Solid-propellant rocket

A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket

with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants
(fuel/oxidizer). The earliest rockets were solid-fuel
rockets powered by gunpowder; The inception of
gunpowder rockets in warfare can be credited to ancient
Chinese ingenuity, and in the 13th century, the Mongols
played a pivotal role in facilitating their westward
adoption.[1]

All rockets used some form of solid or powdered

propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-
propellant rockets offered more efficient and
controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are still used
today in military armaments worldwide, model rockets,
solid rocket boosters and on larger applications for their
simplicity and reliability. The Space Shuttle was launched with the help of
two solid-fuel boosters known as SRBs
Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for an
extended period without much propellant degradation
and because they almost always launch reliably, they have been frequently used in military applications such
as missiles. The lower performance of solid propellants (as compared to liquids) does not favor their use as
primary propulsion in modern medium-to-large launch vehicles customarily used to orbit commercial
satellites and launch major space probes. Solids are, however, frequently used as strap-on boosters to
increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are
required. Solid rockets are used as light launch vehicles for low Earth orbit (LEO) payloads under 2 tons or
escape payloads up to 500 kilograms (1,100 lb).[2][3]

Basic concepts
A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain (propellant charge), and igniter.

The solid grain mass burns in a predictable fashion to produce exhaust gases, the flow of which is described
by Taylor–Culick flow. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, while
producing thrust from the exhaust gases.

Once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary
for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can be
throttled, and also be extinguished,[4] and then re-ignited by control of the nozzle geometry, or through the
use of vent ports. Further, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments, and that can be ignited upon
command are available.
Modern designs may also include a steerable nozzle for guidance,
avionics, recovery hardware (parachutes), self-destruct mechanisms,
APUs, controllable tactical motors, controllable divert and attitude
control motors, and thermal management materials.

A simplified diagram of a solid-fuel

rocket.
1. A solid fuel-oxidizer mixture
(propellant) is packed into the
rocket, with a cylindrical hole
in the middle.
2. An igniter combusts the
surface of the propellant.
3. The cylindrical hole in the
propellant acts as a
combustion chamber.
4. The hot exhaust is choked
at the throat, which, among
other things, dictates the
amount of thrust produced.
5. Exhaust exits the rocket.

History
The medieval Song dynasty Chinese invented a very primitive form
of solid-propellant rocket.[5] Illustrations and descriptions in the 14th
century Chinese military treatise Huolongjing by the Ming dynasty
military writer and philosopher Jiao Yu confirm that the Chinese in
1232 used proto solid propellant rockets then known as "fire arrows"
to drive back the Mongols during the Mongol siege of Kaifeng.[6][7]
Each arrow took a primitive form of a simple, solid-propellant rocket
tube that was filled with gunpowder. One open end allowed the gas
A battery of Katyusha rocket
to escape and was attached to a long stick that acted as a guidance
launchers fires at German forces
system for flight direction control.[7][6] during the Battle of Stalingrad, 6
October 1942
The first rockets with tubes of cast iron were used by the Kingdom
of Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan in the 1750s. These
rockets had a reach of targets up to a mile and a half away. These were extremely effective in the Second
Anglo-Mysore War that ended in a humiliating defeat for the British East India Company. Word of the
success of the Mysore rockets against the British triggered research in England, France, Ireland and
elsewhere. When the British finally conquered the fort of
Srirangapatana in 1799, hundreds of rockets were shipped off to the
Royal Arsenal near London to be reverse-engineered. This led to the
first industrial manufacture of military rockets with the Congreve
rocket in 1804.[8]

