Dyeing: Dyeing is the process of applying color to fiber, yarn or fabric which is usually done by immersing in a bath of dye.

It also includes the treating of fabric to accept dye as well as the after treatments to improve the fastness of the color. Except for few novelty types of dyeing, and even shade is the desired result from dyeing. Elements of Dyeing: Dyes/pigments, Material, Dyeing machine, Chemicals, Auxiliaries, Utilities, Parameters. Winch Dyeing Machine: Winch is a machine that treats fabrics in endless belts or rope form in a bath. The mechanism consists of an open vat for the bath and a rotor that pulls the cloth out of the bath and drops it back in. The winch dyeing method is suitable for all fabrics, except those which tend to originate permanent creases or winch could easily distort under the winch stretching action. Basically used for knit dyeing. This machine is used preferably for pre dyeing treatments like scouring, bleaching, washing etc for high liquor ratio ensures excellent results. This is a rather old machine for fabrics in rope form with stationary liquor and moving material. The machine operates at a maximum temperature of 95 - 98 C. The liquor ratio is generally quite high like 1 : 20 1 : 40. The system includes a vat with a front slant side acting as chute for the folded rope while the rear side is entirely vertical. A perforated separating compartment, positioned at a distance of 15 30 cm from its vertical side creates an interspace for heating and for adding reagents. Heating can be supplied by direct or indirect steam heating. The fabric motion is driven by a circular elliptic winch coated with a special blanket to avoid the fabric slipping during the dyeing operation. The maximum motion speed of the fabric must be Figure: Winch Dyeing Machine approx. 40 m/min. A filling tank is arranged on the machine which stocks heated water in order to supply instantly without any delay whenever needed. There is some nozzles which are used to insert fabric into the machine. One addition tank beside the machine holds all dyeing materials. It stores and supply whenever needed. Water must be given before starting dyeing process. Note: Thermal Shock : Increase crease mark. Heat setting is important for thermoplastic fibers like Polyester. It is important for them to improve their dimensional stability in washing and drying. For this purpose, in case of winch dyeing, slitting is done. After heat setting and before dyeing it is back swinged.

Few Important Definitions: Chromogen: Any substance that can become a pigment or coloring matter and a substance in organic fluids that forms colored compounds when oxidized. Chromophore: Chromophore is a greak word where Chromo means color and phorein means to bear. Chromophore is a chemical structure that is itself colored or that becomes colored when combined with auxochromes. Colorants may be classified according to chromophore. In simple word, Chromophore is the part of the molecule which is responsible for color. E.g. -NO2 , -N=N- etc. Auxochormo: Auxochoromus is a greak word where Auxamine means to increase. Auxochromo is a substituent group on a colorant which alters its color. Auxochoromo is a group of atoms attached with chromogen which modify the ability of that chromogen to absorb light. It may increase the wave length at which the light is absorbed and as a result more bright shade of that color is formed. E.g. OH, -CHO, -COOH etc. Nitro benzene has a light yellow shade. But if an OH group is added at its Para position then it gets a bright yellow shade. But if the OH is put on Meta position then itll vanish that light shade. Only Para position increase shade for this color. Shade: Depth of color expressed as percentage of fabric. The range of this shade is 0.1 - 0.9 = Light shade, 1.0 - 1.75 = Medium Shade, 1.75 to more = Bright Shade. Substantivity: Substantivity is the attraction between an applied substance e.g. dyes, and a substrate that results in preferential sorption of the applied material by the substrate. #Substantivity means the rate of dye transfer from the solution to the textile material and also its distribution in textile materials. Affinity: The attraction of dyes to the textile material is called affinity. Color Strike: The Initial dye take up by the fiber in dye bath is called color strike. In first 30 seconds, 50% dyeing is usually completed. Exhaustion: After completing 3 process ( absorption , adsorption, desorption) the amount of dye present in the fiber at any stage of dyeing is called exhaustion.

% =

x 100

Fixation: After washing, the amount of color present in the fabric is called fix color, and this process is called fixation. F% = % - ( Wash + Soap Wash)

