St.

PETER’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE

UGC-Autonomous

Department of Science & Humanities

Applied Physics Laboratory
(I B. TECH I SEM CSE, CSE(AIML), CSG

I B. TECH II SEM CE, ECE, IT, AIDS)

STUDENT LAB MANUAL

Name of the Student :

Roll No :

Class : I Year __ Semester(SR22)

Branch :

Prepared By : Faculty of Physics

Year : 2022-23

Signature of Faculty Signature of Head of Department

Opp. Forest Academy, Kompally Road, Dullapally, Maisammaguda, Medchal (M)

HYDERABAD-500100
LAB NAME: APPLIED Physics SPEC

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LAB NAME: APPLIED Physics SPEC

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No Title Page No
1. Institute Vision and Mission 3
2. Department Vision, Mission, PEO, PO and PSO Statements 3
3. General Instruction/Guide lines 10
4. List of Experiments 11
5. Course Objectives , Course Outcomes & CO -PO Mapping 12
6. Course Outcomes Justification 13
7. Experiments mapping with Course Outcomes 14
8. Additional Experiments 75
9. Open ended Experiments 79

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INSTITUTE VISION & MISSION

INSTITUTE VISION
To promote quality education accessible to all sections of the society without any discrimination of caste,
creed, color, gender, religion and help students to discover their true potential.

INSTITUTE MISSION
• IM1: To provide and equip stakeholders with knowledge and skills, social values and ethics, scientific
attitude and orientations for lifelong learning.

• IM2: To create an environment conductive to inhibiting their total involvement and participation

• IM3: Provide infrastructure to arm the students with the competence to be at the forefront of cutting
edge technology and entrepreneurship in highly competitive global market

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DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCINECE AND ENGINEERING AND ALLIED BRANCHES

Department Vision
To be a vibrant nodal center for Computer Science & Engineering Education, Research that make the
students to contribute to technologies for IT, IT-Enabled Services; to involve in innovative research on thrust
areas of industry and academia; to establish start-ups supporting major players in the industry.
Department Mission
DM1: Emphasize project-based learning by employing the state-of-art technologies, algorithms in software
development for the problems in inter-disciplinary avenues.
DM2: Involve stakeholders to make the students industry ready with training in skill-oriented computer
application software.
DM3: Facilitate to learn the theoretical nuances of Computer Science, Computer Engineering courses and
motivate to carry out research in both core and applied areas of CSE.
Program Educational Objectives

PEO 1: Graduates shall involve in research & development activities in industry and government arenas to
conceive useful products for the society.
PEO 2: Graduates shall be entrepreneurs contributing to national development in the fields of Computer Science
based technologies.
PEO 3: Graduates shall be team leaders working for software development, maintenance in the fields of software
industry and government agencies

Program specific outcomes:

PSO-1 Design and develop computing subsystems for data storage, communication, information
processing, and knowledge discovery.

PSO-2 Design algorithms for real world problems focusing on execution, complexity analysis considering the
security, cost, quality, and privacy parameters in software development.

Signature of the HOD

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DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Department Vision
To be a center of excellence in the field of information technology that yields pioneers and research
experts who can contribute for the socio-economic development of the nation.

Department Mission
DM1: To impart state-of-the-art value based education in the field of Information Technology.
DM2: To collaborate with industries and research organizations and excel in the emerging areas of
research.
DM3: To motivate the students to be trend setters and technopreneurs.

Program Educational Objectives

PEO1: Graduates will be able to excel as IT Professional with Proficiency in understanding, applying,
analyzing and designing for Information Technology relevant problems.
PEO2: Graduates will be able to pursue higher studies with good knowledge in core areas of Information
Technology and promote collaborative research.
PEO3: Graduates will be able to exhibit professionalism, teamwork, leadership skills and exposure to
current needs.
PEO4: Graduates will be able to excel as entrepreneurs with the potential knowledge to design software-
based solutions for societal needs.

Program Specific Outcomes

PSO1: Competent in Emerging Trends: Apply software design and development practices to create
software applications in emerging areas such as Cloud computing, Data Analytics, AI and Cyber Security.

PSO2: Successful Career and Entrepreneurship: The ability to employ modern computer languages in all
the environments to create an innovative carrier to be an entrepreneur and a zest for higher studies.

Signature of the HOD

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Department Vision
To be a center of excellence to impart knowledge and train the students in the various areas of electrical
and electronics engineering
Department Mission
DM1: To practice student centric teaching learning methodologies to train the students in the areas of
electrical and electronics engineering
DM2: To impart skills in cutting edge technologies to students, there by preparing them to solve real world
problem
DM3: To create an environment in which faculty and students of the department excel in research and
professional development.
Program Educational Objectives
PEO1: Design and develop products and services in the field of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
PEO2: Apply the knowledge of Electrical and Electronics Engineering to solve industry & society related
problems and pursue research and higher education.
PE03: Engage in lifelong learning and work effectively as individual and as team members in multi-
disciplinary projects.
Program Specific Outcomes
PSO1: Able to apply the knowledge gained during the course of the program from Mathematics, Basic
Computing, Basic Sciences and Social Sciences in general and all electrical courses in particular to
identify, formulate and solve real life problems faced in industries and/or during research work.
PSO2: Be able to design, develop & take up research with eco-friendly innovative solution to any type of
Electrical Engineering problem.
PSO3: Solve ethically and professionally various Electrical Engineering problems in societal and
environmental context and communicate effectively.

Signature of the HOD

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Department Vision
To evolve the department as a center of excellence in Electronics and Communication Engineering education
in the country, to train students in contemporary technologies to meet the needs of global industry and to
develop them into skillful engineers imbued with knowledge of core as well as inter-disciplinary domains,
human values and professional ethics
Department Mission
DM1. To adopt pedagogical processes, facilities to meet the educational objectives and outcomes of
Emerging Technologies in the field of Electronics.
DM2.To prepare for higher education, employment, Intellectual professional attitude, Industrial research
aptitude, lifelong learning, entrepreneurial practices, ethical values, and social concern.
DM3.To impart knowledge in the field of Electronics and its related areas with a focus on developing the
required competencies and virtues to meet the requirements of society
Program Educational Objectives
PEO 1: Graduates shall have a solid foundation and in-depth knowledge in engineering, science, and
technology for a successful career in Electronics and Communication Engineering.
PEO 2: Graduates shall become effective collaborators ‘or’ innovators in efforts to address social,
technical and engineering challenges with continuous learning.
PEO 3: Graduates shall engage in professional development through self-study, post-graduation, and
research.
PEO 4: Graduates shall have integrity, professional and ethical values, team spirit and good
communication skills.
Program Specific Outcomes
PSO 1: EMERING TECHNOLOGIES USAGE: Ability to use electronic modern IT tools (both hardware&
software) for the design and analysis of complex electronic systems for additional research activities.
PSO 2: CAPABILITY TO COMPREHEND AND APPLY: Should be able to Apply the concepts and
applications in the field of communication/networking signal processing, embedded; systems and
semiconductor technology for excellent adaptability, good interpersonal skills with professional ethics
and social responsibilities..

Signature of the HOD

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Department Vision
To emerge as a center for computer technology meeting the needs of society.
Department Mission
DM1: To provide quality education towards academic and industry requirements.
DM2: To offer state-of-art infrastructure for research and professional skill development through value
added programs.
DM3: To promote student centric activities that encourage interpersonal skills.
Program Educational Objectives
PEO 1: Apply the knowledge across the disciplines in emerging areas of Civil Engineering for higher studies,
research and employability and provide solutions for real problems.
PEO 2: Exhibit good communication skills, ethical conduct, sense of responsibility to serve the society and
protect the environment.
PEO 3: Demonstrate strong foundation in academics, inter-personal skills, need for lifelong learning and
professional development
Program Specific Outcomes
PSO1: Engineering Knowledge Graduates shall demonstrate sound knowledge in analysis, design, laboratory
investigations and construction aspects of civil engineering infrastructure, along with good foundation in
mathematics, basic sciences and technical communication.
PSO2: Broadness and Diversity: Graduates will have a broad understanding of economical, environmental,
societal, health, and safety factors involved in infrastructural development, and shall demonstrate ability to
function within multidisciplinary teams with competence in modern tool usage.
PSO3: Self-Learning and Service: Graduates will be motivated for continuous self-learning in engineering
practice and/ or pursue research in advanced areas of civil engineering in order to offer engineering services
to the society, ethically and responsibly

Signature of the HOD

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PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

PO1 ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE:
Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the
solution of complex engineering problems.
PO2 PROBLEM ANALYSIS:
Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 DESIGN/DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS:
Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
PO4 CONDUCT INVESTIGATIONS OF COMPLEX PROBLEMS:
Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 MODERN TOOL USAGE:
Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction
and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6 THE ENGINEER AND SOCIETY:
Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and
the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7 ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY:
Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and
demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8 ETHICS:
Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9 INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM WORK:
Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10 COMMUNICATION:
Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at
large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, give and receive clear instructions.
PO11 PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND FINANCE:
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s
own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12 LIFE-LONG LEARNING:
Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the
broadest context of technological change.