In 1921 the Soviet research and development laboratory Gas

Dynamics Laboratory began developing solid-propellant rockets,
which resulted in the first launch in 1928, that flew for
approximately 1,300 metres.[9] These rockets were used in 1931 for
the world's first successful use of rockets to assist take-off of
aircraft.[10] The research continued from 1933 by the Reactive
Scientific Research Institute (RNII) with the development of the RS-
82 and RS-132 rockets, including designing several variations for
ground-to-air, ground-to-ground, air-to-ground and air-to-air
combat.[11] The earliest known use by the Soviet Air Force of
aircraft-launched unguided anti-aircraft rockets in combat against
heavier-than-air aircraft took place in August 1939, during the Battle
of Khalkhin Gol.[11] In June 1938, the RNII began developing a
multiple rocket launcher based on the RS-132 rocket.[12] In August
1939, the completed product was the BM-13 / Katyusha rocket
launcher. Towards the end of 1938 the first significant large scale
testing of the rocket launchers took place, 233 rockets of various
Aerojet 260 motor test, 25
types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a September 1965
target at a range of 5,500 metres (3.4 mi). By the end of World War
II total production of rocket launchers reached about 10,000.[13]
with 12 million rockets of the RS type produced for the Soviet armed forces.[14]

In the United States modern castable composite solid rocket motors were invented by the American
aerospace engineer Jack Parsons at Caltech in 1942 when he replaced double base propellant with roofing
asphalt and potassium perchlorate. This made possible slow-burning rocket motors of adequate size and with
sufficient shelf-life for jet-assisted take off applications. Charles Bartley, employed at JPL (Caltech),
substituted curable synthetic rubber for the gooey asphalt, creating a flexible but geometrically stable load-
bearing propellant grain that bonded securely to the motor casing. This made possible much larger solid
rocket motors. Atlantic Research Corporation significantly boosted composite propellant Isp in 1954 by
increasing the amount of powdered aluminium in the propellant to as much as 20%.[15]

Solid-propellant rocket technology got its largest boost in technical innovation, size and capability with the
various mid-20th century government initiatives to develop increasingly capable military missiles. After
initial designs of ballistic missile military technology designed with liquid-propellant rockets in the 1940s and
1950s, both the Soviet Union and the United States embarked on major initiatives to develop solid-propellant
local, regional, and intercontinental ballistic missiles, including solid-propellant missiles that could be
launched from air or sea. Many other governments also developed these military technologies over the next
50 years.

By the later 1980s and continuing to 2020, these government-developed highly-capable solid rocket
technologies have been applied to orbital spaceflight by many government-directed programs, most often as
booster rockets to add extra thrust during the early ascent of their primarily liquid rocket launch vehicles.
Some designs have had solid rocket upper stages as well. Examples flying in the 2010s include the European
Ariane 5, US Atlas V and Space Shuttle, and Japan's H-II.

The largest solid rocket motors ever built were Aerojet's three 6.60-meter (260 in) monolithic solid motors
cast in Florida.[16] Motors 260 SL-1 and SL-2 were 6.63 meters (261 in) in diameter, 24.59 meters (80 ft
8 in) long, weighed 842,900 kilograms (1,858,300 lb), and had a maximum thrust of 16 MN (3,500,000 lbf).
Burn duration was two minutes. The nozzle throat was large enough to walk through standing up. The
motor was capable of serving as a 1-to-1 replacement for the 8-engine Saturn I liquid-propellant first stage
but was never used as such. Motor 260 SL-3 was of similar length and weight but had a maximum thrust of
24 MN (5,400,000 lbf) and a shorter duration.

Design
Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel and oxidizer mass. Grain geometry
and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics.

The following are chosen or solved simultaneously. The results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and
case geometries:

The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure.[17]
The chamber pressure is determined by the nozzle throat diameter and grain burn rate.
Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design.
The length of burn time is determined by the grain "web thickness".
The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing. Case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since
the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible.

Common modes of failure in solid rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding, and
air pockets in the grain. All of these produce an instantaneous increase in burn surface area and a
corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure, which may rupture the casing.

Another failure mode is casing seal failure. Seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the
grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and result in failure. This was the cause of the
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.