Sulpher Dye
From Wiki: Sulfur dyes are the most commonly used dyes manufactured for cotton in terms of volume. They are cheap, generally have good wash-fastness and are easy to apply. The dyes are absorbed by cotton from a bath containing sodium sulfide or sodium hydrosulfite and are made insoluble within the fiber by oxidation. During this process these dyes form complex larger molecules which is the basis of their good wash-fastness. These dyes have good all round fastness except to chlorine. Due to the highly polluting nature of the dye-bath effluent, slowly sulfur dyes are being phased out. Sulfur dyes are primarily used for dark colors such as blacks, browns, and dark blues. The deep indigo blues of denim blue jeans are a product of sulfur dyes. Recent advances in dyeing technologies have allowed the substitution of toxic sulfide reducing agents. Glucose is now used and both low sulfide and zero sulfide products are available. Future developments in the field of reducing dye levels by means of electro-chemical processes are promising. This work is just in the research stage but is expected to come to industry very soon. This may eradicate the problems of polluting sulfides. Sulfur dyes are water insoluble. They have to be treated with a reducing agent and an alkali at temperature of around 80 degrees Celsius where the dye breaks into small particles which then becomes water soluble and hence can be absorbed by the fabric. Heating and adding a substance like common salt facilitates the absorption. After this the fabric is removed from the dye solution and then taken for oxidation. During the oxidation step the small particles of dye once more form the parent dye which is insoluble in water. This oxidation can be done in air or by using oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide or sodium bromate in a mildly acidic solution. Now as the dye has become water insoluble in fiber so it will not bleed in water when washed and will not stain other clothes. However the dye may have poor fastness to rubbing, that is the dye from the fiber may come out gradually if the fabric is rubbed against. Also the fastness to hypochlorite bleach is poor because hypochlorite breaks the color imparting group in the dye and hence the colored part becomes colorless. Sulfur dyes are very cheap and very important to the dyeing industry. Out of all the sulfur dyes perhaps 50% of production is of the sulfur black color as black is the most popular fabric color. Sulfur dyes do not have any pure red color in its shade range. A pink or lighter Scarlet color is available. # Zero Sulphide reducing agent is glucose. Important.

Water insoluble dyes have to be converted into soluble, substantive forms ( leuco forms). The conversion is carried out by dilute aqueous solution of sodium sulphide ( Na2S ). This leuco compound has affinity towards cellulosic fiber & they are sensitive to atmospheric oxygen. This reduced form of sulpher absorbed by fiber substance and finally again reconverted into insoluble form of dye by chemical oxidation. With oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7 , H2O2 etc. Dye- S- S- Dye + 2 [H] Dye SH (soluble) + Dye SH 2 Dye SH + [O] Dye S S Dye (Insoluble) + H2O Properties of Sulpher Dyes: Sulpher dye contains S S linkage in their molecule. This makes this dye very much harmful for skin. Sulpher dyes resemble to vat dyes in that they are insoluble in water but reduce to a soluble form which readily reverts to the original water insoluble form when oxidized. Wash fastness is very good. Because the dye molecules are made water insoluble during dyeing process. However it has poor fastness to chlorine as well as sea water. Overall fastness is pretty good. Stripping may be done by using Sodium Hypo Chloride ( NaOCl ) in case of unsatisfactory shade of sulpher dyes. Generally dark shade is used in sulpher dyes. Because it cant create bright color.
Sulfur dyes are primarily used for dark colors such as blacks, browns, and dark blues. The deep indigo blues of denim blue jeans are a product of sulfur dyes. Sulfur dyes do not have any pure red color in its shade range. A pink or lighter Scarlet color is available. Sulfur dyes are very cheap and very important to the dyeing industry. Out of all the sulfur dyes perhaps 50% of production is of the sulfur black color as black is the most popular fabric color.

Fabric Preparation >>>>> Scouring+Bleaching for cotton Dye Solution Preparation>> Add Chemicals Dyeing>>>>>>>>>>> Heat+Water+Time

Oxidation>>>>>>>>> Oxidize and Neutralization After Treatment>>> Soap wash or other treatments.

Chemical Structure of Sulpher Dyes: 1) Sulpher is heated with Para amino toluene aka para-Toluidine and Dehydrothiotoluidine is formed.

Now , this dehydrothio-toluidine is reacted with another molecule of Para amino toluene, which may be repeated until a quite complex molecule is formed.

2) Indophenol reacts with sulpher to make thiazine.

It is believed that both these equations play an important part in the formation of sulpher dyes. Dyeing of Cotton with Sulpher Dyes: Step Dyeing Chemical Dyes Na2S Amount 8 10% 8 -10 gm/l Reason Sulpher Dye weak , used for dark shades, thats why amount have to be more [ As much dye, that much Na2S . It is important to dissolve in water , so proportional in amount Need alkali environment. Na2CO3 is weaker than NaOH, thats why have to add more Chemical helps in wetting textile material. A chemical that preferentially forms water soluble complexes with metal ions. Basically reduce hard water problem. Temperature needed more in case of basic and less in acid Used for neutralization. Used for oxidation

Na2CO3 or NaOH Wetting Agent Sequestering Agent Temp x Time Oxidation CH3COOH K2Cr2O7 Temp x Time

8 10 gm/l 1 gm/l 1 gm/l

( 80 - 85 C) x ( 40 45) 1 gm/l 1 gm/l 50 x (10 15)

Problems in Sulpher Dyeing: Bronziness or Dullness Tendering Causes of Bronziness: Excessive delay between lifting of the dye bath & washing off or oxidation. Presence of excessive dye. Presence of excessive salt. Insufficient amount of reducing agent.