Signature of the HOD

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 LAB NAME: APPLIED Physics SPEC

GENERAL LABORATORY INSTRUCT IONS

1. The student should arrive punctually.

2. The Mobiles must be switched off.
3. Experiments will be performed in pairs. Stay with the same person throughout the semester, otherwise problem
will arise in allocating you experiments.
4. Attendance is compulsory. Absence for some reasons should be notified in advance
to the instructor.
5. The student must complete all experimental work during the three hours session/periods. Every observation made
must be recorded directly on the laboratory notebook/manual. No rough record is allowed
6. The students are required to submit the complete report in your next laboratory session.
7. This Lab manual contains experiments from different areas of Physics. A brief outline of each experiment is given
in this manual consisting of guidelines for preparing tables, or what graphs are to be plotted, or how the
calculations are to be performed, or how the errors are to be estimated. The student must read and understand the
theory of concerned experiment before coming to the lab.
8. The students are required to carry out ALL the experiments without missing any of them. This can be
achieved by only one way by being regular.
9. The student must come prepared on everything (setting up apparatus, data recording, calculations, graphs, report
writing, error estimation, etc.) before coming to class.
10. Set up the apparatus and finish recording all data on the first day. Show the instructor that the student has set the
apparatus properly and able to record data, get the data signed by him. While leaving the lab, the student must
leave behind all papers/records related to experiment.
11. Submit the lab record before the next lab session No extra time will be permissible. Note that the student final
writeup in the lab record should include all: title page, aim, theory, least counts, observation tables, graph
plotting’s, calculations, error analysis and error estimates, final result. All these should be written on one side of
Record. The Record should be submitted to the lab and must be attested by the instructor before the next lab
session
12. The student’s lab assessment performance will be based on
(a) the student initial submission, that is, title page, aim, theory and diagram
(b) how well the student carried out the experiment
(c) whether the student have taken sufficient amount of relevant data
(d) proper graphs, calculations, error analysis and error estimates, final results.
(e) Further assessment will be through an internal and end-semester examination.

Note: The student should handle all instruments carefully as the objective of the laboratory is learning

Head of the Department Principal

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Perform at least any eight of the following experiments

S. No Title of the Experiment Page No Marks Signature

Photoelectric Effect: To determine work function of
1.
a given metal.
Solar Cell: To study V-I Characteristics of Solar
2.
Cell
3. Energy Gap: To determine the energy gap of a
given Semiconductor.
Hall Effect: To determine Hall voltage and Hall
4.
Coefficient of given semiconductor material.
V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode and
5. Zener diode
6. LED: To study the V-I characteristics of LED.
Input and output characteristics of BJT (CE, CB &
7. CC configurations)
Determination of dielectric constant of a given
8. material
9. Study B-H curve of a magnetic material.
LCR Circuit: To study the frequency response of LCR
10. series and parallel resonance circuit.
A) Determination of the beam divergence of the
given LASER beam
11.
B) Determination of Acceptance Angle and
Numerical Aperture of an optical fiber
Understanding the method of least squares – torsional
12. pendulum as an example
Additional Experiments
13. Spectrometer-dispersive power of material of a prism
14. Single slit diffraction grating using laser
Open ended Experiments
Simple Pendulum –determine the gravity value at
15.
different locations

Signature of Faculty Head of the Department

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COURSE OBJECTIVES:

S.NO. DESCRIPTION
1 To determine the work function of given material
2 To explore the characteristics of semiconductors and optoelectronic devices.
3 To classify the semiconductor materials into p-type or n-type semiconductor and study the V-I
characteristics of Diode and BJT
4 To study the dielectric constant and B-H curve
5 To determine the properties of LASERs and optical fibers
6 To identify the method of least squares fitting

COURSE OUTCOMES:

S.NO. DESCRIPTION
C116.1 Evaluate work Function of a photo metal using photo electric effect.
C116.2 Analyze the V-I characteristics of Solar cell and LED.

C116.3 Identify the type of semiconductor using Hall Effect and study the V-I characteristics of Diodes and
BJT
C116.4 Estimate the dielectric constant and plot the B-H curve
C116.5 Estimate the light gathering ability and beam divergence of the given LASER.
C116.6 Compute the least square fitting with torsional pendulum

CO-PO Mapping:

High -3 Medium -2 Low-1

PO /
PO10

PO11

PO12
PO1

PO2

PO3

PO4

PO5

PO6

PO7

PO8

PO9

CO

C116.1 2 1
C116.2 2 1 1
C116.3 2 1 1
C116.4 2 1
C116.5 2 1 1
C116.6 2 1

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CO-PO Mapping Justification

C116.1 : Evaluate work Function of a photo metal using photo electric effect. (Evaluate)
Justification
PO1 Students understand basic principle of photo electric effect.
PO2 Student will identify the workfunction of given metal specimen with varying different frequencies

C116.2 Analyze the V-I characteristics of Solar cell and LED. (Analyze)
Justification
PO1 Student understands the operation of light to electricity using the Reverse biased operation in Solar cell
PO2 Student identifies the operation of electricity to light phenomenon of forward biased operation in LED
PO5 Student summarizes the working operation of special diodes using V-I graphs

C116.3 : Identify the type of semiconductor using Hall Effect and study the V-I characteristics of Diodes and BJT (Apply).
Justification
PO1 Student understands the phenomenon the Hall effect
PO2 Student identify type of Semiconductor
PO5 Student will experiment the Input to output characteristics of diode and BJT with graphical analysis
C116.4 : Estimate the dielectric constant and plot the B-H curve (Evaluate)
Justification
PO1 Student evaluates the dielectric constant for the given material.
PO2 Student interprets the B-H properties for a given ferromagnetic material using hysteresis loop.

C116.5 : Estimate the light gathering ability and beam divergence of the given LASER. (Evaluate).
Justification
PO1 Student estimates the light gathering ability of a given optical fiber
PO2 Student concludes the beam divergence of a given laser source
PO5 Student uses the modern equipment for estimating the light gathering ability and beam divergence of the
given LASER

C116.6: Compute the least square fitting with torsional pendulum (Apply)
Justification
PO1 Student gain knowledge of basic principles of torsional pendulum.
PO2 Student will identify, formulate and arrive at substantiated conclusions calculating the rigidity modulus of the
given wire using the least square fitting method

Academic Year 2022-23

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MAPPING OF EXPERIMENT OUTCOMES WITH CO/PO’S

EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT CO
OBJECTIVES OUTCOMES PO’S
Photoelectric Effect: To determine The student will be able to determine the and Work C116.1 PO1,
the work function of given Function of Photosensitive metal. PO2
Photosensitive metal.
Solar Cell: To study V-I The student will be capable to study Voltage - C116.2 PO1,
Characteristics of Solar Cell Current characteristics and determine efficiency of PO2,
Solar Cell. PO5
Energy Gap: To determine the The student will be able to evaluate the energy gap C116.3 PO1,
energy gap of a of a given between two allowed bands for isolated atoms and PO2,
semiconductor. recognizing the resistivity of semiconductor varies PO5
with temperature
Hall Effect: The student determines the hall voltage across C116.3 PO1,
1. To determine the Hall voltage the given sample and calculates the hall PO2,
developed across the sample coefficient PO5
material.
2.To calculate the Hall coefficient
of the sample material
1. V-I characteristics of a p-n The student studies the V-I characteristics of the diodes C116.3 PO1,
junction diode and Zener diode PO2,
PO5

2. LED: To study the V-I The student studies the V-I characteristics of the C116.3 PO1,
characteristics of LED. Different LED’s PO2,
PO5
3. Input and output characteristics The student studies the V-I characteristics of diode and BJT
C116.3
for different
PO1,
of BJT (CE, CB & CC configurations PO2,
configurations) PO5
4. Determination of dielectric The student calculates the dielectric constant of C116.4 PO1,
constant of a given material Different materials PO2
5. Study B-H curve of a magnetic The student graphs the magnetic field induction to C116.4 PO1,
material Magnetic intensity using B-H curve for ferromagnetic PO2
materials
LCR Circuit: To study the The student will determine the quality factor and C116.2 PO1,
frequency response of LCR series resonant frequency of LCR series and parallel PO2,
and parallel resonance circuit. resonance circuit. PO5
A) Determination of the beam The student determines the beam divergence given C116.5 PO1,
divergence of the given LASER Laser beam PO2,
beam The student determines the Numerical Aperture and PO5
B) Determination of Acceptance acceptance angle of given optical fiber cable
Angle and Numerical Aperture of
an optical fiber.
6. Understanding the method of The student understands the method of least squares C116.6 PO1,
least squares – torsional pendulum By calculating the rigidity modulus of the given wire PO2,
as an example

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Additional Experiments
EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT CO
OBJECTIVES OUTCOMES PO’S
Spectrometer-dispersive power The student will determine the dispersive C116.6 PO1,
of material of a prism power of given prism using spectrometer PO2,

Single slit diffraction grating The student will determine the slit width of C116.5 PO1,
using laser the single slit diffraction grating using laser PO2,
PO5
Open ended Experiments
EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT CO
OBJECTIVES OUTCOMES PO’S
Simple Pendulum –determine The students will find the acceleration due to C116.6 PO1, PO2,
the gravity value at different Gravity value at different locations using
locations simple pendulum

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1. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Aim: To calculate the work function of a given metal.