Grain geometry
Solid rocket fuel deflagrates from the surface of exposed propellant in the combustion chamber. In this
fashion, the geometry of the propellant inside the rocket motor plays an important role in the overall motor
performance. As the surface of the propellant burns, the shape evolves (a subject of study in internal
ballistics), most often changing the propellant surface area exposed to the combustion gases. Since the
propellant volume is equal to the cross sectional area times the fuel length, the volumetric propellant
consumption rate is the cross section area times the linear burn rate , and the instantaneous mass flow rate
of combustion gases generated is equal to the volumetric rate times the fuel density :

Several geometric configurations are often used depending on the application and desired thrust curve:
 Circular bore C-slot simulation Moon burner 5-point finocyl
simulation simulation simulation

Circular bore: if in BATES configuration, produces progressive-regressive thrust curve.

End burner: propellant burns from one axial end to other producing steady long burn, though
has thermal difficulties, center of gravity (CG) shift.
C-slot: propellant with large wedge cut out of side (along axial direction), producing fairly long
regressive thrust, though has thermal difficulties and asymmetric CG characteristics.
Moon burner: off-center circular bore produces progressive-regressive long burn, though has
slight asymmetric CG characteristics
Finocyl: usually a 5- or 6-legged star-like shape that can produce very level thrust, with a bit
quicker burn than circular bore due to increased surface area.

Casing
The casing may be constructed from a range of materials. Cardboard is used for small black powder model
motors, whereas aluminium is used for larger composite-fuel hobby motors. Steel was used for the space
shuttle boosters. Filament-wound graphite epoxy casings are used for high-performance motors.

The casing must be designed to withstand the pressure and resulting stresses of the rocket motor, possibly at
elevated temperature. For design, the casing is considered a pressure vessel.

To protect the casing from corrosive hot gases, a sacrificial thermal liner on the inside of the casing is often
implemented, which ablates to prolong the life of the motor casing.

Nozzle
A convergent-divergent design accelerates the exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce thrust. The nozzle
must be constructed from a material that can withstand the heat of the combustion gas flow. Often, heat-
resistant carbon-based materials are used, such as amorphous graphite or carbon-carbon.

Some designs include directional control of the exhaust. This can be accomplished by gimballing the nozzle,
as in the Space Shuttle SRBs, by the use of jet vanes in the exhaust as in the V-2 rocket, or by liquid
injection thrust vectoring (LITV).

LITV consists of injecting a liquid into the exhaust stream after the nozzle throat. The liquid then vaporizes,
and in most cases chemically reacts, adding mass flow to one side of the exhaust stream and thus providing a
control moment. For example, the Titan IIIC solid boosters injected nitrogen tetroxide for LITV; the tanks
can be seen on the sides of the rocket between the main center stage and the boosters.[18]
An early Minuteman first stage used a single motor with four gimballed nozzles to provide pitch, yaw, and
roll control.

Performance
A typical, well-designed ammonium perchlorate composite
propellant (APCP) first-stage motor may have a vacuum specific
impulse (Isp ) as high as 285.6 seconds (2.801 km/s) (Titan IVB
SRMU).[19] This compares to 339.3 s (3.327 km/s) for RP1/LOX
(RD-180)[20] and 452.3 s (4.436 km/s) for LH2 /LOX (Block II RS-
25)[21] bipropellant engines. Upper stage specific impulses are
somewhat greater: as much as 303.8 s (2.979 km/s) for APCP
(Orbus 6E),[22] 359 s (3.52 km/s) for RP1/LOX (RD-0124)[23] and An exhaust cloud engulfs Launch
465.5 s (4.565 km/s) for LH2 /LOX (RL10B-2).[24] Pad 39A at NASA's Kennedy Space
Center as the Space Shuttle
Propellant fractions are usually somewhat higher for (non- Endeavour lifts off.
segmented) solid propellant first stages than for upper stages. The
53,000-kilogram (117,000 lb) Castor 120 first stage has a propellant
mass fraction of 92.23% while the 14,000-kilogram (31,000 lb) Castor 30 upper stage developed for Orbital
Science's Taurus II COTS (Commercial Off The Shelf) (International Space Station resupply) launch vehicle
has a 91.3% propellant fraction with 2.9% graphite epoxy motor casing, 2.4% nozzle, igniter and thrust
vector actuator, and 3.4% non-motor hardware including such things as payload mount, interstage adapter,
cable raceway, instrumentation, etc. Castor 120 and Castor 30 are 2.36 and 2.34 meters (93 and 92 in) in
diameter, respectively, and serve as stages on the Athena IC and IIC commercial launch vehicles. A four-
stage Athena II using Castor 120s as both first and second stages became the first commercially developed
launch vehicle to launch a lunar probe (Lunar Prospector) in 1998.

