UNIT III- DEVICE CORROSION

3.1 Introduction

Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with

its environment, chemical attack accompanies physical deterioration. Corrosion causes the
malfunctioning of controls and switching gear that results in more than 50% of electrical system
downtime, causing a huge loss. Harsh environments can cause electrochemical deterioration and
chemical attack on metallic wire terminals. Overall, the corrosion of current-carrying parts and
switching, as well as controlling equipment, affects the reliability and uninterrupted operation of
all kinds of electrical components and production facilities. This type of corrosion caused to
electrical and electronic devices are called as Device Corrosion.

The careful selection of coatings and substrate materials based on the service exposure of
electrical equipment and controls can improve the reliability and cost effectiveness of the entire
system. Electronic devices are presently used under service conditions that were never thought off
few years back. Consumer electronics are used under highly variable environmental parameters
(e.g. mobile phones brought to the seaside or sound system installations in kitchens or bathrooms).

Industrial electronics also experience a variety of environments due to their wide spread
use. In many cases precautions for protecting electronics against aggressive conditions are not met.
The demand for electronics is not lifetime performance, but reliability, since replacing electronics
is a costly task. The increased use of electronics has also increased the demand for corrosion
reliability. Corrosion failures can be difficult to diagnose and cause unexpected production loss
due to plant shut down. Overall size of electronic equipment and therefore the component size
have been decreasing at a faster rate.

3.2 Chemistry of IC (Integrated Circuit)

The chemistry involved in fabrication of IC (fig 3.1) chips:

 Substrate preparation
 Epitaxial growth
 Silicon dioxide growth
 Photo-etching

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  Diffusion

Fig.3.1 Integrated circuit and related components

3.2.1 Substrate Preparation

It involves the following steps:

Selection of Raw Material: Silicon of about 98% purity is obtained on reduction of silicon dioxide
on heating it along with carbon at a suitably high temperature in a furnace.

Zone refining: The order of purity needed in manufacture of IC chips is 1 impurity atom in
109 silicon atoms. This high order of purity is obtained on repeated zone refining process.

Crystal Growth: Silicon of desire purity is heated in a furnace and p-type impurity in proper
proportion is added to it. The p-type silicon crystal is then grown from the melt using a seed crystal.

Slicing and Polishing: The p-type silicon crystal is sliced into wafer each of thickness about 6
mils. Each wafer is then lapped to remove saw marks and then polished mechanically or chemically
to produce mirror like smoothness.

3.2.2 Epitaxial Growth

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  Epitaxial growth consists in formation of a single crystal thin film from the gas phase on a
wafer (p-type in this case) of the same material (silicon). This epitaxial layer forms a
continuation of the single crystal structure of the substrate.
 Epitaxial growth uses a chemical reaction whereby silicon is precipitated from a gaseous
solution to form a thin film of single crystal (mono crystalline) silicon on the surface of
silicon wafer placed in the gaseous solution.
 The basic chemical reaction involved in epitaxial growth of pure silicon is hydrogen
reduction of silicon tetrachloride .The epitaxial layer may be made either n-type or p-type.

Salient Features of Epitaxial Process

 The atom is arranged on crystal substrate in the single crystal fashion forming an extension
of the substrate layer.
 Epitaxial layer is grown from gas phase whereas large size crystals are grown from liquid
phase. Further, in epitaxial process, no part pf the system has temperature approaching the
melting point.
 Epitaxial layer has highly uniform resistivity (better than disused layer).
 Epitaxial layer may also be grown on diffused surface.
 Doping may be either p-type or n-type.
 Doping concentration may be varied over large range and complex impurity profile may
be grown.

3.2.3 Silicon Dioxide Growth

Before formation of a fresh SiO2 layer on the wafer surface, the wafer is washed in a suitable
solution to remove the previous SiO2 layer. Then the wafer is heated to a suitably high temperature
in an atmosphere of oxygen. Silicon oxidises to form a thin layer of SiO2.

