International Journal of

Turbomachinery
Propulsion and Power

Review
The Aero-Thermal Performance of Purge Flow and Discrete
Holes Film Cooling of Rotor Blade Platform in Modern High
Pressure Gas Turbines: A Review
Giovanna Barigozzi 1 , Hamed Abdeh 1 , Samaneh Rouina 2 and Nicoletta Franchina 1, *

1 Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Scienze Applicate, Università degli Studi di Bergamo,

Viale Marconi 5, 24044 Dalmine, Italy; [email protected] (G.B.); [email protected] (H.A.)
2 Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences, Division of Vehicle Engineering and Autonomous Systems,
Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Design of cooling systems for rotor platforms is critical due to the complex flow field and
heat transfer phenomena related to the secondary flow structures originating at the blade leading
edge. Horseshoe vortex and passage vortex are the fluid-dynamic features that largely influence the
aerodynamic behaviour and the thermal protection level of the platform. The driving parameter is the
coolant to mainstream momentum flux ratio, but several issues have to be considered in the design
process of cooling technologies. As well acknowledged, an in-depth understanding of losses and heat
transfer phenomena are deemed necessary to design effective cooling systems. In the present review,
measurements and predictions on the behaviour of the HPT rotor cooled platform, obtained during
the last two decades by several research groups, are gathered, described and analysed in terms of
aerodynamic losses and heat transfer performance, and are compared with one another with respect
to the effectiveness level that is ensured.
Citation: Barigozzi, G.; Abdeh, H.;
Rouina, S.; Franchina, N. The
Keywords: gas-turbine; rotor platform cooling; secondary flows; film cooling effectiveness
Aero-Thermal Performance of Purge
Flow and Discrete Holes Film
Cooling of Rotor Blade Platform in
Modern High Pressure Gas Turbines:
A Review. Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. 1. Introduction
Power 2022, 7, 22. https://doi.org/ In modern high-pressure gas turbines, increased turbine inlet temperature values
10.3390/ijtpp7030022 are required to implement an effective cooling design, so as to avoid metal damage and
Academic Editor: Cengiz Camci related operating failures. With the increase of turbine inlet temperature, the rotor platform
becomes a critical region from the thermal protection point of view. Traditionally, film
Received: 22 February 2022 cooling technologies are implemented as a coolant fluid ensuing from a slot or discrete
Accepted: 29 June 2022 holes with the purpose of protecting the platform surface from excessive thermal load
Published: 4 July 2022
occurring (being exposed to gases ensuing from the combustor). Most of the available
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral results presented in the open literature are about the thermal protection capability of
with regard to jurisdictional claims in cooling schemes operating on nozzle vane cascade. Much less attention has been devoted
published maps and institutional affil- to the rotor blade platform thermal protection over the years, for at least three reasons.
iations. First, the general platform coolant to secondary flow interaction derived from nozzle vane
cascade testing was expected to be replicated in the rotor blade cascade, assuming the
rotation induced effect of second order relevance. Second, pieces of information could
be derived from secondary air system studies, mostly focused on the sealing capability
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
of purge flow issued from the stator to rotor interface gap [1–4]. Third, only a limited
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
number of dedicated rotating facilities are available worldwide for testing the rotor blade
This article is an open access article
platform, as also highlighted in [5], where the decrease of film cooling effectiveness, due to
distributed under the terms and
an increased rotational speed, was shown and explained by the wakes originating from the
conditions of the Creative Commons
stator trailing edge. Severe mixing was therein highlighted due to major unsteady turbulent
Attribution (CC BY-NC-ND) license
wake effects. Simulating rotation effects on stationary linear cascades was perceived as
(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
unsuitable to fully reproduce the complex flow field entering the rotor; see, for example [6],

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijtpp7030022 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijtpp

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 2 of 25

which is among the few works available in the open literature, presenting measurements
on the cooling performance of a turbine blade in a rotating facility.
The increased heat load to the first rotor pushed the designers to exploit the purge flow
issued from the stator to rotor interface gap not only for the purpose of sealing, but also for
cooling. Typically, a purge to mainstream mass flow ratio in the range 0.7–1.0% suffices
in effectively sealing the disk cavity from hot gas ingestion, but larger mass fractions
could be required for cooling purposes. There has been continuous further increase in
turbine inlet temperature over the last decades, as shown in [7]. This increase in turbine
inlet temperature is required to implement enhanced cooling technologies and extend the
thermal protection of the rotor platform further downstream, to avoid the appearance of
hot spots in the rear passage. In [8], the location of hot streaks in the rear passage, their
movement and interactions with secondary vortices, within the first stages of an HPT, was
discussed, highlighting separation of hot and cold flows.
Complex aerodynamics, due to secondary flow vortical structures, near the hub and
shroud walls, characterize the flow field travelling across the gas turbine nozzle vane and
rotor blade cascades, strongly influencing the effectiveness of cooling techniques. The well-
known, classical, passage vortex and horseshoe vortex, deeply investigated in the academic
community over the years, are clearly more complex owing to the coolant presence. The
interaction of the mainstream flow with purge flow, at different operating conditions,
based on different strategies, has to cope with a strong coupling of aerodynamics and
heat-transfer phenomena. As previously mentioned, the gap existing at the stator-rotor
interface is typically used for a twofold purpose, i.e., to (i) prevent ingestion of hot gases
into the disk cavity (see for example the pioneering work of Owen [1]) and to (ii) inject
coolant flow through this gap to protect the downstream platform surface. The coolant
discharged through this seal gap usually ensures satisfactory contribution to platform
protection mainly at the entrance region, reaching some specific location in the second
half part of the passage. In particular, the passage vortex related cross-flow movement
from the pressure side to the suction side of the passage exerts a washing activity on the
coolant itself, preventing complete thermal protection on a rotating platform. Discrete
holes, suitably placed and shaped, are therefore employed nowadays to complement the
upstream thermal coverage. Location selection of these holes should be carefully identified,
not only to protect specific platform regions (like, for example, the inter-platform region),
but also to consider manufacturing constraints connected with the effective possibility of
supplying coolant to the platform.
In fact, several issues have to be considered in the design phase of both purge slots
and discrete holes. Early steps of a design phase typically rely upon correlations, mostly
developed for the flat plate testing case, and on CFD simulations of the hot gas path,
thus providing the proper boundary conditions, i.e., mainstream pressure and temperature
distributions at holes/slot exit sections (see for example [9]). In the latter work, the different
phases, i.e., design, validation and follow up with verification feedback from production
are presented to suitably position cooling holes in the platform of an HPT first rotor.
However, this procedure only looks at the heat transfer characteristics, i.e., film cooling
effectiveness and heat transfer coefficient. Not so much attention is paid to the impact
of coolant injection on the aerodynamic performance, at least considering the available
literature. Yet, the coolant injection can have a strong impact on aerodynamic losses as
well. This impact can be large when coolant is injected where secondary flow related
vortical structures are going to be generated, i.e., in the cascade entrance region. Related
induced secondary flow structures that occur on cooled platforms clearly need to be well
understood, as any modification they experience translates into a change in the heat load to
the platform, as well as change affecting the coolant protection capability and, ultimately,
the rotor blade cascade aerodynamic performance.
A large amount of research activities has been carried out in the last decades, but
further effort is still required to better understand the impact of so many different relevant
issues involved. In the work presented here, a review of research presented in open
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 3 of 25

literature was conducted, dealing with the aerodynamic and/or thermal performance
investigation of cooled rotor blade platforms. The sealing capability of the injected purge
flow is out of the scope of this review. This paper will contribute to the existing body
of literature in trying to summarize the results coming from cooled rotor blade platform
experimental and numerical studies published in the last two decades, identifying the
tested gap and hole geometries, trying to describe the typical flow phenomena taking place
across the cooled channels and critically assessing the related aero-thermal performance
and how the latter is modified by the influencing parameters. As far as possible, all aspects
related to platform cooling will be considered, from the aerodynamics to the heat transfer
behaviour, up to the thermal protection capability.

