SRI RAMU DS

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SSIT-TUMKUR
COMPUTER COMMUNICATION NETWORKS – EC6TH3
MODULE -2
TOPICS
Media Access Control: Introduction. Random Access: ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA. Controlled Access: Reservation, Polling, Token Passing. Channelization:
FDMA, TDMA, CDMA.

Wired and Wireless LANs: Ethernet: Ethernet Protocol: IEEE 802, Ethernet
Evolution, Standard Ethernet: Characteristics, Efficiency.

Wireless LANs: Introduction: Characteristics, IEEE802.11: Architecture, MAC Sub

layer, Bluetooth: Architecture.

Textbook 1: B Forouzon, Data Communication & networking, Mcgraw hill-

2013, ISBN: 1-25-906475-3, 5th edition

INTRODUCTION:
▪ When nodes use shared-medium, we need multiple-access protocol to coordinate
access to medium.
▪ Analogy:
▪ This problem is similar to the rules of speaking in an assembly.
▪ We need to ensure
→ Each people has right to speak.
→ Two people do not speak at the same time
→ Two people do not interrupt each other (i.e. Collision Avoidance)
▪ Many protocols have been designed to handle access to a shared-link (Figure 12.1).
▪ These protocols belong to a sublayer in the data-link layer called Media Access
Control (MAC).
Pure ALOHA

Here is how it works (Figure 12.2):

1)The sender sends a frame & starts the timer.
2)The receiver receives the frame and responds with an acknowledgment.
3)If the acknowledgment does not arrive after a time-out period, the sender resends the
frame. The sender assumes that the frame (or the acknowledgment) has been destroyed.
4)Since the medium is shared between the stations, there is possibility of collisions.
5)If two stations try to resend the frames after the time-out, the frames will collide again.

Two methods to deal with collision:

1)Randomness
▪ When the time-out period passes, each station waits a random amount of time
before resending the frame. This time is called back-off time TB.
▪ The randomness will help avoid more collisions.
2)Limit Maximum Retransmission
▪ This method prevents congestion by reducing the number of retransmitted
frames.
▪ After a maximum number of retransmission-attempts Kmax, a station must give
up and try later (Figure 12.3).
Vulnerable Time:
▪ The vulnerable-time is defined as a time during which there is a possibility of
collision.

, where Tfr = Frame transmission

time

In Figure 12.4,
▪ If station B sends a frame between t-Tfr and t, this leads to a collision between
the frames from station A and station B.
▪ If station C sends a frame between t and t+Tfr, this leads to a collision between
the frames from station A and station C.

Throughput :

▪ The average number of successful transmissions is given by

 where G = average no. of frames in one frame transmission time (Tfr)
▪ For G = 1/2, the maximum throughput Smax = 0.184.
▪ In other words, out of 100 frames, 18 frames reach their destination successfully.

Example 4.1

Example 4.2

SLOTTED ALOHA
▪ Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA.
▪ The time is divided into time-slots of Tfr seconds (Figure 12.5).
▪ The stations are allowed to send only at the beginning of the time-slot.
▪ If a station misses the time-slot, the station must wait until the beginning of the next
time-slot.
▪ If 2 stations try to resend at beginning of the same time-slot, the frames will collide
again (Fig 12.6).

▪ The vulnerable time is given by:

Throughput
▪ The average number of successful transmissions is given by

▪ For G = 1, the maximum throughput Smax = 0.368.

▪ In other words, out of 100 frames, 36 frames reach their destination successfully.

Example 4.3

CSMA
▪ CSMA was developed to minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the
performance.
▪ CSMA is based on the principle “sense before transmit” or “listen before talk.”
▪ Here is how it works:
▪ Each station checks the state of the medium: idle or busy.
i) If the medium is idle, the station sends the data.
ii) If the medium is busy, the station defers sending.
▪ CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot eliminate it.