3.2.4 Photo-Etching

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 Fig.3.2 Photo-Etching Process

 The wafer (also called a slice or substrate) with top of SiO2 layer is first coated with a
uniform layer of some photo-sensitive emulsion such as kPR (kodak photo-resist).
 An enlarged black and white pattern of desired opening in first made and then reduced
photographically to proper small size to form a mask or stencil (or negative). This stencil
or mask is then placed over the photo-resist Ultra-violet light is then made incident on the
mask. The photo-resist under the transparent region of the stencil gets polymerized as
shown in figure 3.2

Fig.3.2 Photo-Etching Process

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  The stencil is then removed and then wafer is developed using suitable chemical such as
trichloroethylene to dissolve the unexposed or un polymerized portion of the photo-resist
film leaving unaffected the desired pattern of polymerized photo resist as shown in figure
3.3.

Fig.3.3 Polymerised photo resist

 The unremoved portions of photo-resist are then fixed or curved making them resistant
to corrosive etching process.
 The chip is now immersed in an etching solution of hydrofluoric acid. The acid dissolved
the SiO2 from the portions unprotected by the photo-resist pattern.
 Next, the impurities are diffused through these unprotected portions.
 After photo-etching and diffusion, the resist mask and the underneath SiO 2 layer are
removed using chemical solvent such as sulphuric acid and in addition by mechanical
abrasion.

3.2.5 Diffusion of Impurities

 This forms the most important process in the manufacture of IC chips.

 Steps involved in Diffusion Process
 Dopant atoms in high concentration are brought in contact with the surface of the silicon
wafer for a suitably short period of time.
 Next the dopant is removed leaving behind some dopant atoms on the wafer surface.
 The wafer is now heated at a suitably high temperature. Due to heating the dopant enters
the wafer surface i.e. dissolves in the solid-state silicon crystal.

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The depth to which the dopant on (i) original concentration of dopant (ii) nature of dopant (iii)
temperature and (iv) duration of heating.

Salient Features of Diffusion Process

 Dopant atoms enter the crystal without damaging the crystal structure. In alloying, on the
other hand, crystal structure gets damaged.
 Diffusion process has to be performed several times since a number of circuit elements are
normally needed to be fabricated simultaneously.

During the second diffusion at a higher temperature, the diffusion of the first dopant may take
place again. Hence, it is necessary to fix proper sequence of different dopants.

A few dopants have diffusion constants much greater in silicon than in SiO 2. In such a case, SiO2
layer may be used as a mask in diffusion process. However, the SiO 2 layer itself is produced by
diffusion process. However, the SiO2 layer itself is produced by diffusion at a higher temperature
of 9000C to 13000

Diffusion may take place both perpendicularly and sideways or slanting. The slanting diffusion
permits dopant to enter region below the SiO2 layer. This part of the resulting pn junction is then
free from exposure to the contaminating atmosphere.

3.3. Chemistry of PCB (Printed Circuit Board)

3.3.1 Parts of Printed Circuit Board

There are four parts to a printed circuit board:

Substrate: The substrate is made of fibreglass, the “skeleton of the PCB.” Fiberglas provides
core strength to the printed circuit board and helps resist breakage.

Copper Layer: Depending on the board type, this layer can either be copper foil or a full-on
copper coating. The copper layer’s function is to carry electrical signals to and from the PCB like
your nervous system carries signals between your brain and muscles.

Solder Mask: The solder mask is a layer of polymer that helps protect the bare copper so that it
doesn’t short-circuit from coming into contact with the environment. The solder mask acts as the
PCB’s “skin.”

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Silkscreen: The silkscreen is usually on the component side of the PCB board and is used to show
part numbers, logos, symbols switch settings, component references, and test points. The
silkscreen can also be known as legend or nomenclature.