Rotor Blade Platform Film Cooling Schemes Overview

The rotor blade platform of HPTs is a large region exposed to very high temperature
levels that may seriously damage the metal components, and, thus, this area must be
properly treated. First stages of modern gas turbines are subject to very high heat loads
that can be as high as 0.5–1 MW/m2 , since they are exposed to the hottest gas ensuing from
the combustor, as shown in [10], where the challenges related to increased temperature
levels of modern machines are discussed, focusing on technical risk and limits. Heat flux
measurements performed using thin-film heat flux gauges and flush-mounted pressure
transducers were presented in [11] for a full-stage rotating turbine. On the platform, the
highest heat flux was observed on the suction side corner of the blade trailing edge. The
thermal behaviour is largely established by a complex aerodynamic which is typically a
fully unsteady, three-dimensional in transition, or fully turbulent, regime. Usually, platform
cooling is obtained through the joint effect of the coolant discharged in the stator-rotor
interface gap and discrete holes suitably placed at the rear in the passage, as will be
shown in following sections. Several operating and design parameters play a key role and
have mutual interaction. Given the rotor geometry, these can be categorized into three
main groups:
1. Coolant flow parameters, such as the mass flow rate (MFR), the blowing ratio (M), the
density ratio (DR), the momentum flux ratio (I) and the inlet loss free blowing ratio
M1 , defined as follows:
s
mc ρc Uc ρc ρc Uc2 Pt,c − P1
MFR = , M= , DR = , I= 2
, M1 = (1)
m∞ ρ∞ U∞ ρ∞ ρ∞ U∞ Pt,1 − P1