Solid rockets can provide high thrust for relatively low cost. For this reason, solids have been used as initial
stages in rockets (for example the Space Shuttle), while reserving high specific impulse engines, especially
less massive hydrogen-fueled engines, for higher stages. In addition, solid rockets have a long history as the
final boost stage for satellites due to their simplicity, reliability, compactness and reasonably high mass
fraction.[25] A spin-stabilized solid rocket motor is sometimes added when extra velocity is required, such as
for a mission to a comet or the outer solar system, because a spinner does not require a guidance system (on
the newly added stage). Thiokol's extensive family of mostly titanium-cased Star space motors has been
widely used, especially on Delta launch vehicles and as spin-stabilized upper stages to launch satellites from
the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Star motors have propellant fractions as high as 94.6% but add-on
structures and equipment reduce the operating mass fraction by 2% or more.

Higher performing solid rocket propellants are used in large strategic missiles (as opposed to commercial
launch vehicles). HMX, C4 H8 N4 (NO2 )4 , a nitramine with greater energy than ammonium perchlorate, was
used in the propellant of the Peacekeeper ICBM and is the main ingredient in NEPE-75 propellant used in
the Trident II D-5 Fleet Ballistic Missile.[26] It is because of explosive hazard that the higher energy military
solid propellants containing HMX are not used in commercial launch vehicles except when the LV is an
adapted ballistic missile already containing HMX propellant (Minotaur IV and V based on the retired
Peacekeeper ICBMs).[27] The Naval Air Weapons Station at China Lake, California, developed a new
compound, C6 H6 N6 (NO2 )6 , called simply CL-20 (China Lake compound # 20). Compared to HMX, CL-20
has 14% more energy per mass, 20% more energy per volume, and a higher oxygen-to-fuel ratio.[28] One of
the motivations for development of these very high energy density military solid propellants is to achieve
mid-course exo-atmospheric ABM capability from missiles small enough to fit in existing ship-based below-
deck vertical launch tubes and air-mobile truck-mounted launch tubes. CL-20 propellant compliant with
Congress' 2004 insensitive munitions (IM) law has been demonstrated and may, as its cost comes down, be
suitable for use in commercial launch vehicles, with a very significant increase in performance compared
with the currently favored APCP solid propellants. With a specific impulse of 309 s already demonstrated by
Peacekeeper's second stage using HMX propellant, the higher energy of CL-20 propellant can be expected
to increase specific impulse to around 320 s in similar ICBM or launch vehicle upper stage applications,
without the explosive hazard of HMX.[29]

An attractive attribute for military use is the ability for solid rocket propellant to remain loaded in the rocket
for long durations and then be reliably launched at a moment's notice.

Propellant families

Black powder (gunpowder) propellant

Black powder (gunpowder) is composed of charcoal (fuel), potassium nitrate (oxidizer), and sulfur (fuel and
catalyst). It is one of the oldest pyrotechnic compositions with application to rocketry. In modern times, black
powder finds use in low-power model rockets (such as Estes and Quest rockets),[30][31] as it is cheap and
fairly easy to produce. The fuel grain is typically a mixture of pressed fine powder (into a solid, hard slug),
with a burn rate that is highly dependent upon exact composition and operating conditions. The specific
impulse of black powder is low, around 80 s (0.78 km/s). The grain is sensitive to fracture and, therefore,
catastrophic failure. Black powder does not typically find use in motors above 40 newtons (9.0 pounds-
force) thrust.