Apparatus:
Vacuum photo tube, External light source with remote sensor, DC Regulated power supply, Digital micro
ammeter 0-20µA, different filters (Blue, Green & Red), connecting wires
Theory:
Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon in which electrons are eject from metal surface when
light is incident on it. Electron emission increases with the intensity of the radiation falling on the
metal surface, since more energy is available to release electrons. But characteristic frequency
dependence is also observed. For each substance there is a minimum frequency (0) of light and for
light of frequency less than 0, photoelectrons are not produced, whatever intense of the incident
light it may be. The minimum frequency 0 is called threshold frequency.
Einstein successfully explained the photoelectric effect by treating the incident light as a
steam of photons. In a beam of monochromatic light of frequency () of all photons have the same
energy ℎ. When the photons encounter electrons in a metal, they give up their energy to the
electrons. However, the electrons are held within the metal by a potential barrier at the surface. In
order to escape from the metal, an electron should have enough energy to overcome the potential
barrier at the surface. It requires an input energy that is equal to the work function (𝑊0). This
work function is specific for the metal. When an electron absorbs a photon, the energy gained by it
is equal to ℎ. If ℎ ≥ 𝑊0, the electron will escape from the metal. Thus, out of the total energy ℎ,
a small portion, 𝑊0, is spent on surmounting the potential barrier and the balance energy (ℎ − 𝑊0 )
is given to the electron as kinetic energy.

According to Einstein, the photoelectric equation is given as

E=PE+KE
ℎ = 𝑊0 + ½ mv2
ℎ = 𝑊0 + K E…………….(1)
where KE = ½ mv2,
The work function can be expressed
W0 = ℎ − ……………(2)

Where h is the Planck's constant in J-Sec, ν is the frequency of incident light in Hz and KE is the kinetic

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energy in Joules.

Now, if we increase the reverse potential, the photocurrent gradually decreases and becomes zero at a particular
reverse potential. This minimum applied reverse potential is called stopping potential Vs. Hence the maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons can be written as, KE= e Vs
KE = ℎ − W0……. (3)
y = mx + c ………… (4)
On comparing the above two equations, the work function is equal to the ’c’. When we plot the graph (Hz) on x- axis and
K.E (joules) on y- axis, the slope of straight line yields ‘h’ and the intercept of extrapolated point can gives the work function
‘𝑊0’.

Figure 1: Circuit diagram

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram (Figure 1)

2. The light from light source is allowed to fall on the photosensitive cell tube which is enclosed in a box.
3. The distance between photocell and light source is adjusted such that there is sufficient flow of current.
4. Now a suitable filter of known wavelength λ1, is placed in the path of the light(in the slit provided)
5. A reading is observed in the micro-ammeter. This reading corresponds to the zero anode potential
with that particular filter.
6. A small negative potential is applied and is gradually increased in step and each time reading in
voltmeter and micro-ammeter is noted till the micro-ammeter comes to zero. This is stopping
potential V1 corresponding to filter λ1.
7. The experiment is repeated with another filter of known wavelength and corresponding stopping potential
are noted.

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8. A graph is plotted by taking negative anode stopping potential or kinetic energy(K) on X-axis Vs
corresponding frequency of radiation(ν) of that particular filter on Y-axis.(Frequency of radiation of the
𝑐
filter can be calculated using the formula 𝜈 = 𝜆

9. Standard values of e, c, wavelength of standard filters are given below

Charge of electron e =1.6 x 10-19 C
Velocity of light c =3 x 108 m/s

Colour Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Wavelength (nm) 460 500 540 570 640
Frequency (Hz) 6.52 x 1014 6.02 x 1014 5.55 x 1014 5.26 x 1014 4.68 x 1014

Graph:

OBSERVATIONS:

Color filter Frequency Current Stopping Work Function

S.No (Hz) Potential W0
(µA)
Vs (Volts)

1 Blue
2 Green
3 Orange
4 Red

RESULT:
The photo electric emission of given photo metal is observed and the work function of a given
metal _______________eV.
Work sheet for calculation

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2. SOLAR CELL

AIM: To study the Voltage (V)-Current (I) characteristics of Solar Cell.

APPARATUS: Solar cell, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Load resistance, Light Source, connecting wires.

THEORY: Solar Cell is a p-n junction diode which converts light energy to electrical energy. It works on
principle of photovoltaic effect hence is also known as Photovoltaic Cell. The light which is illuminated on
solar cell, is absorbed and electron hole pairs are generated which lead to electrical energy.

PROCEDURE:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1. Place the solar cell at a particular distance from the variable light
source. At a constant intensity, note down the current, and voltage using ammeter and voltmeter
respectively. Repeat the experiment by changing the distance between solar cell and light source. Plot the
graph between voltage and current at different intensities as shown in Figure 2. Calculated the power (P) and
fill factor (FF) by using relations
P= VxI------------------------(1)

Maximum power point (MPP) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑉𝑚 --------------(2)

𝐼 𝑥𝑉
Fill factor =𝐼 𝑚𝑥𝑉𝑚 -----------------------(3)
𝑆𝐶 𝑂𝐶

Where 𝐼𝑚 is maximum current, 𝑉𝑚 is maximum voltage corresponds to maximum power point

Figure 1: Circuit diagram of Solar Cell

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OBSERVATIONS:

S. No Voltage (V) Current (I) Power (P)

=IxV(mW)
(mV) (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

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Model Graph:

Figure 2: V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell

RESULT: V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell are studied

1. Maximum Power point=
Worksheet

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3. ENERGY GAP OF A GIVEN SEMICONDUCTOR

AIM: To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor diode.

APPARATUS:-
1. D. C. Power supply (0-15V)
2. Junction diode (germanium or silicon)
3. Thermometer
4. Heating arrangement to heat the diode
5. Voltmeter (0-10V)
6. Micro-ammeter (0-100μA)
7. Connecting wires
FORMULA:
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑚)
Eg = eV.
5.036

Where Eg→ energy band gap of the given semiconductor diode.

m→slope of the straight line plot obtained for log10Is and 103/T 0K.
Where Is→ reverse saturation current (μA).
T→absolute temperature (0K).
DESCRIPTION:
The experimental arrangement comprises an oil bath which is provided with sockets at its mouth. the sockets are used to
insert the thermometer and the semiconductor diode immersed in the oil bath as shown in the fig. A heating element is
immersed in oil bath which is used to raise the temperature of the oil bath by connecting to the A.C main supply the reverse
biasing voltage can be adjusted by means of the voltmeter and the reverse saturation current can be measured with the help
of a micro-ammeter.

PROCEDURE:
1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the given junction diode.

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2. Connect the two terminals of the given junction diode (germanium or silicon)
3. Immerse the diode in the oil bath.
4. Insert the thermometer in the oil bath at the same level as that of the diode.
5. Switch ON the D.C power supply and adjust the reverse bias voltage to 5 volt.
6.Switch ON the A.C main supply, then the temperature of the oil bath gradually increases consequently the current through
the diode also increases.
7.When the temperature of the oil bath reaches to about 700C, then switch off the A.C supply.
8.After few minutes, the temperature of the oil bath will begin to fall and the current through
the diode decreases.
9.Note down the value of the current for every 50C decrease of the temperature till he temperature of the oil bath falls to the
room temperature.
10. Note down the observations in Table

Note:-
1. When the germanium diode is employed in the experiment the temperature should not be increased
beyond 800C because at higher temperatures the Fermi level moves towards the center of the forbidden
energy gap and the junction will be destroyed. Eg of Ge is 0.75eV
2. When silicon diode is employed, then the temperature should not exceed 2000C. Eg of Si is 1.12eV

Model Graph:

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Graph:-.
1. Draw a graph with 103/T on x-axis and log10Is on y-axis.
2. The graph will be a straight line as shown in the Figure
3. Find the slope of the straight line ‘m’ from the graph.
4. Calculate the energy band gap of the given junction diode by substituting the value of the slope (m) in
energy gap formula.
5. Compare the calculated value of Eg with the standard value.
Note: - This experiment can also be performed for different reverse biasing voltages.

OBSERVATIONS:
To determine the reverse saturation current at different temperatures;
Type of the diode:
Biasing voltage=5 Volt ;
Room temperature=………. 0C

Temperature Current (I) µA Log10 IS 1000/T K-1

S.No
℃ K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The diode and the thermometer should be immersed at the same level in the oil bath.
2. The temperature and the current should be noted simultaneously.
3. When the experiment is performed with germanium diode, then the temperature should not exceed 80 0C, where as in the
case diode, the maximum temperature should not 2000C.
4. This experiment should be performed by connecting the reverse biased position.
Standard values:-
S.NO Diode Energy gap Eg (e V)
1 Germanium 0.75
2 Silicon 1.12

Formula:-
𝑌2 −𝑌1
Slope 𝑚 = = --------------------.
𝑋2 −𝑋1

Energy gap of given semiconductor

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑚)
𝐸𝑔 = = − − − − − − 𝑒𝑉
5.036

RESULT:
The energy gap of the given Semiconductor diode is ------------------------ eV.

Worksheet

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4. HALL EFFECT
AIM:
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient (RH) and the carrier concentration (n) of the sample material.

APPARATUS:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Gauss probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus (which consist of
Constant Current Generator (CCG), Digital milli voltmeter, Digital milli ammeter and Hall probe), connecting
wires.

THEORY:
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference will generate in the
conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In
solid state physics, Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It
directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in X-direction using
Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through the sample. If w is the width of the sample
and t is the thickness. Therefore current density is given by

Jx=I/A (1)

Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.

CCG – Constant Current Generator,
JX – current density
ē – electron,
B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness,
w – width of sampl
l-length of sample
A-Surface area of sample (A= w x l)
VH – Hall voltage

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If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers (say electrons)
toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a
transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall
voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect.
A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top and bottom is
measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0, the voltage difference will be zero.
We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as conventional and it is
either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement of electrons backward. In both cases,
under the application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz force (𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑉𝑥𝐵)) causes the carriers to curve
upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge
imbalance produces an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established.
The vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we can express it as
(2)

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field and 'v' is the drift
velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,
(3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l, breadth 'w' and thickness 't'.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

(4)

by rearranging eq(4) we get

(5)

Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.