3.3.2 PCB Manufacture process

PCB manufacturing involves several chemical processing steps such as electrochemical or electro
less plating and etching/stripping of metal-layers or application of photo resist. Also drilling of
vias and through-holes are steps in a manufacturing process:

Fig: 3. 4 Design of PCB (Printed Circuit Board)

3.3.2.1 Electro less plating

An electroless plating process comprising the following steps

a) Contacting a surface of a non-conductive substrate with a cleaning and conditioning

composition comprising at least one glycol ether;

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b) Treating the cleaned and conditioned surface resulting from step a) with an alkaline
permanganate solution for a time, at a concentration, and at an elevated temperature sufficient to
prepare such surface for a metal lay to be subsequently applied by electroplating;
c) Contacting the surface resulting from step b) with an aqueous neutralizing and conditioning
solution comprising water, hydrogen peroxide, at least one acid sulfate compound and at least one
cationic surfactant;
d) Contacting the surface resulting from step c) with a stabilized sensitizing solution comprising
(i) ions of a metal selected from the group consisting of Group VIII and IB transition metals, (ii)
stannous ions present in the solution in a molar concentration in excess of the concentration of said
metal ions, (iii) an acid and (iv) a buffering salt;
e) Contacting the sensitized surface resulting from step d) with a solution containing a noble metal
salt to thereby catalyze the surface for subsequent electroless metal plating;
f) Contacting the board resulting from step e) with a dry film photoresist, imaging the resulting
board with a pattern corresponding to a desired circuit pattern and developing the imaged board;
g) Contacting the developed, imaged board resulting from step f) with an acidic cleaning solution;
and
h) Immersing the board resulting from step g) in an aqueous acidic electroless nickel metal
depositing solution, for a time, at a concentration and at a temperature sufficient to prepare the
board for subsequent pattern electroplating, said aqueous acidic electroless nickel metal depositing
solution comprising (i) nickel ions, (ii) a complexing agent (iii) a reducing agent capable of
reducing the nickel ions to nickel metal in an acidic state, provided said reducing agent does not
contain any formaldehyde or formaldehyde-generating composition and (iv) one or more
stabilizers.

3.8
Flow chart of electroless plating in PCB fabrication

3.9
3.3.2.2 Etching/Stripping of Metal-Layers

Step 1: Sketch a Schematic and Check the Math

Sketch out a circuit and track down all required components.
Step 2: Input your Design into a PCB Design Software
Programs such as Eagle and Easy EDA allow to design the schematic PCB
Step 3: Transfer the Layout to the Board

To ensure an accurate transfer, tape this print out over top of a copper clad laminate PCB. Using a
pushpin, stab through the paper where each component lead will penetrate the board. This will
leave dots on the copper where these components go. The small indentation on the copper will
also help the drill bit find the exact location the lead will go. Remove the printed sheet and make
sure all components are marked on the copper. Use a 1/32” (maximum) bit to drill out the holes
that were marked on the board. Once all the holes are drilled, clean the top of the copper plate with
a piece of sandpaper. Using a permanent marker, draw to traces between all the components
referencing the printed PCB layout. Allow some time for the ink to dry and touch up the board
where the marker is faint.

Step 4: The Etching Process

Once the second coat of marker is completely dry it is time to give the board a bath in ferric
chloride. Ferric chloride is a corrosive, acidic chemical compound that will eat away all copper on
the board that is not protected by the marker’s ink. Pour a modest amount of ferric chloride into a
plastic container with a lid; just enough to cover the board completely. Let the board soak for 10
minutes, make sure the lid is properly secured and agitate it every few minutes by rocking the
container back and forth. After 10 minutes inspect the board and if no copper is visible, remove
the board while wearing a latex glove. Pat the board dry with a disposable rag to remove all ferric
chloride from the board. Rinse the board with acetone that will make quick work of the marker ink
to reveal your unharmed traces. The etching process is complete!

Step 5: Populate the Board and Test Your Circuit

After the board has been etched, use a multimeter to do a continuity test.

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3.3.2.3 Drilling of vias

PCB drilling (which is also known as printed circuit board drilling), is the process of creating
holes, slots and other cavities in an electronic circuit board. During the PCB drilling process, a
number of different hole types are drilled. Vias terms about that they provide the connections
between different layers of a circuit board. Used to electrically and thermally join traces, pads, and
polygons on different layers of a PCB. Vias are copper cylinders that are placed or formed in holes
that have been drilled in a PCB.