For example: In Figure 12.7,

▪ At time t1, station B senses & finds the medium idle, so sends a frame.
▪ At time t2, station C senses & finds the medium idle, so sends a frame.
▪ The 2 signals from both stations B & C collide and both frames are destroyed.

Vulnerable Time
▪ The vulnerable time is the propagation time Tp (Figure 12.8).
▪ The propagation time is the time needed for a signal to propagate from one end of
the medium to theother.
▪ Collision occurs when
→ a station sends a frame, and
→ other station also sends a frame during propagation time
▪ If the first bit of the frame reaches the end of the medium, every station will refrain
from sending.
Persistence Methods
1-Persistent
▪ Before sending a frame, a station senses the line (Figure 12.10a).
i) If the line is idle, the station sends immediately (with probability = 1).
ii) If the line is busy, the station continues sensing the line.
▪ This method has the highest chance of collision because 2 or more stations:
→ may find the line idle and
→ send the frames immediately.
Non-Persistent
▪ Before sending a frame, a station senses the line (Figure 12.10b).
i) If the line is idle, the station sends immediately.
ii) If the line is busy, the station waits a random amount of time and then senses
the line again.
▪ This method reduces the chance of collision because 2 or more stations:
→ will not wait for the same amount of time and
→ will not retry to send simultaneously.

P-Persistent
▪ This method is used if the channel has time-slots with a slot-duration equal to or
greater than themaximum propagation time (Figure 12.10c).
▪ Advantages:
✓ It combines the advantages of the other 2 methods.
✓ It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.
▪ After the station finds the line idle, it follows these steps:
i) With probability p, the station sends the frame.
ii) With probability q=1-p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time-slot
and checksthe line again.
iii) If line is idle, it goes to step 1.
▪ If line is busy, it assumes that collision has occurred and uses the back off procedure.

CSMA/CD

▪ Disadvantage of CSMA : CSMA does not specify the procedure after a

collision has occurred.
▪ Solution: CSMA/CD enhances the CSMA to handle the collision.
▪ Here is how it works (Figure 12.12):
▪ A station
→ sends the frame &
→ then monitors the medium to see if the transmission was successful or not.
▪ If the transmission was unsuccessful (i.e. there is a collision), the frame is sent again.
In the Figure 12.11,
▪ At time t1, station A has executed its procedure and starts sending the bits of its
frame.
▪ At time t2, station C has executed its procedure and starts sending the bits of its
frame.
▪ The collision occurs sometime after time t2.
▪ Station C detects a collision at time t3 when it receives the first bit of A's frame.
Station C immediately aborts transmission.
▪ Station A detects collision at time t4 when it receives the first bit of C's frame.
Station A also immediately aborts transmission.
▪ Station A transmits for the duration t4–t1. Station C transmits for the duration t3-t2.
▪ For the protocol to work: The length of any frame divided by the bit rate must be
more than either of these durations.

Minimum Frame Size

▪ Frame transmission time Tfr is given by Tfr=2Tp where Tp=maximum propagation
time
Procedure:

Throughput :
▪ The throughput of CSMA/CD is greater than pure or slotted ALOHA.
▪ The maximum throughput is based on
→ different value of G
→ persistence method used (non-persistent, 1-persistent, or p-persistent) and
→ ‘p‟ value in the p-persistent method.
▪ For 1-persistent method, the maximum throughput is 50% when G =1.
▪ For non-persistent method, the maximum throughput is 90% when G is between 3
and 8.

Example 4.4

CSMA/CA
▪ Here is how it works (Figure 12.15):
1) A station needs to be able to receive while transmitting to detect a collision.
i) When there is no collision, the station receives one signal: its own signal.
ii) When there is a collision, the station receives 2 signals:Its own signal and Signal
transmitted by a second station.
2) To distinguish b/w these 2 cases, the received signals in these 2 cases must be
different.

▪ CSMA/CA was invented to avoid collisions on wireless networks.

