinct elements, so a field with characteristic 1
is a meaningless concept.
However, we can still consider categories of objects over F1 .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 2 / 25

Introduction

Consider an n-dimensional vector space V over Fq , for q = p k , and a

pointed set S (set with a distinguished element ∗) of cardinality n + 1.
S “acts like” an n-dimensional vector space over F1 .
|P(V )| = [n]q , #{2-element subsets of S containing ∗} = n, where

qn − 1
[n]q = =⇒ lim [n]q = n.
q−1 q→1

[n]q !
#{m-dimensional subspaces of V } = [m]q ![n−m]q ! ,
n!
#{(m + 1)-cardinality pointed subsets of S} = m!(n−m)! .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 3 / 25

Introduction

Consider an n-dimensional vector space V over Fq , for q = p k , and a

pointed set S (set with a distinguished element ∗) of cardinality n + 1.
S “acts like” an n-dimensional vector space over F1 .
|P(V )| = [n]q , #{2-element subsets of S containing ∗} = n, where

qn − 1
[n]q = =⇒ lim [n]q = n.
q−1 q→1

[n]q !
#{m-dimensional subspaces of V } = [m]q ![n−m]q ! ,
n!
#{(m + 1)-cardinality pointed subsets of S} = m!(n−m)! .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 3 / 25

Introduction

Consider an n-dimensional vector space V over Fq , for q = p k , and a

pointed set S (set with a distinguished element ∗) of cardinality n + 1.
S “acts like” an n-dimensional vector space over F1 .
|P(V )| = [n]q , #{2-element subsets of S containing ∗} = n, where

qn − 1
[n]q = =⇒ lim [n]q = n.
q−1 q→1

[n]q !
#{m-dimensional subspaces of V } = [m]q ![n−m]q ! ,
n!
#{(m + 1)-cardinality pointed subsets of S} = m!(n−m)! .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 3 / 25

Introduction

Categorically vector spaces behave very similarly to the category of finite

pointed sets:
Theorem (Givant, 1978)
The only varieties where every algebra is free are definitionally equivalent
to:
the variety of pointed sets,
the variety of sets,
a variety of vector spaces over a division ring, or
a variety of affine spaces over a division ring.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 4 / 25

Algebras

Every object is commutative.

Definition (Algebra)
An algebra A over a ring R is an R-module which is also a ring.

For any ring homomorphism ϕ : R → S, we can consider S to be an

algebra over R with the module structure r · s = ϕ(r )s.
Moreover, if A is an S-algebra, it is also an R-algebra with the
module action given by r · a = ϕ(r )a

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 5 / 25

Algebras

Every object is commutative.

Definition (Algebra)
An algebra A over a ring R is an R-module which is also a ring.

For any ring homomorphism ϕ : R → S, we can consider S to be an

algebra over R with the module structure r · s = ϕ(r )s.
Moreover, if A is an S-algebra, it is also an R-algebra with the
module action given by r · a = ϕ(r )a

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 5 / 25

Algebras

Every object is commutative.

Definition (Algebra)
An algebra A over a ring R is an R-module which is also a ring.

For any ring homomorphism ϕ : R → S, we can consider S to be an

algebra over R with the module structure r · s = ϕ(r )s.
Moreover, if A is an S-algebra, it is also an R-algebra with the
module action given by r · a = ϕ(r )a

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 5 / 25

Algebras

Categorically, an algebra is a monoidal object in the category R-mod.

But since vector spaces over F1 are defined to be pointed sets, an
F1 -algebra is defined to be a monoidal object in Set∗ , i.e. a monoid.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 6 / 25

Algebras

Definition (Monoid)
An monoid is a set M with a distinguished element 1 and a binary
operator ·, satisfying
1 a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c,
2 1 · a = a.

We define F1 -alg := Mon.

For any ring R, R is an algebra over itself and is the trivial object in
R-alg. Since the trivial object in Mon is {1}, we say F1 := {1}.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 7 / 25

Algebras

Definition (Monoid)
An monoid is a set M with a distinguished element 1 and a binary
operator ·, satisfying
1 a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c,
2 1 · a = a.

We define F1 -alg := Mon.

For any ring R, R is an algebra over itself and is the trivial object in
R-alg. Since the trivial object in Mon is {1}, we say F1 := {1}.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 7 / 25

Algebras

Definition (Monoid)
An monoid is a set M with a distinguished element 1 and a binary
operator ·, satisfying
1 a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c,
2 1 · a = a.