Charge carrier density (n)

1
𝑛 = 𝑞𝑥𝑅 -----------------------(6)
𝐻

Where 𝑞 is charge 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶 of electron or hole

Charge carrier mobility (𝜇)

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𝜇 = 𝑅𝐻 𝑥𝜎-------------------------------(7)
𝐿
Where 𝜎 = 𝑅𝐴
A is area of sample (A=LxW), L is length of sample, W is width of sample, R is resistance of sample

PROCEDURE:

To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid

• Select Magnetic field Vs Current from the procedure combo-box.

• Click Insert Probe button

• Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.

• Using Current slider, varying the current through the solenoid and corresponding magnetic field is to be
noted from Gauss meter.

Trial No: Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

1
2
3
4

Hall Effect apparatus

• Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure combo box
• Click Insert Hall Probe button
• Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.
• Set "current slider" value to minimum.
• Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.
• Select the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.
• Vary the Hall current using the sllider Hall current.

• Note down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage” button.
• Then calculate Hall coefficient and carrier concentration, carrier mobility of that material using the

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equation
• Repeat the experiment under different magnetic file.

Procedure for doing real lab

• Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source, Current meter, Voltage meter.
• Set/adjust zero in Gauss meter and Constant current source, Current meter, Voltage meter
• Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.
• Four probe is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two solenoids.
• Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A, and note the corresponding
Gauss meter readings.
• Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob of constant current source
towards minimum current.
• Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant Current Generator (CCG) and
connect red wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus
• Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at the middle of the two solenoids.
• Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
• Supply constant current to solenoids, due to this current some magnetic field generate it can be seen in
gauss meter.
• Fix the magnetic field in gauss meter using constant current source.
• Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hall voltage VH.
• Repeat this step for different magnetic fields B.
• Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
• Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH using the equation 5.
• Then calculate the carrier concentration n. using equation 6.
• Calculate charge carrier mobility 𝜇 from equation 7

MODEL GRAPH:

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. No: Hall current (𝐼𝐻 ) (mA) Hall Voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) (mV)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

RESULT:
Hall Voltage is found to be __________________.

Hall Coefficient of the material = _______________.

Carrier Concentration of the material = __________________m-3.

Carrier mobility of material=---------------------------------

Type of semiconductor=--------------------------------
Worksheet
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5. V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode and Zener diode

Aim: To study the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.

Apparatus: A p-n junction diode, battery, High resistance rheostat, 0-30V voltmeter, 0−100mA ammeter,
0-100µAammeter, and connecting wires.

Theory: A semiconductor PN junction diode is a two terminal electronic device (Di-electrode −→ Diode.) that
allows current in only one direction. The diode is formed by doping a semiconductor (like silicon or germanium)
with trivalent impurity (e.g. Boron or Aluminum) from one end to form p-type region with pentavalent impurity like
Phosphorous from the other end to form n-type region on the other end. The metal contacts taken out from p-region
and n-region are called anode and cathode respectively. There are three possible biasing conditions and two
operating regions for the typical PN-Junction Diode, they are: zero bias, forward bias and reverse bias. When no
voltage is applied across the PN junction diode then the electrons will diffuse to P-side and holes will diffuse to N-
side through the junction and they combine with each other. Therefore, the acceptor atom close to the P-type and
donor atom near to the N-side are left unutilized. An electronic field is generated by these charge carriers. This
opposes further diffusion of charge carriers. Thus, no movement of the region is known as depletion region or space
charge.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external
potential energy is applied to the PN junction. The potential barrier that now exists discourages the
diffusion of any more majority carriers across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority

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carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
Then an Equilibrium or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both moving
in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this occurs, the
junction is said to be in a state of Dynamic Equilibrium. The minority carriers are constantly generated
due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN
junction causing an increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in
leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN junction.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a
negative voltage is applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material.
If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for
silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will
start to flow. This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving
them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards
the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to
this voltage point, called the knee on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode
with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

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Since the diode can conduct infinite current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit,
therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum
forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was
designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive
voltage is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The
positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away
from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the
negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and
forms a potential barrier which prevent the current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does
flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes. One final point, if the reverse bias
voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diodes PN
junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to
become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward
slope in the reverse static characteristics curve. Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications
in voltage stabilizing circuits where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse
breakdown current to a preset maximum value there by producing a fixed voltage output across the diode.
These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in next experiment

Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 0.1V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings IF.
4. Plot a graph between VF and IF
REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage VR in steps of 0.5V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings Ir.
4. Plot a graph between VR and IR

Observations:
Least count of voltmeter = .........V
Zero error of voltmeter = .........V
Range of milli-ammeter = .........mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = .........mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = .........mA
From the graph
𝑉𝑓
Static forward Resistance Rdc = Ω
𝐼𝑓
Δ𝑉𝑓
Dynamic forward Resistance rac= Ω
Δ𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑟
Static reverse Resistance Rdc = Ω
𝐼𝑟
Δ𝑉𝑟
Dynamic reverse Resistance rac = Ω
Δ𝐼𝑟

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FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

S.NO VOLTAGE CURRENT(If) S.NO VOLTAGE CURRENT(Ir)
(Vf) in Volts in mAmp (Vr) in Volts in mAmp

Result: Thus, the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode is verified and it is found that:
1. Cut in voltage = ....... V.
2. Static forward resistance = .......Ω
3. Dynamic forward resistance = .......Ω
4. Dynamic Reverse resistance = .......Ω
5. Static Reverse resistance =.......Ω

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V-I characteristic of Zener Diode

Aim: To draw the V-I characteristic of Zener diode and to determine Zener breakdown voltage.
Apparatus used: Zener diode, voltmeter (0-2volt), voltmeter (0-30 volt), mili-ammeter, micro- ammeter,
variable source (0-2 volt and 0-30 volt).
Theory:
Zener Diode: Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode. Due to heavily doped, its depletion layer is
very thin and is order of micrometer. The forward bias characteristic of Zener diode is same as the normal PN
junction diode but in reverse bias it has different characteristic.
Initially, a negligible constant current flow through the zener diode in its reverse bias but at certain
voltage, the current becomes abruptly large. This voltage is called as zener voltage. This sudden and sharp
increase in zener current is called as zener breakdown.

Circuit Diagram:

Zener Diode in FB Zener Diode in RB

Observation:
1. Least count of voltmeter (0-2volt) = _____volt
2. Least count of voltmeter (0-30volt) = ____volt
3. Least count of milliammeter = _________ mA
4. Least count of micro-ammeter = ________μA

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VF and IF for Zener Diode in FB VR and IR for Zener diode in RB

FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS
S.NO VOLTAGE CURRENT(If) S.NO VOLTAGE CURRENT(Ir)
(Vf) in Volts in mA (Vr) in Volts in mA

Result: The V-I characteristic of Zener diode indicates that characteristic of Zener diode in forward bias
is same as PN junction diode. In reverse bias, a negligible constant current flow through the zener diode
but the current becomes abruptly large at certain voltage. This voltage is called as zener voltage. This
sudden and sharp increase in zener current is called as zener breakdown.
Vknee=______ volt and VZ= ______ volt.
Precautions and sources of error:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
3. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

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V-I Characteristic Curve for Zener Diode in FB

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V-I Characteristic Curve for Zener Diode In RB

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6. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

AIM: To study the V-I characteristics of a given LED source

Determine threshold voltage

APPARATUS:

1. Power Supply
2.LED trainer Kit
3. Light emitting diode
4. Digital Voltmeter
5. Digital Ammeter
6. Connecting wires

THEORY: -

A PN junction diode, which emits light on forward biasing, is known as light emitting diode. The emitted light
may be in the visible range or infrared range and the intensity of light depends on the applied potential.

PRINCIPLE: -

In a PN junction diode, charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross from the n-layer to the
P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the n-side while holes are in the valence band on the p-side.
The conduction band has a higher energy level compared to the valence band and so when the electrons
recombine with a hole the difference in energy is given out in the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or
germanium, the energy dissipation is in the form of heat, whereas in case of gallium-arsenide and gallium
phosphide, it is in the form of light. But this light is in the infrared region. Hence gallium – arsenide phosphide
which emits light in the visible region is used to manufacture an LED.

CONSTRUCTION:-

An n-type layer is grown on a substance and a p-type layer is grown over it by diffusion process. The P-layer is
kept at the top because carrier recombination takes place in it. The terminals anode and cathode are taken out of
the n-layer and P-layer respectively. The anode connections are made at the edge in order to provide more surface
area for the emission of light. A metal film is applied to the bottom of substance to reflect light to the surface of
the device and also to provide connection for the cathode terminal. Finally, the structures are provided with an
encapsulated (cover) to protect them from destruction.
ADVANTAGE: -

1. Works on low voltage and current and hence consumes less power.
2. Require no warm up time.
3. Can be switched ON and OFF at a faster rate.
4. Long lifetime.
5. Small size and less weight.