Remidies: Use of NaHS in conjunction with Na2S & NaOH gives very beneficial result. We can also use sodium bisulphate (NaHSO3) & Na2S. Here NaHCO3 & NaOH keep dye bath in a reduced condition. Prevent Surface oxidation which is the main cause of bronze or dull shades. Treatment of Dyed Material with oil emulsion. 1) Ammonia = 0.125 0.2 gm/l 2) Turkey Red Oil/T.R oil = 2 3 gm/l 3) Treatment with boiling soap solution at 95 C. 4) Treatment with >>> 1 2 gm/l olive oil and 1-2 gm/l of soda ash at 60 x 15-20. Causes of Tendering: Fabric dyeing with sulpher dyes looses strength in storage. This happened due to presence of free sulpher in dye structure. This sulpher reacts with water & air and form H2SO4 which causes great harm for cellulosic fabric. S + H2O + O2 H2SO4 Treatment: CH3COONa + H2SO4 CH3COOH + Na2SO4 Stripping for Sulpher Dye: A process of removing color from a dyed cloth by chemical means is known as stripping. Generally this is done when the fabric is to be dyed another color or the original color was unsatisfactory. NaOCL Treatment can be done having [Cl] at amount of 2 3 gm/l.

Finishing
Flow chart for finishing: Open Width Squeezing Slitting Stentor(Drying) Compactor Packing Tube Width Hydro extractor Dryer Compactor Packing

Textile finishing is a process used in manufacturing of fiber, fabric or clothing in order to import required functional properties. Or, In textile manufacturing, finishing refers to any process performed on yarn. Or, Fabric after weaving or knitting to improve look, performance & hand feel of the finished textile or clothing according to buyer requirement. Finishing has two basic purpose. 1) Either long term effect should be given for definite purpose. 2) Or short term effect should be given for definite purpose. Classification of Finishing:

Finishing

Physical/Mechanical

Chemical

Temporary

Permanent

Temporary

Permanent

Physical Finishing: The finishing process which is performed by machines but not using chemicals is called physical finishing. E.g. Calendaring, Raising, Sanforizing, Compactor etc. Chemical Finishing: The finishing process which is performed by applying chemical is called chemical finishing. E.g. Sizing, Softening, Resin finishing etc. Temporary Finishing: The finishing process where finishing materials or treatment may be removed by easy washing or relaxation is called temporary finish. E.g. Sizing Permanent Finishing: The finishing process where finishing material stables up to last stage of processing or not damage by any easy washing process is called permanent finish. E.g. Softening, resin etc. Physical Finishing vs. Chemical Finishing: Physical Finishing Chemical Finishing 1) The finishing process which is 1) The finishing process which is performed by machines but not using performed by applying chemical is chemicals is called physical finishing. called chemical finishing. 2) It is used to control dimension & 2) It is used to make fabric soft, glossy & shrinkage. attractive. 3) Water is not important in such 3) Water is compulsory in such finishing finishing. as chemicals are used as solution. 4) It is much cheaper. 4) It is more costly. 5) Example: Calendaring, Raising, 5) Example: Softening, Resin finishing Sanforizing, Compactor etc etc. Effect/Object of Finishing: To improve attractiveness. a) Modification of fabric appearance. b) Alternations of fabric handle like stiffing or softening. c) To control dimension like compactor or heat setting. To improve serviceability. To improve performance. Special requirement like water proof, flame proof. [ Give Detail]

Mercerization: Mercerization is a physio chemical process where cotton yarn or fabric is treated with 13 25% caustic soda solution. In 1844, Mercer was the first to suggest the treatment of cotton with 20% caustic soda might have commercial application. He observed that when the caustic soda had been removed by treatment with acid and washing, the cotton contracted in length, increased in tensile strength and had acquired a greater affinity for dyes. But he failed to control the loss of length which was not expected. Later in 1989 Lowe discovered that the shrinkage could be avoided if the cotton was kept under tension while immersed in caustic soda. The fibre then retained its increased tensile strength and affinity for dyes and had also acquired some additional properties. Object: Note: As absorbency increase the strength decreases. This happens due to application of NaOH. From 5% to 18% mercerization, the strength tends to increase. But after that from 18% to 27% the strength decreases and strength is completely gone if more than 27% mercerization is done while it may have the most absorbency. Luster is increased by crystallization or alignment of fibers. Dimensional stability is a physical process which can control various parameters like GSM. Higher strength obtained by1) Molecular orientation increase 2) Lengthwise shrinkage : Shrinkage creates elasticity slightly which gives a much better strength obviously than a stiffer fabric. Higher Absorbency obtained by1) NaOH acts as a decrystallization agent which causes increase of amorphous regions. 2) Crystal Lattice altered & tends to increase absorbency. Higher Dye Affinity obtained similarly as like absorbency. Luster increased by1) Kidney shaped immature fibers are treated so that they may look like circular mature fibers. Something like make up. Circular shape gives more luster. 2) Increase transparency and reduce roughness. Improve Tensile Strength Improve Absorbency. Improve Dye Affinity Improve Luster. Improve Dimensional Stability.