We define F1 -alg := Mon.

For any ring R, R is an algebra over itself and is the trivial object in
R-alg. Since the trivial object in Mon is {1}, we say F1 := {1}.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 7 / 25

Algebras

Suppose ϕ : R → S is a ring homomorphism, and A is an R-algebra and B

is an S-algebra.

A ⊗R S
is an S algebra. There is also a forgetful map F (B) = B ∈ R-alg.
Theorem
The functor ⊗R S is left adjoint to F :

HomS-alg (A ⊗R S, B) ∼
= HomR-alg (A, F (B)).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 8 / 25

Algebras

Suppose ϕ : R → S is a ring homomorphism, and A is an R-algebra and B

is an S-algebra.

A ⊗R S
is an S algebra. There is also a forgetful map F (B) = B ∈ R-alg.
Theorem
The functor ⊗R S is left adjoint to F :

HomS-alg (A ⊗R S, B) ∼
= HomR-alg (A, F (B)).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 8 / 25

Algebras

Z is the initial object in the category of rings, i.e. ∃ϕ : Z → R, n 7→ n · 1R

for all rings R. Therefore, a ring is just a Z-algebra. Moreover, any ring R
is a monoid by forgetting the additive structure: F (R, +, ×) = (R, ×).
Given any monoid M, we can define a “base extension”

M ⊗F1 Z := Z[M],

whereby Z[M] is a ring.

Theorem
The functor ⊗F1 S is left adjoint to F :

HomRings (M ⊗F1 Z, R) ∼
= HomMon (M, F (R)).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 9 / 25

Algebras

Z is the initial object in the category of rings, i.e. ∃ϕ : Z → R, n 7→ n · 1R

for all rings R. Therefore, a ring is just a Z-algebra. Moreover, any ring R
is a monoid by forgetting the additive structure: F (R, +, ×) = (R, ×).
Given any monoid M, we can define a “base extension”

M ⊗F1 Z := Z[M],

whereby Z[M] is a ring.

Theorem
The functor ⊗F1 S is left adjoint to F :

HomRings (M ⊗F1 Z, R) ∼
= HomMon (M, F (R)).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 9 / 25

Algebras

Z is the initial object in the category of rings, i.e. ∃ϕ : Z → R, n 7→ n · 1R

for all rings R. Therefore, a ring is just a Z-algebra. Moreover, any ring R
is a monoid by forgetting the additive structure: F (R, +, ×) = (R, ×).
Given any monoid M, we can define a “base extension”

M ⊗F1 Z := Z[M],

whereby Z[M] is a ring.

Theorem
The functor ⊗F1 S is left adjoint to F :

HomRings (M ⊗F1 Z, R) ∼
= HomMon (M, F (R)).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 9 / 25

Ideals, Localization, and Spectra

Many constructions from ring theory translate directly to monoids:

Definition (Ideal)
A subset I of M is an ideal if aI ⊂ I for all a ∈ M. An ideal I is prime if
for any ab ∈ I , a ∈ I or b ∈ I .

Definition (Localization)
For S a submonoid of M, there is a monoid S −1 M defined as the set
M × S modulo the equivalence relation

(m, s) ∼ (m′ , s ′ ) ⇐⇒ ∃s ′′ ∈ S | s ′′ s ′ m = s ′′ sm′ .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 10 / 25

Ideals, Localization, and Spectra

p is a prime ideal if any only if Sp := M \ p is a submonoid. Define

Mp := Sp−1 M to be the localization at p.

Definition (Spectrum)
The spectrum of M is the topological space with underlying set Spec(M)
consisting of all prime ideals of M, with closed subsets defined to be
empty or of the form

V (I ) := {p ∈ Spec(M) | p ⊃ I }
for any I ideal of M.
T S
Indeed, V (I ) ∪ V (J) = V (I ∩ J) and a∈A V (Ia ) = V ( a∈A Ia ).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 11 / 25

Sheaves

Given a topological space X , let Op(X ) be the category with objects open
sets U, and a single morphism V → U if V ⊂ U.
Definition (Presheaf)
Given a category C , a presheaf is a functor O : Op(X )op → C .