Zinc–sulfur (ZS) propellants

Composed of powdered zinc metal and powdered sulfur (oxidizer), ZS or "micrograin" is another pressed
propellant that does not find any practical application outside specialized amateur rocketry circles due to its
poor performance (as most ZS burns outside the combustion chamber) and fast linear burn rates on the order
of 2 m/s. ZS is most often employed as a novelty propellant as the rocket accelerates extremely quickly
leaving a spectacular large orange fireball behind it.

"Candy" propellants
In general, rocket candy propellants are an oxidizer (typically potassium nitrate) and a sugar fuel (typically
dextrose, sorbitol, or sucrose) that are cast into shape by gently melting the propellant constituents together
and pouring or packing the amorphous colloid into a mold. Candy propellants generate a low-medium
specific impulse of roughly 130 s (1.3 km/s) and, thus, are used primarily by amateur and experimental
rocketeers.

Double-base (DB) propellants

DB propellants are composed of two monopropellant fuel components where one typically acts as a high-
energy (yet unstable) monopropellant and the other acts as a lower-energy stabilizing (and gelling)
monopropellant. In typical circumstances, nitroglycerin is dissolved in a nitrocellulose gel and solidified with
additives. DB propellants are implemented in applications where minimal smoke is required yet a medium-
high Isp of roughly 235 s (2.30 km/s) is required. The addition of metal fuels (such as aluminium) can
increase performance to around 250 s (2.5 km/s), though metal oxide nucleation in the exhaust can turn the
smoke opaque.

Composite propellants
A powdered oxidizer and powdered metal fuel are intimately mixed and immobilized with a rubbery binder
(that also acts as a fuel). Composite propellants are often either ammonium-nitrate-based (ANCP) or
ammonium-perchlorate-based (APCP). Ammonium nitrate composite propellant often uses magnesium
and/or aluminium as fuel and delivers medium performance (Isp of about 210 s (2.1 km/s)) whereas
ammonium perchlorate composite propellant often uses aluminium fuel and delivers high performance:
vacuum Isp up to 296 s (2.90 km/s) with a single-piece nozzle or 304 s (2.98 km/s) with a high-area-ratio
telescoping nozzle.[22] Aluminium is used as fuel because it has a reasonable specific energy density, a high
volumetric energy density, and is difficult to ignite accidentally. Composite propellants are cast, and retain
their shape after the rubber binder, such as Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), cross-links
(solidifies) with the aid of a curative additive. Because of its high performance, moderate ease of
manufacturing, and moderate cost, APCP finds widespread use in space, military, and amateur rockets,
whereas cheaper and less efficient ANCP finds use in amateur rocketry and gas generators. Ammonium
dinitramide, NH4 N(NO2 )2 , is being considered as a 1-to-1 chlorine-free substitute for ammonium
perchlorate in composite propellants. Unlike ammonium nitrate, ADN can be substituted for AP without a
loss in motor performance.

Polyurethane-bound aluminium-APCP solid fuel was used in the submarine-launched Polaris missiles.[32]
APCP used in the space shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters consisted of ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer, 69.6%
by weight), aluminium (fuel, 16%), iron oxide (a catalyst, 0.4%), polybutadiene acrylonitrile (PBAN)
polymer (a non-urethane rubber binder that held the mixture together and acted as secondary fuel, 12.04%),
and an epoxy curing agent (1.96%).[33][34] It developed a specific impulse of 242 seconds (2.37 km/s) at sea
level or 268 seconds (2.63 km/s) in a vacuum. The 2005-2009 Constellation Program was to use a similar
PBAN-bound APCP.[35]

In 2009, a group succeeded in creating a propellant of water and nanoaluminium (ALICE).