▪ Three methods to avoid collisions (Figure 12.16):
1) Interframe space 2) Contention window and 3) Acknowledgments

1) Interframe Space (IFS)

▪ Collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle.
▪ When the channel is idle, the station does not send immediately.
Rather, the station waits for a period of time called the inter-frame space or
IFS.
 ▪ After the IFS time,
if the channel is still idle, then, the station waits for the contention-time &
finally, the station sends the frame.
▪ IFS variable can also be used to prioritize stations or frame types.
For example, a station that is assigned a shorter IFS has a higher priority.

2) Contention Window
▪ The contention-window is an amount of time divided into time-slots.
▪ A ready-station chooses a random-number of slots as its wait time.
▪ In the window, the number of slots changes according to the binary exponential back-
off strategy.
▪ For example: At first time, number of slots is set to one slot and
Then, number of slots is doubled each time if the station cannot detect an idle
channel.

3) Acknowledgment
▪ There may be a collision resulting in destroyed-data.
▪ In addition, the data may be corrupted during the transmission.
▪ To help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame, we can use
i) Positive acknowledgment and
ii) Time-out timer

Frame Exchange Time Line

▪ Two control frames are used:
1)Request to send (RTS)
2)Clear to send (CTS)
▪ The procedure for exchange of data and control frames in time (Figure 12.17)
CONTROLLED ACCESS PROTOCOLS
▪ Three popular controlled-access methods are: 1) Reservation 2) Polling 3) Token
Passing.

Reservation
▪ Before sending data, each station needs to make a reservation of the medium.
▪ Time is divided into intervals.
▪ In each interval, a reservation-frame precedes the data-frames.
▪ If no. of stations = N, then there are N reservation mini-slots in the reservation-
frame.
▪ Each mini-slot belongs to a station.
▪ When a station wants to send a data-frame, it makes a reservation in its own
minislot.
▪ The stations that have made reservations can send their data-frames.

For example (Figure 12.18):

▪ 5 stations have a 5-minislot reservation-frame.
▪ In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations.
▪ In the second interval, only station-1 has made a reservation.
Polling
▪ In a network, One device is designated as a primary station and Other devices are
designated as secondary stations.
▪ Functions of primary-device:
1) The primary-device controls the link.
2) The primary-device is always the initiator of a session.
3) The primary-device is determines which device is allowed to use the channel
at a given time.
4) All data exchanges must be made through the primary-device.
▪ The secondary devices follow instructions of primary-device.
▪ Disadvantage: If the primary station fails, the system goes down.
▪ Poll and select functions are used to prevent collisions (Figure 12.19).

1)Select
▪ If the primary wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive; this is
called select function.
▪ The primary
→ alerts the secondary about upcoming transmission by sending select frame
(SEL)
→ then waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from secondary
→ then sends the data frame and
→ finally waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the secondary.

2)Poll
▪ If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondaries if they have anything to
send; this is called poll function.
▪ When the first secondary is approached, it responds either
→ with a NAK frame if it has no data to send or with data-frame if it has data to
send.
i)If the response is negative (NAK frame), then the primary polls the next secondary in
the same manner.
ii)When the response is positive (a data-frame), the primary
→ reads the frame and returns an acknowledgment (ACK frame).
Token Passing
▪ In a network, the stations are organized in a ring fashion i.e. for each station; there is
a predecessor and a successor.
I. The predecessor is the station which is logically before the station in the
ring.
II. The successor is the station which is after the station in the ring.

▪ The current station is the one that is accessing the channel now.
▪ A token is a special packet that circulates through the ring.
▪ Here is how it works:
✓ A station can send the data only if it has the token.
✓ When a station wants to send the data, it waits until it receives the token from its
predecessor.
✓ Then, the station holds the token and sends its data.
✓ When the station finishes sending the data, the station
→ releases the token & passes the token to the successor.