Definition (Sheaf)
A sheaf is a presheaf with two additional properties:
(Locality) For an open cover {Ui }i∈I of U and s, t ∈ O(U), if
s |Ui = t |Ui , s = t.
(Gluing) For an open cover {Ui }i∈I of U, suppose {si ∈ O(Ui )} such
that si |Ui ∩Uj = sj |Ui ∩Uj , then there is an s ∈ O(U) such that
s |Ui = si .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 12 / 25

Sheaves

Given a topological space X , let Op(X ) be the category with objects open
sets U, and a single morphism V → U if V ⊂ U.
Definition (Presheaf)
Given a category C , a presheaf is a functor O : Op(X )op → C .

Definition (Sheaf)
A sheaf is a presheaf with two additional properties:
(Locality) For an open cover {Ui }i∈I of U and s, t ∈ O(U), if
s |Ui = t |Ui , s = t.
(Gluing) For an open cover {Ui }i∈I of U, suppose {si ∈ O(Ui )} such
that si |Ui ∩Uj = sj |Ui ∩Uj , then there is an s ∈ O(U) such that
s |Ui = si .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 12 / 25

Sheaves

Given a topological space X , let Op(X ) be the category with objects open
sets U, and a single morphism V → U if V ⊂ U.
Definition (Presheaf)
Given a category C , a presheaf is a functor O : Op(X )op → C .

Definition (Sheaf)
A sheaf is a presheaf with two additional properties:
(Locality) For an open cover {Ui }i∈I of U and s, t ∈ O(U), if
s |Ui = t |Ui , s = t.
(Gluing) For an open cover {Ui }i∈I of U, suppose {si ∈ O(Ui )} such
that si |Ui ∩Uj = sj |Ui ∩Uj , then there is an s ∈ O(U) such that
s |Ui = si .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 12 / 25

Schemes over F1

On Spec(M), we define the sheaf of F1 -algebras ` as follows: For

U ⊂ Spec(M) open, define O(U) = {s : U → p∈U Mp } such that for all
p ∈ U, there exists a neighborhood V ⊂ U and elements a, f ∈ M such
/ q and s(q) = fa ∈ Mq .
that for all q ∈ V , f ∈

Proposition
1 ∀p ∈ Spec(M), the stalk Op := lim O(U) ∼
= Mp
−→
p∈U
2 O(Spec(M)) = M

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 13 / 25

Schemes over F1

On Spec(M), we define the sheaf of F1 -algebras ` as follows: For

U ⊂ Spec(M) open, define O(U) = {s : U → p∈U Mp } such that for all
p ∈ U, there exists a neighborhood V ⊂ U and elements a, f ∈ M such
/ q and s(q) = fa ∈ Mq .
that for all q ∈ V , f ∈

Proposition
1 ∀p ∈ Spec(M), the stalk Op := lim O(U) ∼
= Mp
−→
p∈U
2 O(Spec(M)) = M

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 13 / 25

Schemes over F1

Definition
A monoidal morphism ϕ : M → N is local if ϕ−1 (N × ) = M × .

Definition
A monoidal space is a topological space X together with a sheaf of
monoids OX . A morphism of monoidal spaces is
(f , f # ) : (X , OX ) → (Y , OY ) such that f : X → Y is continuous and
f # : OY → f∗ OX is a morphism of sheaves. (f , f # ) is local if for all
x ∈ X , f # : OY ,f (x) → OX ,x is local.

Proposition
1 (Spec(M), OM ) is a monoidal space.
2 HomMon (M, N) =∼ Homlocal (Spec(N), Spec(M)).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 14 / 25

Schemes over F1

Definition
A monoidal morphism ϕ : M → N is local if ϕ−1 (N × ) = M × .

Definition
A monoidal space is a topological space X together with a sheaf of
monoids OX . A morphism of monoidal spaces is
(f , f # ) : (X , OX ) → (Y , OY ) such that f : X → Y is continuous and
f # : OY → f∗ OX is a morphism of sheaves. (f , f # ) is local if for all
x ∈ X , f # : OY ,f (x) → OX ,x is local.

Proposition
1 (Spec(M), OM ) is a monoidal space.
2 HomMon (M, N) =∼ Homlocal (Spec(N), Spec(M)).

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 14 / 25

Schemes over F1

Definition (Affine Scheme)

An affine scheme over F1 is a monoidal space isomorphic to Spec(M) for
some monoid M.

Definition (Scheme)
A scheme is a monoidal space X which is locally affine: for all x ∈ X ,
there exists U ⊂ X open such that (U, OX |U ) is an affine scheme. A
morphism of schemes is a local morphism of monoidal spaces. A point
η ∈ X contained in all open sets is called a generic point.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 15 / 25

Schemes over F1

Definition (Affine Scheme)

An affine scheme over F1 is a monoidal space isomorphic to Spec(M) for
some monoid M.