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PROCEDURE:

Procedure for V-I characteristics of a Light emitting diode:

1. Connect the Light emitting diode circuit

2. Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply using coarse and fine knobs.
3. Note down Light emitting diode current values for various increasing values of Light emitting diode
voltages of 0V, 0.25V, 0.5V,……
4. Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the Light emitting diode may get damaged.
5. Repeat the experiment for different diodes
6. Plot a graph of Light emitting diode voltage V/s Light emitting diode current as shown in Figure

Figure : Current Vs Voltage

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OBSERVATIONS:

S. No Voltage V (mV) Current I (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

RESULT: V-I characteristics of LED are studied.

Threshold voltage=-----------------

Worksheet

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7. Input and output characteristics of BJT (CE, CB & CC configurations)

AIM: To study input and output characteristics of a npn or pnp Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) in CE,
CB & CC configuration.

APPARATUS: BJT (BC-547B), Bread board, resistor (1KΩ, 100KΩ), connecting wires, Ammeters (0‐
10mA, 0‐100μ A), DC power supply (0‐30V) and multimeter.

THEORY:

The transistor is a two junction, three terminal semiconductor device which has three regions namely the
emitter region, the base region, and the collector region. There are two types of transistors. An npn transistor
has an n type emitter, a p type base and an n type collector while a pnp transistor has a p type emitter, an n type
base and a p type collector. The emitter is heavily doped, base region is thin and lightly doped and collector is
moderately doped and is the largest. The current conduction in transistors takes place due to both charge
carriers- that is electrons andholes and hence they are named Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT).

BJTs are extensively used in all types of electronic circuits. The aim of this part of the experimentis to familiarize
you with the basic modes of operation and features of a BJT. The BJT that you will be using in this experiment is
BC 547 (the pin diagram is shown in Fig.1), which has a typicalcurrent rating of 100 mA (maximum).
Two of the most important applications for the transistor are (1) as an amplifier in analog electronicsystems, and (2)
as a switch in digital systems.

Basic Concepts The operation of the BJT is based on the principles of the pn junction. In the npn BJT, electrons
are injected from the forward-biased emitter into the thin base region where, as minority carriers, they diffuse
toward the reverse-biased collector. Some of these electrons recombine with holes in the base region, thus
producing a small base current, IB. The remaining electrons reach the collector where they provide the main

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source of carriers for the collector current, IC. Thus, if there are no electrons injected from the emitter, there will
be (almost) no collector current and, therefore, the emitter current controls the collector current. Combining
currents, the total emitter current is given as IE = IB + IC. For normal pnp operation, the polarity of both voltage
sources must be reversed.

Figure: npn transistor

Figure: Representation of npn transistor in operation with forward biased emitter-base junction and reverse biased
collector-base junction (e=elecrons, 0=holes, and oe=recombination of holes and electrons

BJTs are used to amplify current, using a small base current to control a large current between the collector and
the emitter. This amplification is so important that one of the most noted parametersof gain, β (or hFE), which is the ratio
of collector current to base current.

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When the BJT is used with the base and emitter terminals as the input and the collector and emitter terminals as the output,
the current gain as well as the voltage gain is large. It is for this reason that thiscommon-emitter (CE) configuration is the
most useful connection for the BJT in electronic systems

Operation regions and characteristics curves:

Depending upon the biasing of the two junctions, emitter-base (EB) junction and collector- base(CB)
the transistor is said to be in one of the four modes of operation. as described below:

Operating B-E B-C Features

region Junction Junction
Cut-off Reverse Reverse IB ≈ IC≈IE≈0 Off state – no current (VBE<0.7V)
Saturation Forward Forward Conducting structure VBE=0.7V VCE ≈ 0.2V
Active Forward Reverse Amplifier Gain: 100-1000 (IC=βIB) VBE=0.7V VCE >0.2V
Reverse- Reverse Forward Limited use Gain< 1 (IB >IC)
active
NOTE : VBE will vary from 0.6 to 0.7 V

The most important characteristics of transistor in any configuration are input and output characteristics.

A. Input Characteristics:
It is the curve between input current IB and input voltage VBE constant collector emitter voltage VCE. The input
characteristic resembles a forward biased diode curve. After cut in voltage the IB increases rapidly with small
increase in VBE. It means that dynamic input resistance is small in CE configuration. It is the ratio of change in
VBE to the resulting change in base current at constant collector emitter voltage. It is given by ΔVBE / ΔIB

B. Output Characteristics:
This characteristic shows relation between collector current IC and collector voltage for various values of base
current. The change in collector emitter voltage causes small change in the collector current for the constant base
current, which defines the dynamic resistance and is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC at constant IB. The output characteristic
of common emitter configuration consists of three regions: Active, Saturation and Cut‐off.

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Active region: In this region base‐emitter junction is forward biased and base‐collector junction is reversed
biased. The curves are approximately horizontal in this region.

Saturation region: In this region both the junctions are forward biased.

Cut‐off: In this region, both the junctions are reverse biased. When the base current is made equalto zero, the
collector current is reverse leakage current ICEO. The region below IB = 0 is the called the cutoff region.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:
A. Input Characteristics
1) Make the circuit connection as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) Set the voltage VCE = 2 V and vary IB with the help of VBB and measure VBE.
3) Set the voltage VCE = 3 V and vary IB with the help of VBB and measure VBE.
4) Plot graph of IB v/s VBE.
5) Evaluate dynamic input resistance which is the ratio of change in VBE to the resulting change in
base current at constant collector emitter voltage. It is given by ΔVBE / ΔIB
6) The reciprocal of the slope of the linear part of the characteristic gives the dynamic input
resistance of the transistor.

B. Output Characteristics
1) Keep IB constant say 10 μA, vary VCE and note down the collector current IC.
2) Now keep IB = 20 μA, vary VCE and note down the collector current IC.
3) Plot graph of IB v/s VCE.
4) The change in collector emitter voltage causes small change in the collector current for the
constant base current, which defines the dynamic output resistance and is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC
at constant IB or the output conductance is given ∆IC/∆VCE with the IB at a constant current.
5) Find output conductance from the slope of the linear portion of the characteristic curves and
also find small-signal current gain which is calculated by β = ∆IC/∆IB with the VCE at a
constant voltage.

OBSERVATION:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

VBB VCE=2V VCE=3V

(Choose value which you took in lab)
VBE (V) IB (µA) VBE (V) IB (µA)
0.1
0.2
.
1
1.5
.
5

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OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

VCC IB =10(µA) IB =20(µA)

(Choose value which you took in lab)
VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA)
0
0.2
.
.
1
1.5
.
.
5
6
.
15

CALCULATION:
1. Small-Signal Current Gain: β = ∆IC/∆IB with the VCE at a constant voltage.
2. Dynamic input resistance: It is given by ΔVBE / ΔIB at constant VCE
3. Dynamic output resistance: It is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC at constant IB

RESULTS:
1. Small-Signal Current Gain:
2. Dynamic input resistance:
3. Dynamic output resistance:

Work sheet

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Common emitter configuration

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Common base

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Common Collector

Circuit diagram

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8. DETERMINATION OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A GIVEN MATERIAL

Aim: Measurement of Dielectric Constant of different materials

Apparatus:
1. Set of parallel plate capacitors (Diameter = 26 cm)
2. High voltage power supply (0-10kV)
3. A 10 MΩ resistor
4. Reference capacitor (220nF)
5. Universal measuring amplifier
6. Voltmeter
7. Dielectric materials (Plastic and glass plates)
8. Connecting cables, adapters, T-connectors
9. Samples

Or Dielectric Constant Measurement Trainer KIT

Procedure:
1. Connect the Mains Cord to the trainer & switch ‘On’ the rocker switch.
2. Now rotate the variable resistance knob fully in clockwise direction.
3. Connect variable capacitor to RF output on the trainer.
4. Change the value of capacitance for which maximum value of current is obtained that is the condition of
resonance.
5. Note the value of capacitance. Let it be C1.
6. Place the dielectric sample between the plates of test capacitor such that the dielectric sample just touches
both the plats with the help of adjusting screw.
7. Now connect the Test Capacitor with dielectric sample with the help of patch cords across the Test
Capacitor (marked) on the trainer.
8. Now reduce the value of variable capacitor to obtain the condition of resonance.
9. Note the value of capacitance. Let it be C2.
10. Subtract C1and C2 to determine the value of test capacitance that is C here.
11. Now carefully remove the dielectric material from the test capacitor without changing the distance
between the plates.
12. Now determine the distance between both the plates.
a. Note: Take the help of Vernier caliper for better result.
13. Determine the value of area of any one plate of test capacitor that is A by using the formula (Length x
Breath)
14. Now calculate the value of Dielectric Constant of given material by following formula
𝑲𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪=
𝒅
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Where,
K = Dielectric Constant
A = Area of plate
d = Distance between two plates C = Capacitance
ε0 = Permittivity of free space its value is ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F m–1
15. Repeat the whole experiment for determining the dielectric constant of different material.

Result:
 Dielectric constant of Glass is .......... ,

 Dielectric constant of Bakelite is ....................., and

 Dielectric constant of Teflon is .................

❖ Observations:

1) Length of plate, l = 134 mm

2) Breath of plate, b = 61mm
3) Area of plates, A = l x b =
4) Distance between both plates for glass dg = 3.1 mm
5) Distance between both plates for Bakelite dB = 6.5 mm
6) Distance between both plates for Teflon dT = 2.8 mm

Observation Table:

Sr Sample C1 (pF) C2 (pF) C = C1 – C2 (pF)

No.
1 Glass Cg =

2 Bakelite CB =

3 Teflon CT =

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Calculations:

𝑪𝒈 𝒅𝒈
1. Dielectric constant of glass: 𝑲𝒈 =
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪𝒃 𝒅𝒃
2. Dielectric constant of Bakelite: 𝑲𝒃 =
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪𝑻 𝒅𝑻
3. Dielectric constant of Teflon: 𝑲𝑻 =
𝜺𝟎 𝑨

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8. Study B-H curve of a magnetic material.