High-energy composite (HEC) propellants

Typical HEC propellants start with a standard composite propellant mixture (such as APCP) and add a high-
energy explosive to the mix. This extra component usually is in the form of small crystals of RDX or HMX,
both of which have higher energy than ammonium perchlorate. Despite a modest increase in specific
impulse, implementation is limited due to the increased hazards of the high-explosive additives.

Composite modified double base propellants

Composite modified double base propellants start with a nitrocellulose/nitroglycerin double base propellant
as a binder and add solids (typically ammonium perchlorate (AP) and powdered aluminium) normally used
in composite propellants. The ammonium perchlorate makes up the oxygen deficit introduced by using
nitrocellulose, improving the overall specific impulse. The aluminium improves specific impulse as well as
combustion stability. High performing propellants such as NEPE-75 used to fuel the Trident II D-5, SLBM
replace most of the AP with polyethylene glycol-bound HMX, further increasing specific impulse. The
mixing of composite and double base propellant ingredients has become so common as to blur the functional
definition of double base propellants.

Minimum-signature (smokeless) propellants

One of the most active areas of solid propellant research is the development of high-energy, minimum-
signature propellant using C6 H6 N6 (NO2 )6 CL-20 nitroamine (China Lake compound #20), which has 14%
higher energy per mass and 20% higher energy density than HMX. The new propellant has been
successfully developed and tested in tactical rocket motors. The propellant is non-polluting: acid-free, solid
particulates-free, and lead-free. It is also smokeless and has only a faint shock diamond pattern that is visible
in the otherwise transparent exhaust. Without the bright flame and dense smoke trail produced by the burning
of aluminized propellants, these smokeless propellants all but eliminate the risk of giving away the positions
from which the missiles are fired. The new CL-20 propellant is shock-insensitive (hazard class 1.3) as
opposed to current HMX smokeless propellants which are highly detonable (hazard class 1.1). CL-20 is
considered a major breakthrough in solid rocket propellant technology but has yet to see widespread use
because costs remain high.[28]

Electric solid propellants

Electric solid propellants (ESPs) are a family of high performance plastisol solid propellants that can be
ignited and throttled by the application of electric current. Unlike conventional rocket motor propellants that
are difficult to control and extinguish, ESPs can be ignited reliably at precise intervals and durations. It
requires no moving parts and the propellant is insensitive to flames or electrical sparks.[36]

Hobby and amateur rocketry

Solid propellant rocket motors can be bought for use in model rocketry; they are normally small cylinders of
black powder fuel with an integral nozzle and optionally a small charge that is set off when the propellant is
exhausted after a time delay. This charge can be used to trigger a camera, or deploy a parachute. Without this
charge and delay, the motor may ignite a second stage (black powder only).

In mid- and high-power rocketry, commercially made APCP motors are widely used. They can be designed
as either single-use or reloadables. These motors are available in impulse ranges from "A" (1.26 Ns–
2.50 Ns) to "O" (20.48 kNs – 40.96 kNs), from several manufacturers. They are manufactured in
standardized diameters and varying lengths depending on required impulse. Standard motor diameters are
13, 18, 24, 29, 38, 54, 75, 98, and 150 millimeters. Different propellant formulations are available to produce
different thrust profiles, as well as special effects such as colored flames, smoke trails, or large quantities of
sparks (produced by adding titanium sponge to the mix).

Use

Sounding rockets
Almost all sounding rockets use solid motors.

Astrobee
 Black Brant
S-310, S-520
Skylark (rocket)
Terrier-Orion, Terrier-Malemute
VSB-30

Missiles
Due to reliability, ease of storage and handling, solid rockets are used on missiles and ICBMs.

Air-to-air missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder

Ballistic missiles: Jericho, Sejjil
ICBMs: LGM-30 Minuteman, UGM-133 Trident II, LGM-118 Peacekeeper, RT-2PM Topol, DF-
41, M51 SLBM

Orbital rockets
Solid rockets are suitable for launching small payloads to orbital velocities, especially if three or more stages
are used. Many of these are based on repurposed ICBMs.