Definition (Scheme)
A scheme is a monoidal space X which is locally affine: for all x ∈ X ,
there exists U ⊂ X open such that (U, OX |U ) is an affine scheme. A
morphism of schemes is a local morphism of monoidal spaces. A point
η ∈ X contained in all open sets is called a generic point.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 15 / 25

Schemes over F1

The forgetful functor (R, +, ×) 7→ R(×) extends to a functor

Schemes/Z → Schemes/F1 .
Likewise, the base change functor M 7→ M ⊗F1 Z = Z[M], extends to a
functor

Schemes/F1 → Schemes/Z.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 16 / 25

P1 (F1 )

Consider the monoids C∞ = {..., τ −1 , 1, τ, ...}, C∞,+ = {1, τ, τ 2 , ...},

C∞,− = {1, τ −1 , τ −2 , ...}. Let U = Spec(C∞ ), X± = Spec(C∞,± ). Then
there are inclusions

C∞,± ,→ C∞
which induce inclusions

U ,→ X±
Moreover, U = {η}, X± = {c± , η± }, where necessarily the points
η = η± = ⟨1⟩ are ±1
1
S open and c± = ⟨τ ⟩ are closed. Define
P (F1 ) := X+ U X− = {c+ , c− , η} as the projective line over F1 , with
structure sheaf O(η) = C∞ , O({c± , η}) = C∞,± , and O(P1 (F1 )) = {1}.

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 17 / 25

GLn

As noted, F1 vector spaces of dimension n are simply pointed sets of

cardinality n + 1, so Fn1 = {∗, x1 , x2 , ..., xn }.
Indeed, Fn ⊗F Z ∼
1 = spanZ {x1 , x2 , ..., xn } = Zn , as expected.
1

We have

GLn (F1 ) = AutF1 (Fn1 ) = Aut{x1 , ..., xn } = Sn .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 18 / 25

GLn

As noted, F1 vector spaces of dimension n are simply pointed sets of

cardinality n + 1, so Fn1 = {∗, x1 , x2 , ..., xn }.
Indeed, Fn ⊗F Z ∼
1 = spanZ {x1 , x2 , ..., xn } = Zn , as expected.
1

We have

GLn (F1 ) = AutF1 (Fn1 ) = Aut{x1 , ..., xn } = Sn .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 18 / 25

GLn

As noted, F1 vector spaces of dimension n are simply pointed sets of

cardinality n + 1, so Fn1 = {∗, x1 , x2 , ..., xn }.
Indeed, Fn ⊗F Z ∼
1 = spanZ {x1 , x2 , ..., xn } = Zn , as expected.
1

We have

GLn (F1 ) = AutF1 (Fn1 ) = Aut{x1 , ..., xn } = Sn .

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 18 / 25

ζ Functions

∞
X
Consider the Riemann zeta function: ζ(s) = n−s .
n=1
We can rewrite it as

  
Y 1 Y 1
ζ(s) = = exp ln
1 − p −s 1 − p −s
p prime p prime
∞
!
Y X (p −s )n
= exp
n
p prime i=1

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 19 / 25

ζ Functions

Note that since Z is initial in the category of rings, Spec(Z) is final in the
category of ring spectra. So,

#Z(Fpk ) = Hom(Spec(Fpn ), Spec(Z)) = 1.

For any scheme X over Z and algebra A, let X (A) = Hom(Spec(A), X )

define the Hasse-Weil zeta function as
∞
!
X Tn
ZX (p, T ) = exp #X (Fpn ) .
n
n=1

In particular, we get the Riemann zeta function as

Y
ζ(s) = ZZ (p, p −s )
p prime

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 20 / 25

ζ Functions

Note that since Z is initial in the category of rings, Spec(Z) is final in the
category of ring spectra. So,

#Z(Fpk ) = Hom(Spec(Fpn ), Spec(Z)) = 1.

For any scheme X over Z and algebra A, let X (A) = Hom(Spec(A), X )

define the Hasse-Weil zeta function as
∞
!
X Tn
ZX (p, T ) = exp #X (Fpn ) .
n
n=1

In particular, we get the Riemann zeta function as

Y
ζ(s) = ZZ (p, p −s )
p prime

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 20 / 25

ζ Functions

Note that since Z is initial in the category of rings, Spec(Z) is final in the
category of ring spectra. So,

#Z(Fpk ) = Hom(Spec(Fpn ), Spec(Z)) = 1.