AIM: Hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material (B-H curve)

Apparatus: Two solenoid coils, S and C, ferromagnetic specimen rod, reversible key (R), ammeter, magnetometer,
battery, solenoid, rheostat and transformer for demagnetizing set up.

About experiment: A ferromagnetic rod is magnetized by placing it in the magnetic field of a solenoid. The magnetized
rod causes a deflection (𝜃 ) in a magnetometer. The deflection is recorded as the current in the solenoid (I) is varied over
a range of positive and negative values.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis means “remaining” in Greek, an effect remains after its cause has disappeared. Hysteresis, a term coined by
Sir James Alfred Ewing in 1881, a Scottish physicist and engineer (1855-1935), defined it as: When there are two
physical quantities M and N such that cyclic variations of N cause cyclic variations of M, then if the changes of M lag
behind those of N, we may say that there is hysteresis in the relation of M to N". The most notable example of hysteresis
in physics is magnetism. Iron maintains some magnetization after it has been exposed to and removed from a magnetic
field. Magnetic Hysteresis Consider a magnetic material being subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The graph intensity
of magnetization (M) vs. magnetizing field (H) gives a closed curve called M-H loop.
Hysteresis Loop
An initially un magnetized material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The values of intensity of magnetization M
and the magnetizing field H are calculated at every stage and a closed loop is obtained on plotting a graph between M and
H as shown in the figure. The point „O‟ represents the initial un magnetized condition of the material. As the applied
field is increased, the magnetization increases to the saturation point „A‟ along „OA‟. As the applied field is reduced, the
loop follows the path „AB‟. „OB‟ represents the intensity of magnetization remaining in the material when the applied
field is reduced to zero. This is called the residual magnetism or remanence. The property of retaining some magnetism
on removing the magnetic field is called retentivity. OC represents the magnetizing field to be applied in the opposite
direction to remove residual magnetism. This is called coercive field and the property is called coercivity. When the field
is further increased in the reverse direction the material reaches negative saturation point „D‟. When the field is increased
in positive direction, the curve follows path „DEF‟.

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Procedure:
1. Complete the wiring of the apparatus according to the circuit diagram,
2. Alignment of apparatus:
Rotate the dial of the magnetometer until 00± 00position is aligned with the axis of the solenoid. Rotate
the wooden arm, containing the solenoid, magnetometer and compensating coil, until the magnetic
pointer coincides with the 00± 00 positions. In this position the wooden arm is along the E ± W
position. The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field BE (along S-N direction) is then
perpendicular to the wooden arm.
3. Begin Measurements:
i. To begin with, the current in the solenoid should be switched off.
ii. Insert specimen rod so that it' s leading tip is at the edge of the solenoid.
Note: There should be no deflection of the needle at this point. If deflection is observed, repeat step 3
for demagnetizing rod).
iii. Keep the reversing key R in a position so that current flows in a given direction. The rheostat position
should correspond to maximum resistance. Switch on the current.
iv. Vary the current using the rheostat from 0A ± 1.5A and back 1.5A ± 0A in steps of 0.1A and note the
deflections 1&2 for each setting of current.
v. Reverse the position of the reversible key R and vary the current in the reverse direction
0A ± 1.5A, and back 1.5A ± 0A.
vi. Reverse the position of the key R and vary the current from 0 ± 1.5A.
vii. Again, note the deflections 1&2
Observations
1. Distance, r = __________________________ m 2.
2. Length of specimen, l = __________________ m
3. No. of turns per unit length of solenoid, n = -------- turns/m.
4. Area of cross-section of rod, S = --------- m 2 .
5. Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field, BE = 3.53 x 10-5 T.
S. No Area of B-H loop in term of no. of small Lag a B max Log B max
square inside the loop (a)

Calculations:
1. Attach graph of Tanvs. I
2. cf = _____________________
3. dg = ____________________
4. Calculation of retentivity MO:
5. Calculation of coercivity BO:

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Precaution:
1. All connection should be as per diagram, proper and tight.
2. B-H loop should be clear.
3. CRO should be operated carefully.
4. Knob of horizontal and vertical gains should not be disturbed throughout the experiment.
5. Ac supply should be switched on while taking the observation else it should be switched off.

Results:
1. Retentivity MO: _____________
2. Coercivity BO:_______________

Worksheet

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9. L-C-R CIRCUIT
AIM:
1. To study the frequency response and to find resonant frequencies of L-C-R series and parallel circuits.
2. Find the quality factor and band width of L-C-R circuit.
APPARATUS:,
1. L-C-R kit
2. signal generators,
3. micro ammeter and
4. Connecting wires.
THEORY:
(a) Series L-C-R:
When the resistor R, inductor L and the capacitor C are connected in series with a source of emf E, the circuit is
called as the series resonant or series turned circuit, shown in Figure 1. This is an acceptor circuit that means it
allows maximum current to flow through it at a particular frequency (resonant frequency) and at all other
frequencies it allows less current.
In a.c circuits the voltage and the current are usually out of phase. Across the inductor, the current lags
behind the voltage is given by 90º, whereas across the capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 90º. But across
the resistor the voltage and the current both are in phase. Under certain conditions, the voltage and current are in
phase, even though the circuit consists of L, C, and R and the circuit behaves as a pure resistor. This phenomenon
is called resonance. This occurs at a single frequency known as resonance frequency. At this frequency the
capacitance (XC=1/ωC) and the inductive reactance (XL=ωL) are equal and opposite in direction. So they get
cancelled each other and only resistance acts.

Figure 1. LCR series circuit

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The impedance of the circuit is given by Z = R + j (ωL – 1/ωC)

At resonance the reactive term disappears i.e. ωL – 1/ωC = 0
The impedance is minimum i.e Z = R
The current is maximum so ωL = 1/ωC
ω0 = ω = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠 = 1/√LC
1
Theoretical resonance frequency (𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶)

Band width |∆𝑓|= |𝑓1 − 𝑓2 | (Hz)

1 𝐿
Theoretical Quality factor 𝑄 = √
𝑅 𝐶
𝑓𝑟
Experimentally Quality factor 𝑄 =
|𝑓1 −𝑓2 |

At this frequency the current is maximum and is called resonance frequency. The circuit has selective
properties. To compare selectively or sharpness of resonance, the band of frequencies is chosen at which the
current falls to 1/√2 times (half power points) of its maximum value. The difference |𝑓1 − 𝑓2 | between the half
power points is called band width.

(a) Parallel L-C-R :

Parallel resonant circuit, shown in Figure 2, is one which one branch consists of an inductor L with
associated resistor R and other branch consists of a capacitor C. this is a rejecter circuit, that means it rejects the
current or allows minimum current flow through it, at a particular (anti resonant) frequency and it allows more
current at all other frequencies. So the circuit is not selective. But it is highly selective when energized from a
high impedance generator. The impedance of the circuit is given by

Figure 2: LCR Parallel Circuit

1 1 1
= +
𝑍 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 1
𝑗𝜔𝐶
At resonance the impedance is maximum.
𝐿
The impedance at resonance 𝑍 = 𝐶𝑅

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1 1 𝑅2
Theoretical resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 = √( − ) 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝐿2

1 1
If R value is small (R~0), then 𝑓𝑟 = √ 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

Band width |∆𝑓|= |𝑓1 − 𝑓2 | (Hz)

1 𝐿
Theoretical Quality factor 𝑄 = √
𝑅 𝐶
𝑓𝑟
Experimentally Quality factor 𝑄 =
|𝑓1 −𝑓2 |

PROCEDURE:
(a) Series L-C-R: The circuit is connected in series as shown in Figure 1. The source resistance and the series
resistance should be small. The out put voltage of the signal generator is adjusted to be around 5V. The
frequency of the signal generator is changed in steps and the corresponding current values are noted from the
a.c micro ammeter. The readings are tabulated. The current values increase with the increase of frequency, up
to the resonance frequency, further increase of frequency causes the decrease of current. The L, C and R
values are noted to calculate the resonant frequency fr and Q-factor, using the above formulae.

Note: The experiment may be repeated with different values of R. Hear the fr value is unchanged, but the Q-factor
changes.

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Table 1: L-C-R Series

S. No Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
15
16
17
18
19
20
Graph:
A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency corresponding to maximum current is noted and it is the
resonant frequency 𝑓𝑠 . The frequencies f1and f2 corresponding to half power points is noted and from it the band width,
|𝑓1 − 𝑓2 | is noted. From the values of 𝑓𝑟 , 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 the quality factor, Q is calculated.

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Parallel L-C-R :
The L-C-R parallel, the circuit is connected as shown in the Figure-2. The frequency of the signal generator is changed in
steps and the corresponding current values are noted from the a.c. micro-ammeter. The readings are tabulated. But here, the
current values decrease with the increase of frequency up to the anti-resonant frequency, further increase of frequency
causes the increase of current. The anti-resonant frequency f0 is noted corresponding to the minimum current in the circuit.
Table 2: L-C-R Parallel
S. No Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
15
16
17
18
19
20
Graph:
A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency corresponding to minimum current is noted and it is the anti-
resonant frequency (𝑓𝑟 ).