▪ Main functions of token management:

1)Stations must be limited in the time they can hold the token.
2)The token must be monitored to ensure it has not been lost or destroyed.
For ex: if a station that is holding the token fails, the token will disappear from the
network
3)Assign priorities to the stations and to the types of data being transmitted.
4)Make low-priority stations release the token to high priority stations.
▪ Four physical topologies to create a logical ring (Figure 12.20):
1) Physical ring
2) Dual ring
3) Bus ring
4) Star ring

CHANNELIZATION PROTOCOLS
▪ Channelization is a multiple-access method.
▪ The available bandwidth of a link is shared b/w different stations in time, frequency,
or through code.
▪ Three channelization protocols:
1) FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
2) TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and
3) CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA
▪ The available bandwidth is divided into frequency-bands (Figure 12.21).
▪ Each band is reserved for a specific station.
▪ Each station can send the data in the allocated band.
▪ Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine the transmitter frequencies.
▪ To prevent interferences, small guard bands are used to separate the allocated
bands from oneanother.
TDMA
▪ The stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time (Figure 12.22).
▪ Each time-slot is reserved for a specific station.
▪ Each station can send the data in the allocated time-slot.

▪ Main problem: Achieving synchronization between the different stations.

▪ i.e. each station needs to know the beginning of its slot and the location of its slot.
This may be difficult because of propagation delays introduced in the system.
▪ To compensate for the delays, we can insert guard-times.
▪ Normally, synchronization is accomplished by having some synchronization bits at
the beginning of each slot.

CDMA
▪ CDMA simply means communication with different codes.
▪ CDMA differs from FDMA because
→ only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
▪ CDMA differs from TDMA because
→ all stations can send data simultaneously; there is no timesharing.

Implementation
▪ Let us assume we have four stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 connected to the same channel.
▪ The data from station-1 are d1, from station-2 are d2, and so on.
▪ The code assigned to the first station is c1, to the second is c2, and so on.
▪ We assume that the assigned codes have 2 properties.
i. If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
ii. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number of stations).

Working (Figure 12.23):

▪ Station-1 multiplies the data by the code to get d1.c1.
▪ Station-2 multiplies the data by the code to get d2.c2. And so on.
▪ The data that go on the channel are the sum of all these terms.
▪ The receiver multiplies the data on the channel by the code of the sender.
▪ For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to each other.
▪ Station-2 wants to hear what station-1 is saying.
▪ Station-2 multiplies the data on the channel by c1 the code of station-1. (c1.c1)=4,
(c2.c1)=0, (c3.c1)=0, and (c4.c1)=0.
▪ Therefore, station-2 divides the result by 4 to get the data from station-1.

Wired LANs :
IEEE Project 802 :

The data-link-layer is divided into 2 sublayers (Figure 13.1):

1)LLC
▪ Flow-control, error-control, and framing duties are grouped into one sublayer
called LLC.
▪ Framing is handled in both the LLC and the MAC.
▪ LLC vs. MAC
i) LLC provides one single data-link-control protocol for all IEEE LANs.
ii) MAC provides different protocols for different LANs.
▪ A single LLC protocol can provide interconnectivity between different LANs
because
→ it makes the MAC sublayer transparent.
2)MAC
▪ This defines the specific access-method for each LAN.
▪ For example:
i) CSMA/CD is used for Ethernet LANs.
ii) Token-passing method is used for Token Ring and Token Bus LANs.
▪ The framing function is also handled by the MAC layer.
▪ The MAC contains a number of distinct modules.
▪ Each module defines the access-method and the framing-format specific to the
corresponding LAN protocol
Ethernet Evolution
▪ Four generations of Ethernet (Figure 13.2):
5) Standard-Ethernet (10 Mbps)
6) Fast-Ethernet (100 Mbps)
7) Gigabit-Ethernet (1 Gbps) and
8) Ten-Gigabit-Ethernet (10 Gbps)