3.4 Causes of Corrosion on IC,PCB

3.4.1 General causes of corrosion in electronic devices

1. The materials and miniaturization has significantly contributed to the corrosion of

electronic system.
2. The exposure of electronics to environments where temperature, humidity and atmospheric
pollutants such as chlorides, Nox, Sox, and hydrogen sulphide (H2S), which are not
controlled, can result in atmospheric corrosion of the metallic components .
3. Among the environmental issues, a significant problem is the residues found on the PCBs.
These residues are the contamination on the surface due to the remains of the chemicals
used for the manufacturing process. This could be the left over of original chemicals or
decomposed fractions of a compound formed during the production cycle. These are the
fluxing agents,
4. Flux residues are one of the most common and harmful residue sources that affect the
reliability of PCB assemblies, and field failures regularly occur due to flux residues that
have not been activated properly or not removed during assembly.
5. The most common flux residues are the activating species such as chloride and weak
organic acids, but also additives and surfactants like polyglycols are found to reside and
create problems in electronic assemblies ( figure3.5)

3.11
 Fig :3.5 Corrosion of electronic systems

3.4.2. Miniaturization

Miniaturization is the trend to manufacture ever smaller mechanical, optical and electronic
products and devices. In electronics, the exponential scaling and
miniaturization of silicon MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor,
or metal–oxide–silicon (MOS )transistors leads to the number of transistors on an integrated
circuit chip doubling every two years, This leads to MOS integrated circuits such
as microprocessors and memory chips being built with increasing transistor density, faster
performance, and lower power consumption, enabling the miniaturization of electronic
devices.(Fig.3.6)

Examples include miniaturization of mobile phones, computers and vehicle engine downsizing.

The miniaturization of electronic systems and the increase in their usage has augmented the risk
of corrosion in electronics devices. The demand for miniaturized devices has resulted in higher
density packing with reduction in component size, closer spacing, and thinner metallic parts.

Material loss of the order of nano-grams can cause reliability problems.

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Miniaturization and the requirement for high component density has resulted in smaller
components, closer spacing, and thinner metallic paths. Thus, the effect of bias potentials and small
defects is magnified.

Fig .3.6 Miniaturization of Medical device

3.4.3 Complex material Utilization

Micro pitting on Aluminium on IC During Processing

Aluminium metallization, alloyed with copper, can form intermetallic A12Cu compounds along
the grain boundaries, which act as cathodic sites relative to the aluminium adjacent to the grain
boundaries. This leads to dissolution of an aluminium matrix in the form of micro pitting during
the rinsing step after chemical etching.

Corrosion of Aluminium by Chlorinated/Halogenated Solvents

Both liquid and vapor-phase halogenated solvents used for production of ICs and PCs readily
corrode aluminum-containing components. Water contamination of the solvents increases the
time-to-corrosion on the one hand; however, on the other hand, it increases the subsequent
corrosion rate. Dilution of the stabilized solvents with aromatic or alcohol solvents leads to the
breakdown of the halogenated solvent and the formation of chloride ions, which corrode
aluminium and aluminium-copper alloys.

Solder Corrosion

The corrosion resistance of lead-tin solder in aqueous and gaseous environments is a function of
the alloy composition. It improves significantly when the tin content increases. Lead forms
unstable oxides, which easily react with chlorides, borates, and sulfates.

3.13
3.4.4 Production and Service factors

3.4.4.1 Production Related Contamination

Production related contamination can be present on any electronic device due to chemical
compounds contained in the bare printed circuit board (PCB) substrate or compounds resulting
from various processes during PCB manufacturing process (figure.3.7).

Polymer additives in PCB substrate

Polymer additives used in PCB substrate production can also cause surface contamination of the
substrate, which can affect the performance of components that are directly attached to the surface.