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PRECAUTION:
1) The internal resistance of the source and series resistance should be small.
2) Before going to the experiment the resonant frequency should be calculated from L and C values so that to
select the range of frequencies for observation.
RESULT:
Theoretical Resonant frequency = -------------------- Hz.
Practical Resonant frequency = --------------------- Hz.
Theoretical Quality factor = ---------------------
Practical Quality factor = ---------------------

Worksheet

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11a. Determination of the beam divergence of the given LASER beam

Aim: To calculate the beam divergence and spot size of the given laser beam.

Apparatus: Laser Emitter, Detector, Detection output unit,

Laser:

The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a mechanism for
emitting electromagnetic radiation via the process of stimulated emission. The laser was the first device capable of
amplifying light waves themselves. The emitted laser light is a spatially coherent, narrow low-divergence beam. When
the waves(or photons) of a beam of light have the same frequency, phase and direction, it is said to be coherent . There
are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light, or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. According to the
encyclopedia of laser physics and technology, beam divergence of a laser beam is a measure for how fast the beam
expands far from the beam waist. A laser beam with a narrow beam divergence is greatly used to make laser pointer
devices. Generally, the beam divergence of laser beam is measured using beam profiler.

Lasers usually emit beams with a Gaussian profile. A Gaussian beam is a beam of electromagnetic radiation whose
transverse electric field and intensity (irradiance) distributions are described by Gaussian functions.

For a Gaussian beam, the amplitude of the complex electric field is given by

where I0 = I(0,0) is the intensity at the center of the beam at its waist. The constant is defined as the characteristic
impedance of the medium through which the beam is propagating.
For vacuum,

Beam parameters:

Beam parameters govern the behavior and geometry of a Gaussian beam. The important beam parameters are
described below.
Beam divergence:
The light emitted by a laser is confined to a rather narrow cone. But, when the beam propagates outward, it slowly
diverges or fans out. For an electromagnetic beam, beam divergence is the angular measure of the increase in the
radius or diameter with distance from the optical aperture as the beam emerges.

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The divergence of a laser beam can be calculated if the beam diameter d1 and d2 at two separate distances are
known. Let z1and z2 are the distances along the laser axis, from the end of the laser to points “1” and “2”.
Usually, divergence angle is taken as the full angle of opening of the beam. Then,

Half of the divergence angle can be calculated as

where w1 and w2 are the radii of the beam at z1 and z2.

Like all electromagnetic beams, lasers are subject to divergence, which is measured in milliradians (mrad) or degrees.
For many applications, a lower-divergence beam is preferable.
Spot size:
Spot size is nothing but the radius of the beam itself. The irradiance of the beam decreases gradually at the edges.
The distance across the center of the beam for which the irradiance (intensity) equals 1/e2 of the maximum
irradiance (1/e2 = 0.135) is defined as the beam diameter. The spot size (w) of the beam is defined as the radial
distance (radius) from the center point of maximum irradiance to the 1/e2 point.

Gaussian laser beams are said to be diffraction limited when their radial beam divergence is close to the minimum
possible value, which is given by

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where λ is the wavelength of the given laser and w0 is the radius of the beam at the narrowest point, which is
termed as the beam waist.

Procedure:
1. Arrange the laser and detector in an optical bench arrangement.
2. The laser is switched on and is made to incident on the photodiode.
3. Fix the distance, z between the detector and the laser source.
4. By adjusting the micrometer of the detector, move the spot in the horizontal direction, from left to right.
5. Note the output current for each distance, x from the measuring device.
6. Then the beam profile is plotted with the micrometer distance along the X-axis and intensity of current
along Y-axis. We will get a gaussian curve (see Fig.1).

7. The experiment is repeated for different detector distances.

8. Note the points in the graph where the intensity equals 1/e2 of the maximum intensity, say it as Ie (see Fig.1).
9. Find the micrometer distance across the beam corresponding to these points ( B-A from the Fig.1) for a pair of
detector distances z1 and z2. Half of this distance is noted as w1and w2.
10. Then the divergence and spot size of the laser beam can be calculated from the equations.

Observation and calculation

To find the Least Count of Screw gauge
One pitch scale division ( n) = .............. mm
Number of divisions on head scale (m) = ...............
Least Count (L.C) = n/m = ......................

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Observation table:
z1 = ....................... cm z2 = ................ cm
Distance X in mm Current in Distance X in mm Current in
mA mA
PSR HSR TOTAL PSR HSR TOTAL

1/e2 of maximum intensity, Ie =................ mA 1/e2 of maximum intensity, Ie =................ mA

Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie, Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie,
d1= ..................mm d2= ..................mm

Result: Divergence angle(Θ) = (d2-d1)/(z2-z1) = ........................ mrad

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11b. NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTING CONE OF OPTICAL FIBER

AIM: To determine the numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.

APPARATUS:

Optical fiber, NA jig, Mandrel, Optical fiber.

THEORY:-

Numerical aperture (NA) is a measure of the amount of area captured by light rays coming from fiber and is more generally
used term in optical fiber communication. NA of an optical fiber depends on the acceptance angle (maximum launching
angle) (θ) at the core-air interface as shown in fig (1), this is also known as semi-angle of the acceptance cone. Light
launched at the fiber end with in this acceptance cone and will be propagated at the other end of the fiber by total internal
reflection. Therefore it is important to ensure that fibers with larger acceptance angles are selected to make the launching
easier.

Theoretically, numerical aperture of an optical fiber is given by,

√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
NA=Sinθ= -------------------------- (1)
𝑛0

In equation (1), n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and the cladding respectively, n0 is refractive index of the
medium in which fiber is place

Theoretically, accepting angle of an optical fiber is given by

√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
θ = sin−1 𝑁𝐴 = sin−1 𝑛0
----------------------------------- (2)

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Therefore, by measuring the acceptance angle, NA can be calculated. Light from the fiber end A falls on the screen BC
shown in figure 2.

Let the diameter of the light falling on the screen, BC=w,

and distance between the fiber end and the screen =AO=L.
From geometry,

𝑤2 √4𝐿2 +𝑤 2 𝑤 𝑤
AB=√𝐿2 + = (Since from∆𝐴𝑂𝐵 𝐴𝐵 2 = ( 2 )2 + 𝐿2 , from ∆𝐴𝑂𝐶 𝐴𝐶 2 = ( 2 )2 + 𝐿2 )
4 2

𝑤2 √4𝐿2 +𝑤 2
AC=√𝐿2 + =
4 2

Experimentally, numerical aperture of an optical fiber is given by,

𝑤
𝑂𝐵 𝒘
N. A= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = = 2 = -----------------------------(3)
𝐴𝐵 √4𝐿2 +𝑤2 √𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝒘𝟐
2

Experimentally, accepting angle of an optical fiber is given by

𝒘
θ = sin−1 𝑁𝐴=sin−1( )------------------------------(4)
√𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝒘𝟐

Knowing ‘w’ and ‘L’, the NA can be calculated. Substituting N.A in equation (4) the acceptance angle can be calculated.

DESCRIPTION:-

The kit contains of two parts (i) electrical to optical converter, which is also known as a driver that converts an input
voltage to an optical output power (P0). The driver uses the linear current from the negative feedback operational amplifier
circuit to operate the LED. The current through the LED can be changed by rotating the knob marked as SET P0.The optical

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power emitted by the LED is coupled to the optical fiber through the source-to fiber connector. Other end of the optical fiber
is connected to NA jig as shown in fig2.

(ii) Optical power meter:- this part consists of a highly sensitive PIN photo diode and measuring meter. The PIN diode
converts optical power to electric power, it can detect wide range of wavelengths. The power received by the detector can be
measured with the help of a meter.

PROCEDURE:-
The experimental setup for the N.A measurement is shown in figure3.

6. Connect the one end of the optical fiber cable to the output power socket of the NA module and other end to the NA
measurement jig.
7. The main of power is switched on and the light passing through the cable at the other end of the fiber is observed to
ensure the proper coupling is made or not.
8. A white screen with concentric circles of known diameter is hold vertically at a suitable distance (L) from the optical
fiber end and light(red) spot is seen on the screen.
9. The diameter (w) of the red spot is made exactly equal to the concentric one of the circle and corresponding length (L) is
noted.
10. The diameter of the red spot can be varied by varying the length (L).repeat the same for different concentric circles by
varying the length (L).
Formulas for Calculations:

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Experimentally, numerical aperture of an optical fiber is given by,

𝑤
𝑂𝐵 2 𝒘
N. A= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = =√ = -----------------------------(3)
𝐴𝐵 4𝐿2 +𝑤2 √𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝒘𝟐
2

Experimentally, accepting angle of an optical fiber is given by

𝒘
θ = sin−1 𝑁𝐴=sin−1( )------------------------------(4)
√𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝒘𝟐

Knowing ‘w’ and ‘L’, the NA can be calculated. Substituting N.A in equation (4) the acceptance angle can be calculated.
Table 1: To determine the NA of optical fiber

RESULT:
Numerical aperture of the optical fiber = -------------------
Acceptance angle of the optical fiber= ----------------------- degrees.
Work sheet

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12. Understanding the method of least squares – torsional pendulum as an example

Aim: To Understand the method of least squares calculate the rigidity modulus (η) of the material of the
given wire using torsional pendulum.
Apparatus: A circular brass disc provided with a chuck and nut at its centre, steel wire, brass wire, another
chuck and nut fixed to a wall bracket or a rigid clamp, stop watch, meter scale, screw gauge, vernier calipers.
Theory:
A torsional pendulum is a flat metal disc suspended horizontally by a wire hanging from a fixed support at
the top.
When the disk is tuned through a small angle, the wire is twisted. On being released the disc performs
torsional oscillations about the axis of the support. The twist in the wire will exert a torque on the disc
tending it to return it to the original position. This is restoring torque. For small twist the restoring torque is
found to be proportional to the amount of twist, or the angular displacement, so that
 = −k ………….. (1)
Here k is proportionality constant that depends on the properties of the wire and it is called torsional constant.
The minus sign indicates that the torque is opposite in direction to the angular displacement . equation (1) is
the condition for angular simple harmonic motion.
The equation of motion for such a system is
𝑑2 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼 × 𝛼 = 𝐼 × 𝑑𝑡 2 ………(2) where  is angular acceleration

So that, on using the equation (1) we get

− k = I d 2 dt 2

d2 θ k
+ I θ = 0 ……………… (3)
dx2

The solution of the equation (3), is therefore, a simple harmonic oscillation in the angle co-ordinate , namely
w = angular velocity.