STANDARD ETHERNET
▪ The original Ethernet technology with data-rate of 10 Mbps are referred to as the
Standard Ethernet.
Characteristics
▪ Ethernet provides a connectionless service. Thus, each frame sent is independent of
another frame.
▪ Ethernet has no connection establishment or connection termination phases.
▪ The sender sends a frame whenever it has it.
▪ The receiver may or may not be ready for receiving the frame.
▪ The sender may overload the receiver with frames, which may result in dropping
frames.
i) If a frame drops, the sender will not know about it.
ii) If a frame is corrupted during transmission, the receiver drops the frame.
▪ Since IP is also connectionless, it will also not know about frame drops.
 i) If the transport layer is UDP (connectionless protocol), the frame is lost.
ii) If the transport layer is TCP, the sender-TCP does not receive acknowledgment
for its segment and sends it again.
▪ Ethernet is also unreliable like IP and UDP.
ETHERNET FRAME FORMAT :

▪ The Ethernet frame contains 7 fields (Figure 13.3):

1) Preamble
▪ This field contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating 0s and 1s.
▪ This field
→ alerts the receiving-system to the coming frame and
→ enables the receiving-system to synchronize its input timing.
▪ The preamble is actually added at the physical-layer and is not (formally) part of
the frame.

2) Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)

▪ This field signals the beginning of the frame.
▪ The SFD warns the stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
▪ This field contains the value: 10101011.
▪ The last 2 bits (11) alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination-address.

3) Destination Address (DA)

▪ This field contains the physical-address of the destination-station.
4) Source Address (SA)
▪ This field contains the physical-address of the sender-station.
5) Length or Type
▪ This field is defined as a i) type field or ii) length field.
i) In original Ethernet, this field is used as the type field, Type field defines the
upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame.
ii) In IEEE standard, this field is used as the length field, Length field defines the
number of bytes in the data-field.

6) Data
▪ This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols.
▪ Minimum data size = 46 bytes, Maximum data size = 1500 bytes.

7) CRC
▪ This field contains error detection information such as a CRC-32.

ADDRESSING
▪ In an Ethernet-network, each station has its own NIC (6-byte = 48 bits).
▪ The NIC provides the station with a 6-byte physical-address (or Ethernet-address).
▪ For example, the following shows an Ethernet MAC address:

Example 4.8

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses :

▪ A source-address is always a unicast address i.e. the frame comes from only one
station.
▪ However, the destination-address can be 1) Unicast 2) Multicast or 3) Broadcast.
▪ As shown in Figure 13.4, If LSB of first byte in a destination-address is 0, Then, the
address is unicast; Otherwise, the address is multicast.

1) A unicast destination-address defines only one recipient.

✓ The relationship between the sender and the receiver is one-to-one.
2) A multicast destination-address defines a group of addresses.
✓ The relationship between the sender and the receivers is one-to-many.
3) The broadcast address is a special case of the multicast address.
✓ The recipients are all the stations on the LAN.

Example 4.9

Efficiency of Standard Ethernet

▪ The efficiency is defined as the ratio of the time used by a station to send
data to the time themedium is occupied by this station.
▪ The practical efficiency of standard Ethernet has been measured to be

where a = number of frames that can fit on the medium.

a = (propagation delay)/(transmission delay)
▪ As the value of parameter a decreases, the efficiency increases.
▪ If the length of the media is shorter or the frame size longer, the efficiency increases.
 ▪ In the ideal case, a = 0 and the efficiency is 1.

Example 4.10

Implementation
▪ The Standard-Ethernet defines several physical-layer implementations (Table 13.1).

INTRODUCTION OF WIRELESS-LANS
▪ It is also referred to as IEEE 802.11 protocol
▪ Channel – Air (2.4GHz to 5HHz)
▪ At 2.4 GHz we have 3 channels & at 5GHz we have 23 channels, these channels are
are non-overlapping with a width of 20MHz.

1) Medium :
▪ In a wireless LAN, the medium is air, the signal is generally broadcast.
▪ When hosts in a wireless LAN communicate with each other, they are sharing the
same medium (multiple access).