Effect of Mercerization/ Considerable point for mercerization: Concentration of caustic soda solution. It is a vital factor. Because it helps in increasing absorbency while can harm fabric at high temperature or at high quantity application. So, it must be as much minimal as possible to complete the task with maximum efficiency. Temperature is another important factor in mercerization. It is seen that if temperature is given more, the caustic soda becomes more active before time. So temperature must be controlled along with the amount of caustic soda. Tension is very much important to avoid shrinkage. Mercer could not avoid shrinkage when he discovered mercerization. It was found later that shrinkage could be avoided if the cotton was kept under tension while immersed in caustic soda Time is one important factor because the more time given for mercerization the more absorbency is achieved with lesser tensile strength. So a minimal time should be given. Washing is also important to remove the unwanted materials after mercerization. Fabric Mercerization Process:

There are generally two padding mangles. Padding mangle have emersion roller, squeezing roller, solution as necessary. A series of drums or rollers over which the cloth passes provides a short dwell period for the caustic soda to swell the fibers uniformly before the application of tension. Fabric goes through consequetive washing before neutralization. The alkali is rinsed out with sprays situated over the stentor. Efficiency of Mercerization: BAN = Barium Activity Number BAN =
( ( ) )

Rating >>>>> 116 ( no ), 116 127 (Good), 127 160 (Moderate), 160+ ( Bad)

Calendaring: Calendaring is a mechanical finishing method of fabric and normally it is the final finishing process. Fabric needs to dry after scouring, bleaching, mercerization and dyeing. But we should also be careful about its original & required dimensions and shapes. So, to fulfill all the requirements we use a drying arrangement called calendaring. Object: Closing the gap between warp and weft and internal fibers. Produce smooth, glossy & highly lustrous fabric. Fabric surface should be perfectly flat in order to get highly lusterous fabric. To produce air & water permeability. To dry fabric if required. To improve dimensional stability. Elements involved in Calendaring: Pressure: Fabric passing through the rollers of the calendar is subjected to a very uniform pressure all along its width. This pressure is given to improve the dimensional stability of the fabric. Temperature: Perforated rollers are used where steam is used with pressure in order to dry the fabric which have gone through many wet processes. Dampness: Fabric is damped before calendaring. As a result the damp fabric when calendered becomes highly lusterous. Another important factor is to control shrinkage. It is seen that if it is wetted at first and then drying controls the shrinkage. Types of Calendaring: Swizzing Calendaring Finishes Chasting Calendaring Finishes Fiction Calendaring Finishes Embossing Calendaring Finishes

Swizzing Calendaring Finish:

Fig: Swizzing Calendaring Roller. This machine consists of 5 bowls. Among them 3 bowls are made of metal & other two are rubber coated. The bowls are placed in strong iron frame. Surface Speed of all bowls are same. Metal bowls are driven by gearing mechanism and rubber coated bowls are rotated

with surface contact. Metal bowls are heated with steam or gas. Fabric is taken from trolley and passed through a tension rail and after that passed through these 5 bowls. Advantages Smooth fabric can be obtained No risk of displacing fabric Crease mark can be removed. Uniform Calendaring. Disadvantages No facility for GSM control

Raising
Raising is a permanent mechanical finishing process of lifting a layer of fibers from the body of the fabric which strands out from the surface. Object: To obtain a lofty handle effect To create a pile or cover in the farbric To produce heavier surface. i.e. S/J Fabric wt. increases when raising is done. To develop some new structure. To produce warm cloth.

Types of Raising Machines: a) Teasel Raising Machine b) Card Wire Raising Machine i) Single Acting ii) Double Acting In case of single acting raising machine, the rollers go to the same direction as the fabric and completes lesser amount of raising on fabric with the use of card wires. The cylinder rolls on the opposite direction generally. But in case of double acting raising machines, there are two types of rollers used which are normally known as pile roller and counter pile roller. These rollers roll against each other and in opposite directions consecutively. The fabric and cylinder rolls in same direction usually. Therefore the fabric is introduced to more raising due to different rotation of pile roller and counter rollers.