Etching and plating

The metal plating process that involves Chromic acid, sulphuric acid , fluorides and sulphates also
cause corrosion.

Human handling

Human handling of PCBs can also occur during production, and this is likewisea potential source
of contamination resulting from fingerprints, skin oils, saliva, dandruff etc. Especially fingerprints
(containing chlorides, amino acids etc.) can be an accelerator of electronic corrosion

Flux Compounds

The most common flux residues are the activating species such as chloride and weak organic acids,
but also additives and surfactant‘s like poly glycols are found to reside and create problems in
electronic assemblies.

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 Fig: 3.7 Production Related Contamination

3.4.4.2 Service Related Contamination

Humidity contributes to corrosion by the process of Ion migration. When voltage is

applied to the metal in electronic equipments, the water molecules from the air (humidity) that
have settled onto the metal surface causes the metal ions to elute.

The exposition of these devices to environments where temperature, humidity and

atmospheric pollutants like chlorides, NOx,, SOx, COS and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which are not
completely controlled, can favor atmospheric corrosion on their metallic components. Small
quantities of corrosion products are enough to induce reliability issues and even catastrophic
failures in the microelectronic devices due to the formation of insulating layers by the corrosion
film.

Dust may cause electrical leakage, shorting and opening of PCBs under different
conditions. A conductive electrolyte film can be formed, which can degrade the surface insulation
resistance between conductors. Dust particles can increase friction on contacting surfaces, thus
promoting third body wear and fretting corrosion, which in turn can change the contact resistance.
Dust particles act as dielectric materials to induce signal interference in the contaminated signal
connectors and lines. Dust accumulation on the heat sink, power connectors, or active devices can
cause overheating ( fig 3.8)

3.15
 Fig:3.8 Service Related Contamination

3.4.5 Environmental Contamination (Air borne contamination)

One of the most common reasons for electronic failure is environmental contaminants and
conditions.

The list of contaminants includes fine and coarse particles of such species as chlorides, sulfates,
sodium, ammonium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. The single most important
environmental condition affecting the impact of particulate matter and gases (such as sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides) is relative humidity. Fine particles (0.1 to 2.5 microns) come from
the combustion of fossil fuels and, at times, from volcanic and geological activity.

Coarse particles (2.5 to 15 microns) are typically formed as a result of human activity or originate
from soil. In electronic devices, coarse particles may cause malfunctions by interrupting electrical
contact between mating pairs of contacts on connectors or relays. They typically require higher
relative humidity conditions than the fine particles.

According to the ISA – Instrument Systems and Automation Society standard (ISA S71.04 1985),
there are four classes of industrial atmospheres with respect to copper reactivity.

G1 (mild) G2 (moderate) G3 (harsh) G4 (severe)

Copper corrosion < 30 nm/month < 100 nm/month < 200 nm/month < 300 nm/month

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Gas contaminants (ppb)

ISA category G1 G2 G3 Gx

H2S <3 < 10 <50 > 50

SO2, SO3 < 10 < 100 < 300 > 300

Cl2 <1 <2 < 10 > 100

NOx < 50 < 125 < 1250 > 1250

HF <1 <2 < 10 > 10

NH3 < 500 < 1000 < 25000 > 25000

O3 <2 < 25 < 100 > 100

Table: 3.1 Airborne contaminants in gaseous molecules

3.5. Forms of Corrosion

3.5. 1.Anodic corrosion (Galvanic corrosion)

Galvanic corrosion (also called bimetallic corrosion or dissimilar metal

corrosion) is an electrochemical process in which one metal corrodes preferentially when it is in
electrical contact with another, in the presence of an electrolyte.

When two metal electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and the circuit is
completed by joining the metal through a wire then this is the point where the process of corrosion
takes place. Metals with the higher oxidation potential will start acting as anode and will keep
losing electrons whereas the metals with lower oxidation potential will start acting as cathode
respectively. The activity of the metals is based on the electrochemical series. Thus the flow of
current is from more active metal (anode) to less active metal (cathode).