 =  m cos (t +  ) where  = phase difference

Here m is the maximum angular displacement i.e., the amplitude of the angular oscillation.

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The time period of oscillation is given by T=2𝜋√𝐼⁄𝐾

where I = rotational inertia of the pendulum

k = torsional constant
If k and I are known T can be calculated.

Procedure:
Torsional pendulum consists of a uniform circular metal (brass or iron) disc of diameter about 10 cm and
thickness of 1cm suspended by a metal wire (whose rigidity modulus  is to be determined) at the center of
the disc. The other end of the wire is griped into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket. The length
(l) of wire between the two chucks can be adjusted and measured using meter scale. An ink mark is made on
the curved edge of the disc. The disc is set into oscillations in the horizontal plane, by tuning through a small
angle. Now stopwatch is started and time (t) for 10 oscillations is noted taking the ink mark on the disc as
reference.
Formula:
4 MR 2  l 
= 2
 T 2  dyne / cm (From observation)
a4
(or)
4 MR 2
1
= 4
X dyne / cm 2 (From graph)
a slope
Observations:
Mass of the Disc M=--------------gm
Radius of the Disc R = ------ cm

Table-1: Radius of the disc (by vernier calipers)

S.No MSR VC Diameter of dise, D = Radius of disc

MSR +(VC x LC) R = D/2 cm

1.
2.

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Table-2: Radius of the Wire (by Screw gauge)

S. Diameter
PSR HSR L.C Radius, a(cm)
No. PSR + (HSR  LC) (cm)

1.
2.

Table-3: To find l/T2:

Length of the wire Time taken for 20 Oscillations (sec) Time

S. Period, T
‘l’ between chucks T2 l/T2
No. Trial I Trial II Mean (t)
(cm) ( t/20) sec

1.
2.
3.

Graph:
y-axis

T2

Result: x-axis
l
The value of rigidity modulus of steel wire () is --------------------dynes/cm2
The rigidity modulus () of steel wire from graph is----------------- dynes/cm2

Worksheet

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13.Spectrometer-dispersive power of material of a prism

EXPERIMENT OBJECTIVE: To determine the Dispersive power of the material of the given prism.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury vapor lamp, flint glass, reading lens.
Theory: The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by
(𝐴+𝐷)
𝑆𝑖𝑛
µ= 2
𝐴 ----------→ (1)
𝑆𝑖𝑛
2

where, A = the angle of the prism

D = the angle of minimum deviation
When the angle of incidence is small, the angle of deviation is large. As the angle of incidence is
slowly increased, the angle of deviation begins to diminish progressively, till one particular value of the
angle of incidence. This position is called minimum deviation position and the corresponding angle is
called angle of minimum deviation.
Formula: The Dispersive power (ω) of the material of prism is given by
(µ𝐵 −µ𝑅 )
ω= (µ−1)
-------→ (2)

where, µBis the refractive index of the blue line

µRis the refractive index of the red line
µ = (µB + µR)/2 ; the mean of µB and µR
Noting the angle of minimum deviation D, for blue and red rays, µB and µRare calculated using equation
(1). Using equation (2), the dispersive power of the material of the prism can be calculated.
Procedure:
After making the preliminary adjustments to the spectrometer, the prism is placed on the prism
table with the ground surface (base) of the prism on to the left or right side of the collimator. Care is to be
taken to see that the base of the prism do not face either the collimator or the telescope. The reading is
noted on the Vernier I and Vernier II. This is direct reading (otherwise the vernier scales can be adjusted
to 0-0 and 0-180).
The ray of light passing through the collimator strikes the polished surface of the prism as it
undergoes deviation and emerges out of the prism from the other polished face. The deviated ray
(continuous spectrum) is seen through the telescope in position T2. Looking at the spectrum the prism

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table is slowly moved on to one side, so that the spectrum moves towards undeviated path of the beam.
The deviated ray also moves on to the same side for sometime and then the ray starts turning back even
though the prism table is moved in the same direction. The point at which the ray starts turning back is
called minimum deviation position. In the spectrum it is sufficient if one color is adjusted for the
minimum deviation position. In this limiting position of the spectrum, deviation of the beam is minimum.
The telescope is now fixed on the blue colour and the tangent screw is slowly operated until the point of
intersection of the cross wire is exactly on the image and the reading is noted on the Vernier I and Vernier
II and tabulated. This reading is the minimum deviation reading for the blue colour. The telescope is
now moved on to the red colour and so on, without disturbing the prism table and readings on ver I and II
are taken. These are the readings of the deviated rays. The difference between the direct reading and the
deviated reading gives the angle of minimum deviation for each colour. Assuming the angle of prism as
60o, the refractive index for each colour can be determined from equation(1). Hence the dispersive power
of the material of the prism can be determined by using the equation (2).
Observations:
S.NO. MSR V.C V.C x L.C (b) a+b
( a)
Blue V1
V2
Red V1
V2
Direct V1
Reading V2
Precautions:
1. Care is to be taken that the spectrometer is leveled perfectly.
2. Collimator and the telescope must be properly focused to produce and receive parallel beam
respectively.
3. The readings of the deviation for the colours must be taken in an order.
Result: The dispersive power of the material of the given prism is ________________

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14. Single slit diffraction grating using laser

AIM : To determine the wave length of laser light using single slit diffraction.

APPARATUS: Single slit, Travelling microscope, Laser source and Graduated scale.

THEORY:
The single slit may be treated as a large number of equally spaced point sources and each point on the slit is
source of Huygens secondary wavelets, which interfere with the wavelets emanating from other points. The
secondary wavelets traveling in the direction parallel to the slit comes to focus on the screen at a point. Since all
the rays are in the same phase, diffraction pattern is a point of maximum intensity. The secondary waves traveling
in a direction making an angle θ converge to some other point on the screen. The intensity of this point will be
maximum or minimum depending upon the path difference between the secondary waves orienting from the
corresponding wave fronts.
The path difference is given by

λ =
𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒏
Å where n is the order of diffraction (n= ±1, ±2, ±3-------)

λ is the wavelength of the light source,

a is the slit width
θ is the angle of diffraction
(1Å = 10-8cm)

PROCEDURE:
Place the single slit parallel to the laser source such that the rays are incident on the slit width. Adjust the slit
width such that we see clear diffraction pattern on the screen or graduated scale. The diffraction consists of a
bright intensity spot at the center followed by less intensity spots on either side of central spot. Measure the
distance L from slit to screen. The distance between the maxima is D. Take the readings of minima on left and
right side from the central spot . Vary the distance L from slit to the screen and repeat the process. The
corresponding y is to be measured for each distance of L. Measure the slit width (a) by travelling microscope.

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OBSERVATIONS: -
Slit width (a) = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ cm

Distance Order of The distance between Centre and Maxima Sin θ = 𝑫 𝝀 = 𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽/𝒏
between slit D (cm) 𝐃𝟐+𝐋𝟐
diffraction (cm)
and screen Left Right Mean
L (cm) (n)
(d1) (d2) D=(d1+d2 )/2

RESULT:
The wave length of given laser light λ is ……………………………Å

Worksheet

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15. OPEN ENDED EXPERIMENT

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY USING SIMPLE PENDULUM AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS

AIM

To measure the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Retort stand, pendulum bob, thread, meter scale, stop watch.

FORMULA

Acceleration due to gravity

where

T → Time period of simple pendulum (second)

g → Acceleration due to gravity (metre sec-2)

L → Length of the pendulum (metre)

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DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

• Attach a small brass bob to the thread

• Fix this thread on to the stand

• Measure the length of the pendulum from top to the middle of the bob of the pendulum. Record the length
of the pendulum in the table below.

• Note the time (t) for 10 oscillations using stop watch

• The period of oscillation T = t/10

• Repeat the experiment for different lengths of the pendulum ‘L’. Find acceleration due to
gravity g using the given formula.

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OBSERVATIONS

To find the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ at different locations

Location-1:_______________

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT

The acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ determined using simple pendulum is

i) By calculation = . . . . . . . . . m s-2
ii) By graph = . . . . . . . . . m s-2

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Location-2:_______________

MODEL GRAPH

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RESULT
The acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ determined using simple pendulum is
i) By calculation = . . . . . . . . . m s-2
ii) By graph = . . . . . . . . . m s-2
Location-3:_______________

Comparison of Acceleration Due to Gravity At Different Locations

S.No. g value Location-1 Location-2 Location-3 Remarks

Coordinates/place
1 By calculation
2 By Graph

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