For any scheme X over Z and algebra A, let X (A) = Hom(Spec(A), X )

define the Hasse-Weil zeta function as
∞
!
X Tn
ZX (p, T ) = exp #X (Fpn ) .
n
n=1

In particular, we get the Riemann zeta function as

Y
ζ(s) = ZZ (p, p −s )
p prime

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 20 / 25

ζ Functions

To generalize, for any scheme X over F1 , set X (M) = Hom(Spec(M), X ),

and define
∞
!
X Tn
ZX (p, T ) = exp #X (Fpn ) .
n
n=1

Suppose there is a polynomial N(x) ∈ Z[x] such that #X (Fpn ) = N(p n ).

Then ZX (p, p −s ) is a rational function in p and p −s .
However, at p = 1, ZX (p, p −s ) a pole with order N(1). Thus, define

ZX (p, p −s )−1
ζX (s) := lim
p→1 (p − 1)N(1)

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 21 / 25

ζ Functions

To generalize, for any scheme X over F1 , set X (M) = Hom(Spec(M), X ),

and define
∞
!
X Tn
ZX (p, T ) = exp #X (Fpn ) .
n
n=1

Suppose there is a polynomial N(x) ∈ Z[x] such that #X (Fpn ) = N(p n ).

Then ZX (p, p −s ) is a rational function in p and p −s .
However, at p = 1, ZX (p, p −s ) a pole with order N(1). Thus, define

ZX (p, p −s )−1
ζX (s) := lim
p→1 (p − 1)N(1)

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 21 / 25

ζ Functions

To generalize, for any scheme X over F1 , set X (M) = Hom(Spec(M), X ),

and define
∞
!
X Tn
ZX (p, T ) = exp #X (Fpn ) .
n
n=1

Suppose there is a polynomial N(x) ∈ Z[x] such that #X (Fpn ) = N(p n ).

Then ZX (p, p −s ) is a rational function in p and p −s .
However, at p = 1, ZX (p, p −s ) a pole with order N(1). Thus, define

ZX (p, p −s )−1
ζX (s) := lim
p→1 (p − 1)N(1)

Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 21 / 25

ζ Functions

If N(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n ,

ζX (s) = s a0 (s − 1)a1 · · · (s − n)an .

Example
Since F1 is initial in F1 -alg, Spec(F1 ) is final in the category of schemes
over F1 . Thus, N(x) = 1, and ζSpec(F1 ) = s.

Example
For X = Spec(C∞,+ ), N(x) = x, and so ζX = s − 1.

Example
s
For X = Spec(GL1 ), N(x) = 1 − x, and so ζX = s−1 .

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References

[1] Deitmar, Anton. ”Schemes over F1 .” Number fields and function

fields—two parallel worlds. Birkhäuser Boston, 2005. 87-100.
[2] Givant, Steven. ”Universal Horn classes categorical or free in power.”
Annals of mathematical Logic 15.1 (1978): 1-53.

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Symmetric Monoidal Categories
Let C be a category with a bifunctor ⊗ : C × C → C , and a distinguished
object 1 with isomorphisms

αx,y ,z : x ⊗ (y ⊗ z) ∼
= (x ⊗ y ) ⊗ z,

λx : 1 ⊗ x ∼
= x,
ρ:x ⊗1∼ = x.
(C , ⊗, 1, α, λ, ρ) is a monoidal category if it satisfies the pentagon and
triangle axioms. A symmetric braiding is a natural isomorphism

Bx,y : x ⊗ y ∼
=y ⊗x
−1 = B
which satisfies Bx,y y ,x .

Examples
`
(Set, ×, {∗}), (Set, , ∅), (Vectk , ⊗, k),
Reeshad Arian Geometry over F1 January 2023 24 / 25
Symmetric Monoidal Category

A monoidal object in (C , ⊗, 1) is an object m ∈ C with a distinguished

map µ : m ⊗ m → m (multiplication) and η : 1 → m (unit) such that it
satisfies the associativity and unital axioms:

µ⊗idm
m⊗m⊗m m⊗m
idm ⊗µ µ

m⊗m µ m

idm ⊗η η⊗idm
m⊗1 m⊗m 1⊗m
µ
∼
= ∼
=
m

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