Example, if aluminium and carbon steel are connected and immersed in seawater, the aluminium
will corrode more quickly, whilst the steel will receive protection.

3.17
 Fig: 3.9 Galvanic corrosion

Zinc as anode and copper as cathode : When zinc and copper metal are placed in an electrolyte
which can be of water/aqueous solution containing any salt like copper sulfate it then the circuit
gets completed. Now Zinc starts to oxidize due to its high oxidation potential compared to the
cathode. Thus zinc slowly starts to corrode and form zinc ions. Copper ions, on the other hand,
start to gain electrons and are reduced so it is protected. The process continues until the zinc
electrode entirely gets dissolved. The hydrogen ions present in the electrolyte also gets reduced to
hydrogen gas and is seen as bubbles at the cathode.figure (3.9)

Reaction at Anode Zn > Zn+2 + 2e-

Reaction at cathode 2H++2e ---------- > H2↑

Reaction at cathode Cu +2 +2e -------- > Cu

Galvanic corrosion can be prevented by:

1. Selecting materials with similar corrosion potentials.

2. Breaking the electrical connection by insulating the two metals from each other.

3.18
3. Applying coatings to both materials.

4. Separating the two materials by inserting a suitably sized spacer.

3.5.2 Cathodic corrosion

Cathodic corrosion is an enigmatic electrochemical process that etches metallic electrodes at

potentials below 0 V versus the normal hydrogen electrode.

Recent advances involve applications of cathodic corrosion for nanoparticle

synthesis and electrocatalyst modification. Cathodic corrosion can produce milligrams of
nanoparticles in minutes or hours, using a simple voltage source and without requiring capping
agents that might affect catalytic performance

Mechanism of cathodic corrosion

From a fundamental perspective, cathodic corrosion proceeds through the mechanism illustrated
for platinum in fig 3.10 panel 1 visualizes the starting state of cathodic corrosion: a Pt surface in
an NaOH solution, polarized below 0 V vs. the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE). Under these
conditions, Pt vigorously evolves hydrogen gas and is covered with adsorbed hydrogen atoms . A
partial monolayer of Na+ is likely adsorbed as well . In these circumstances, an unknown and
presumably anionic species dissolves into the working solution (panel 2). Although the identity of
this species is unknown, it is likely cation-stabilized because a nonprotic electrolyte cation is
required to enable cathodic corrosion . After its formation, the cation-stabilized anion moves away
from the Pt surface until it encounters a water molecule (panel 3). In this encounter, the water is
reduced to H2 and OH−, whereas the anion is oxidized back to neutral platinum. These Pt atoms
can then redeposit onto their native surface or nucleate in solution into nanoparticles (panel 4).

3.19
 Fig 3.10 Mechanism of Cathodic corrosion

3.5.3 Electrical contact

Electrical contacts are present in any system in which a transfer of electricity occurs.
Specific examples include circuit breakers, relays, switches, and electrical discharge machining
(EDM) applications.
Electrical contacts can get oxidized or corroded through the presence of moisture and oxygen.
Depending on the facility, electrical connections may prematurely degrade due to high pressure,
high temperatures or harsh chemicals

Production processes themselves often leave behind sources of contamination for the electrical
contact surfaces, such as the solder on the circuit board surface

3.5.4. Metallic joint Degradation

3.5.4.1 Factors that causes degradation of metallic joints

In electronic devices, metallic joints can also degrade due to various factors, such as:

1) Thermal cycling: Rapid temperature changes in electronic devices can cause joints to
expand and contract which can lead to joint failure.
2) Vibration and shock: Electronic devices can be exposed to vibration and shock, which
can cause joints to loosen or break.

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 3) Humidity: Moisture and other environmental factors can cause corrosion in metallic joints,
which can weaken or break the joint.
4) Electrical stress: High currents or voltage spikes in electronic devices can cause metallic
joints to heat up and degrade over time.
5) Material fatigue: Repeated stress on metallic joints can cause them to weaken and
eventually fail, especially in devices that are subject to constant use or movement
(fig 3.10)

Fig 3.10 Chances of Metallic Joint Degradation due to various factors

3.5.4.2 Prevention

1) Use high-quality materials

2) Design the joints with the intended operating conditions in mind.