2) Hosts :
▪ In a wired LAN, a host is always connected to its network at a point with a fixed
link layer address related to its network interface card (NIC).
▪ Of course, a host can move from one point in the Internet to another point, In this
case, its link-layer address remains the same, but its network-layer address will
change.
▪ In a wireless LAN, a host is not physically connected to the network; it can move
freely and can use the services provided by the network.
Characteristics

1) Attenuation
▪ The strength of electromagnetic signals decreases rapidly because the signal
disperses in all directions; only a small portion of it reaches the receiver.
▪ The situation becomes worse with mobile senders that operate on batteries and
normally have smallpower supplies.

2) Interference
▪ Another issue is that a receiver may receive signals not only from the intended
sender, but also fromother senders if they are using the same frequency band.

3) Multipath Propagation
▪ A receiver may receive more than one signal from the same sender because
electromagnetic waves can be reflected back from obstacles such as walls, the
ground, or objects.
▪ The result is that the receiver receives some signals at different phases (because
they travel differentpaths). This makes the signal less recognizable.

4) Error
▪ Error detection is more serious issues in a wireless network than in a wired network.
i) If SNR is high, it means that the signal is stronger than the noise
(unwanted signal), so wemay be able to convert the signal to actual data.
ii) When SNR is low, it means that the signal is corrupted by the noise and
the data cannot berecovered.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
▪ The standard defines 2 kinds of services:
1) Basic service set (BSS) and
2) Extended service set (ESS).

BSS
▪ IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a wireless-
LAN.
▪ A basic service set is made of (Figure 15.4):
→ stationary or mobile wireless stations and
 → optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).

▪ There are 2 types of architecture:

1)Ad hoc Architecture
▪ The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other
BSSs.
▪ Stations can form a network without the need of an AP.
▪ Stations can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS.

2) Infrastructure Network
▪ A BSS with an AP is referred to as an infrastructure network.

ESS
▪ The ESS is made up of 2 or more BSSs with APs (Figure 15.5).
▪ The BSSs are connected through a distribution-system, which is usually a wired
LAN.
▪ The distribution-system connects the APs in the BSSs.
▪ IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution-system;The distribution-system can be
any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet.
▪ The ESS uses 2 types of stations:
1) Mobile Stations are normal stations inside a BSS.
2) Stationary Stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
 ▪ When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can
communicate without theuse of an AP.
▪ However, communication between two stations in two different BSSs usually occurs
via two APs.
MAC Sublayer
▪ IEEE 802.11 defines 2 MAC sublayers:
1) Distributed coordination function (DCF) &
2) Point coordination function (PCF).

DCF
▪ One of the 2 protocols defined by IEEE at the MAC sublayer is called the
distributed coordinationfunction (DCF).
▪ DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method.
Network Allocation Vector
▪ When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs
to occupy the channel (NAV à Network Allocation Vector).
▪ The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a NAV.
▪ NAV shows how much time must pass before these stations are allowed to check
the

PCF (Point Co-ordination function) :

▪ The PCF is an optional access method that can be implemented in an
infrastructure network (not in an adhoc network) (PCF - Point Coordination
Function).
▪ The PCF is used mostly for time-sensitive transmission.
▪ PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method.
▪ The stations are polled one after another, sending any data they have to the AP.
▪ Due to the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use DCF may not gain access
to the medium.
▪ The repetition interval, which is repeated continuously, starts with a special control
frame, called a beacon frame.
▪ When the stations hear the beacon frame, they start their NAV for the duration of
the contention-free period of the repetition interval.
▪ During the repetition interval, the PC (point controller) can send a poll frame,
receive data, send an ACK, receive an ACK, or do any combination of these (802.11
uses piggybacking).
▪ At the end of the contention-free period, the PC sends a CF end (contention-free
end) frame to allow the contention-based stations to use the medium.
MAC Layer frame format :

1)Frame Control (FC)

▪ The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and some control
information. The table describes the subfields.

2)D
▪ In all frame types except one, this field defines the duration of the transmission
that is used to set the value of NAV.
 ▪ In one control frame, this field defines the ID of the frame.