Scout
Athena
Mu
Pegasus
Taurus
Minotaur
Start-1
PSLV - alternating solid and liquid stages
Shavit
Vega
Long March 11
OmegA
Larger liquid-fueled orbital rockets often use solid rocket boosters to gain enough initial thrust to launch the
fully fueled rocket.

Delta II
Titan IV
Space Shuttle
Space Launch System
Ariane 5
Atlas II
Atlas V (optionally 1-5 boosters)
Delta IV (optionally 2 or 4 boosters)
H-IIA, H-IIB
PSLV - optional solid boosters to lift heavier payloads
GSLV Mk III
Solid fuel is also used for some upper stages, particularly the Star 37 (sometimes referred to as the "Burner"
upper stage) and the Star 48 (sometimes referred to as the "Payload Assist Module", or PAM), both
manufactured originally by Thiokol, and today by Northrop Grumman. They are used to lift large payloads
to intended orbits (such as the Global Positioning System satellites), or smaller payloads to interplanetary—
or even interstellar—trajectories. Another solid-fuel upper stage, used by the Space Shuttle and the Titan IV,
was the Boeing-manufactured Inertial Upper Stage (IUS).

Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 were both sent out of the solar system by Star 37E upper stages
from Atlas-Centaur rockets.
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were both sent out of the solar system by Star 37E upper stages
from Titan IIIE rockets.
Magellan was sent to Venus on an IUS after being deployed from Space Shuttle Atlantis on
STS-30.
Galileo was sent to Jupiter on an IUS after being deployed from Space Shuttle Atlantis on
STS-34.
Ulysses was sent to Jupiter on an IUS and a Star 48 PAM after being deployed from Space
Shuttle Discovery on STS-41. It then was placed in a polar orbit around the Sun following a
gravity assist around Jupiter.
New Horizons was sent out of the solar system on a Star 48 PAM from an Atlas V rocket.
Some rockets, like the Antares (manufactured by Northrop Grumman), have mandatory solid-fuel upper
stages. The Antares rocket uses the Northrop Grumman-manufactured Castor 30 as an upper stage.

Advanced research
Environmentally sensitive fuel formulations such as ALICE propellant
Ramjets with solid fuel
Variable thrust designs based on variable nozzle geometry
 Hybrid rockets that use solid fuel and throttleable liquid or gaseous oxidizer

See also
Comparison of solid-fuelled orbital launch systems
Comparison of orbital launch systems
Comparison of orbital launchers families
List of space launch system designs
List of missiles
List of orbital launch systems
List of sounding rockets
List of military rockets
Fireworks
Pyrotechnic composition
Intercontinental ballistic missile
Jetex engine
Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster
Crawford burner
Nano-thermite
Skyrocket

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Further reading
A. Davenas, ed. (1992). Solid Rocket Propulsion Technology. Pergamon. ISBN 978-
0080409993.

External links
Robert A. Braeunig rocket propulsion page (http://www.braeunig.us/space/propuls.htm)
Astronautix Composite Solid Propellants (https://web.archive.org/web/20020806073439/htt
p://astronautix.com/articles/comlants.htm)
Ariane 5 SRB (http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/ASEDYQI4HNC
_0.html)
Amateur High Power Rocketry Association (https://www.tripoli.org/)
Nakka-Rocketry (Design Calculations and Propellant Formulations) (http://www.nakka-rocketr
y.net/)
5 cent sugar rocket (https://web.archive.org/web/20141017181140/http://balloons.space.edu/
ndra/nickle.html)
Practical Rocketry (http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/rocket2.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20060618142816/http://allstar.fiu.edu/aero/rocket2.htm) 2006-06-18 at the Wayback
Machine
NASA Practical Rocketry (https://web.archive.org/web/20061004175705/http://quest.nasa.go
v/space/teachers/rockets/rocketry.html)

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