3) Regular maintenance and inspections to detect any signs of wear or corrosion.

4) Proper installation techniques and adequate stress relief measures also help to prevent joint
degradation in electronic devices.

3.5.5 FRETTING CORROSION

Fretting corrosion occurs due to vibration and slip in contact areas between materials under load.
It appears as pits or grooves surrounded by corrosion products. fretting corrosion is also known
as chafing corrosion.

Electronic devices that experience cyclic vibrations or thermal variations are susceptible to fretting
corrosion

Explanation : Fretting corrosion is a common failure mechanism for tin plated copper electrical
contacts. The accumulation of oxidation products at the contact spot is caused by the micro-

3.21
motions of the contact. Tin is a soft metal and rapidly forms a thin and hard oxide. When the hard
oxide layer gets broken, it can be pressed into the soft and ductile tin matrix where it can
accumulate. It has been speculated that it is the micro-slip action between the contacts that creates
the fretting, which combined with the oxidation causes the thick insulating layer at the contact
interface and the substantial increase in contact resistance and ultimate failure of the contact in
figure 3.11

Fig 3.11 Fretting corrosion in tin plated copper electrical contacts

Prevention of fretting corrosion :

1) Fretting corrosion may be controlled by applying lubricants which reduce friction between
the surfaces. Grease is normally used.

2) Use of seals to absorb vibrations and exclude oxygen and/or moisture

3) Increase the hardness of one or both materials in contact.

3.6. Corrosion cost

3.6.1 Introduction

1) Corrosion is a significant issue in India, with direct and indirect costs affecting various sectors
of the economy. According to a study conducted by the National Association of Corrosion

3.22
Engineers (NACE), the cost of corrosion in India is estimated to be around 3-6% of the country's
GDP (gross domestic product )

2) Analysis of 26 industrial sectors, in which corrosion is known to exist, and extrapolating the
results for a nationwide estimate ,it is investigated that the annual corrosion costs ranged from
approximately 1 to 5 percent of the Gross National Product (GNP) of each nation.

3.6.2 Various sectors affected by Corrosion

1) Infrastructure

Infrastructure is particularly vulnerable to corrosion, with structures like bridges, roads, and
pipelines experiencing significant damage due to corrosion. The cost of maintaining and repairing
corroded infrastructure is high.

2) Transportation sector

The transportation sector is also impacted by corrosion, with vehicles, railways, and shipping
experiencing significant wear and tear due to corrosion. This can lead to increased maintenance
costs and reduced efficiency.

3) Oil and gas sector

The oil and gas sector is particularly susceptible to corrosion, with pipelines and equipment
experiencing significant damage due to corrosive substances. The cost of repairing or replacing
corroded equipment is high, and corrosion-related accidents can be dangerous.

4) Power sector

The power sector is also impacted by corrosion, with power plants and transmission lines
experiencing significant damage due to corrosion. This can lead to reduced efficiency and
increased maintenance costs.

5) Manufacturing sector

The manufacturing sector is impacted by corrosion, with equipment and machinery experiencing
significant wear and tear due to corrosion. This can lead to increased maintenance costs and
reduced productivity.

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Overall, the cost of corrosion in India is significant and has a wide-ranging impact on various
sectors of the economy.

3.6.3 Reducing corrosion cost

Addressing the issue of corrosion is crucial for the sustainable growth and development of the
country. The cost of corrosion can be reduced through the use of corrosion-resistant materials,
regular maintenance and inspections, and proper training and education for workers.

3.7. Corrosion protection of computer hardware

Corrosion protection is essential for computer hardware, as corrosion can damage or destroy
components, leading to costly repairs or replacements.

It requires a combination of proper storage, maintenance, and protection measures. By taking

these steps, computer hardware can be protected from corrosion damage and have a longer
lifespan.

Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that can be touched,
seen, and manipulated.

3.7.1 Components of computer hardware

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the computer that performs all the
processing tasks. It is a microchip that interprets and executes instructions.

Motherboard: The motherboard is the main circuit board that connects all the other components
of the computer, such as the CPU, memory, and storage.

Memory: Memory refers to the computer's temporary storage that is used to store data that the
CPU needs to access quickly. The two main types of memory are Random Access Memory (RAM)
and Read-Only Memory (ROM).

Storage: Storage refers to the long-term memory of the computer that is used to store data and
software programs. The two main types of storage are Hard Disk Drives (HDD) and Solid State
Drives (SSD).

Input devices: Input devices are used to enter data into the computer system. Examples include
keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones

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Output devices: Output devices are used to display or output data from the computer. Examples
include monitors, printers, and speakers.

Peripheral devices: Peripheral devices are hardware components that connect to the computer
system, such as external hard drives, webcams, and USB drives.

3.7.2 Measures to protect computer hardware

1) Dust and Debris

Keep the computer hardware clean and dry. Regular cleaning with a soft, dry cloth can remove
dust and debris that can cause corrosion.

2) Temperatures and Humidity Protection

Avoid exposure to extreme temperatures and humidity. Store computer hardware in a cool, dry
place away from direct sunlight, and avoid placing it near heat sources like radiators or vents.

3) Moisture Protection

Use protective covers or cases for laptops and other portable devices when not in use. This can
help prevent exposure to moisture and other environmental elements that can cause corrosion.

Use desiccants, such as silica gel packets, to absorb moisture in storage areas or during transport.
This can help prevent moisture damage to computer hardware.

4) Corrosion-resistant materials

Use corrosion-resistant materials for computer hardware components. This can include using
stainless steel or aluminum for cases and other metal components.

Apply protective coatings or treatments, such as a corrosion-resistant spray, to computer hardware

components. This can help prevent corrosion damage.

5) Regular inspection

Regularly inspect computer hardware for signs of corrosion or damage. Early detection and
treatment can prevent further damage and costly repairs or replacements.

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 SELF ASSESMENT

PART-A

1. How does corrosion affect electrical systems?

a) It causes more than 50% of electrical system downtime
b) It enhances the performance of controls and switching gear
c) It results in the strengthening of metallic wire terminals
d) It has no effect on electrical systems
2.What is the impact of increased use of electronics on corrosion reliability?
a) It has no impact
b) It has decreased the demand for corrosion reliability
c) It has increased the demand for corrosion reliability
d) It has made corrosion reliability irrelevant
3.Select the cause of corrosion in metallic wire terminals.
a) Physical deterioration
b) Chemical attack
c) Electrochemical deterioration
d) All of the above
4. What is the main concern for industrial electronics?
a) Lifetime performance
b) Aesthetics
c) Cost-effectiveness
d) Reliability
5. Recall the material used as the substrate in epitaxial growth
a) P-type silicon
b) N-type silicon
c) Germanium
d) Carbon
6. What is the purpose of vias in a PCB?
a) A.To provide a place to connect components to the board
b) To make the board more visually appealing
c) To electrically and thermally join polygons on different layers of a PCB
d) To hold the components in place on the board

3.26
7. Select the G3 class limit according to the ISA with respect to copper activity.
a) >200nm/month
b) <300nm/month
c) <200nm/month
d) >50nm/month

Part-B
Discuss the corrosion due to miniaturization of electronic devices.
Summarize the chafing corrosion in electronic device.
Predict the salient features of Epitaxial Process.
Interpret the various parts of Printed Circuit Board.
List the general causes of corrosion in electronic devices.
Part- C
Describe the various steps involved in fabrication of Integrated Circuit chip.
Paraphrase the major forms of corrosion observed in electronic systems.
Explain the corrosion protection of computer hardware with its components.
Enumerate the chemistry involved in the manfacture of Printed Circuit Board.
Illustrate the causes of corrosion due to environmental contamination ,production and service
factors

3.27