3) Addresses
▪ There are four address fields, each 6 bytes long.
▪ . The meaning of each address field depends on the value of the To DS and From
DS subfields.

4) Sequence Control
▪ This field defines the sequence number of the frame to be used in flow
control.

5) Frame Body
▪ This field contains information based on the type and the subtype defined in
the FC field.
▪ This field can be between 0 and 2312 bytes.
▪
6)FCS
▪ The FCS contains a CRC-32 error detection sequence.

Frame Types
▪ A wireless-LAN defined by IEEE 802.11 has three categories of frames:
▪ 1.management frames, 2.control frames, and 3.data-frames.
▪ Management Frames: Management frames are used for the initial communication
between stations and access points.
▪ Control Frames: Control frames are used for accessing the channel and
acknowledging frames (Figure 15.10).

Control Frames
▪ Control frames are used for accessing the channel and acknowledging frames (Figure
15.10).
▪ For control frames the value of the type field is 01; the values of the subtype fields
for frames are shown in the table 14.2.

Data Frames
▪ Data-frames are used for carrying data and control information.

BLUETOOTH:
Introduction :
▪ Bluetooth is a wireless-LAN technology designed to connect devices of different
functions such as telephones, notebooks, computers, cameras, printers, coffee
makers, and so on.
▪ A Bluetooth LAN is an adhoc network. This means the network is formed
spontaneously.
▪ The devices
→ find each other and make a network called a piconet (Usually, devices are
called gadgets)
Applications :
▪ Bluetooth technology has several applications.
▪ Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse/keyboard can communicate with the
computer.
▪ In a small health care center, monitoring-devices can communicate with sensor-
devices.
▪ Home security devices can connect different sensors to the main security
controller.
▪ Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference.

BLUETOOTH ARCHITECTURE :
▪ Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the
IEEE 802.15 standard.
▪ Bluetooth defines 2 types of networks: 1) Piconet and 2) Scatternet.
PICONET:

▪ A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. (Figure 15.17).

▪ A piconet can have up to 8 stations. Out of which
i. One of station is called the primary.
ii. The remaining stations are called secondaries.
▪ All the secondary-stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the
primary station.
▪ A piconet can have only one primary station.
▪ The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or
one-to-many.

SCATTERNET :

▪ Piconets can be combined to form a scatternet (Figure 15.18).

▪ A station can be a member of 2 piconets.
▪ A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet. This is
called mediator station.
▪ Acting as a secondary, mediator station can receive messages from the primary in
 the first piconet.
▪ Acting as a primary, mediator station can deliver the message to secondaries in the
second piconet.
HIDDEN STATION PROBLEM

▪ Assume that station B is sending data to station A. In the middle of this transmission,
station C also has data to send to station A.
▪ However, station C is out of B’s range and transmissions from B cannot reach C.
Therefore C thinks the medium is free. Station C sends its data to A, which results in
a collision at A because this station is receiving data from both B and C.
▪ In this case, we say that stations B and C are hidden from each other with respect to
A. Hidden stations can reduce the capacity of the network because of the possibility
of collision.

QUESTION BANK :
1) List the characteristics of Wireless LANs
2) Explain CSMA/CD working with the help of flow chart
3) Explain CSMA/CA working with the help of flow chart
4) What is Controlled access ? Explain different control access methods.
5) A Slotted ALOHA networks transmit 200-bit frame on a shared channel of 200
Kbps. Find the throughput, if the system produces i)1000 frames per second ii) 500
frames per second iii) 250 frames per second
6) Explain the Ethernet frame format of standard Ethernet.
7) Illustrate the working of Code Division Multiple access(CDMA) with an example.
8) Explain CSMA/CD working with the help of flow chart
9) Explain Pure ALOHA & Slotted ALOHA protocols
10) Explain Bluetooth architecture
11) Describe the MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard.
12) With a neat sketch explain BSS & ESS
13) Write a note on Piconet & Scatternet in Bluetooth.
14) Explain 1-persistant, non-persistant and p-persistant methods of CSMA.