where the suffixes c and ∞ refer to the coolant and the mainstream, respectively, and 1
refers to the cascade inlet condition. These parameters identify, in a non-dimensional
way, the coolant injection conditions. They can either be defined locally, for example,
for each cooling hole, or globally, including a complete hole pattern. In particular,
the inlet loss free blowing ratio M1 is used for discrete hole injection, whenever
the coolant mass flow is too small to be measured with sufficient accuracy. A last
parameter pertaining to the coolant definition is its turbulence intensity level.
2. Mainstream parameters, i.e., all those parameters that identify the main flow be-
haviour and structure while interacting with the injected coolant flow. These include
the approaching boundary layer thickness, Mach and Reynolds numbers at injection
location and the turbulence intensity level and length scale.
3. Geometrical parameters, necessary to fully define the hole/slot geometry. These
parameters are typically provided in a normalized form, in order to make the related
results generally applicable. For the stator to rotor interface gap, influencing geomet-
rical characteristics are the slot width over chord ratio w/c, its distance from the blade
leading edge, the injection angle with respect to the radial direction and the presence
of any internal feature implemented to either mimic a disc sealing geometry or, in the
case of cascade testing, some of the rotation effects (inclined fins or injection holes).
When moving to discrete hole cooling, other geometrical parameters are defined: hole
 angles, lateral and forward expansion angles, length of the cylindrical section in
case of shaped holes, and hole location over the platform.
As is well known, the basic purpose of cooling techniques is to maximize
coverage of the coolant flow while minimizing its consumption, and for this task new
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 4 of 25
conceived designs are still required to achieve improved balance between therm
protection and aerodynamic losses. A review work on recent platform cooling technolo
was presented by Wright and coworkers in [12] ranging from frontside to backside fi
diameter D, length over diameter ratio L/D, injection and compound angles, lateral
cooling, and considering traditional
forward expansion angles,techniques in addition
length of the cylindrical section toin novel,
the case of localized
shaped cooli
solutions,holes, such andasholead-hoc
locationcontouring,
over the platform. jet impingement, turbulators and roughen
surfaces. AsDescription
is well known, the basic purpose of coolingexternal
of both internal and techniquescooling flows
is to maximize the presented
coverage in
literature, and also
of the coolant flowsuitably patented,
while minimizing its were given. and
consumption, Theforattention was largely
this task newly conceiveddevoted
the description of the phenomena characterizing modern cooled HPT and
designs are still required to achieve improved balance between thermal protection platforms
aerodynamic losses. A review work on recent platform cooling technology was presented by
proposed and patented in the US during the period 2000–2013. However, a discussi
Wright and coworkers in [12] ranging from frontside to backside film cooling, considering
abouttraditional
the influence of significant
techniques in addition operating conditions
to novel, localized coolingonsolutions,
platform suchcooling
as ad-hocperforman
is stillcontouring,
missing. jet impingement, turbulators and roughened surfaces. Description of both
internal
Different and cooling
external cooling
solutionsflows have
presentedbeen in the literature, by
proposed and also suitably patented,
prominent research grou
were given. The attention was largely devoted to the description of the phenomena
during the last years, characterized mainly through experimental investigations (besid
characterizing modern cooled HPT platforms as proposed and patented in the US during
somethe numerical assessment)
period 2000–2013. However, to study the platform
a discussion about thecooling
influence capability
of significantas operating
modelled in lin
cascade or rotating
conditions test cooling
on platform rigs. The former family
performance of experimental facilities may simul
is still missing.
rotation effectsDifferentthrough
cooling solutions have been
swirl motion orproposed by prominentMost
fin introduction. research groupsresearches
of these during w
the last years, characterized mainly through experimental investigations
carried out at Texas A and M University on a five-blade cascade test facility [13–20], at (besides some nu-
merical assessment) to study the platform cooling capability as modelled in linear cascade
University of Bergamo on a seven-blade cascade test facility [21–26] and at Whit
or rotating test rigs. The former family of experimental facilities may simulate rotation
Laboratory of theswirl
effects through University
motion or fin ofintroduction.
CambridgeMost [27,28].
of theseMeanwhile,
researches werethe latter
carried out family
experiments
at Texas A(rotating platforms)
and M University were carried
on a five-blade cascadeouttestinfacility
the TPFL-research turbine facility
[13–20], at the University
Texas A and M University [29,30], in the CT3 compression tube turbine testofrig
of Bergamo on a seven-blade cascade test facility [21–26] and at Whittle Laboratory theat the v
University of Cambridge [27,28]. Meanwhile, the latter family of experiments (rotating
Karman Institute [31], at Ohio State University Turbine Test Facility (TTF) [32–34], at
platforms) were carried out in the TPFL-research turbine facility at Texas A and M Univer-
LISAsity research turbine
[29,30], in the CT3available
compression at tube
ETHturbine
Zurich test[35,36]
rig at theand, more recently,
von Karman Institute [31],at the Lar
Annulus at Ohio Rig (LAR)
State of theTurbine
University University of Bath
Test Facility [37,38].
(TTF) [32–34], Clearly,
at the LISAdifferent
research measurement
turbine s
available at ETH Zurich [35,36] and, more recently, at the
ups belonging to the same family are characterized by different cooling slot and h Large Annulus Rig (LAR) of the
University
dimensions andof Bath [37,38].as
positions, Clearly,
well as different
related measurement
geometrical set-ups belonging to the
characteristics. same1 displa
Figure
family are characterized by different cooling slot and hole dimensions and positions, as well
someasexamples of linear
related geometrical cascades and
characteristics. Figurerotating
1 displaysblade
somerow platform
examples of cascades
of linear the test facilit
considered in theblade
and rotating current work to of
row platform review
the teststate-of-the-art
facilities considered filmincooling technologies.
the current work to Figu
1a showsreview astate-of-the-art
sketch of coolingfilm cooling flows movingFigure
technologies. between1a showsnozzle
a sketch vanes andflows
of cooling rotor blad
moving between nozzle vanes and
passing over the platform and within rims and gaps. rotor blades, passing over the platform and within rims
and gaps.

Figure 1. Linear
Figure andand
1. Linear rotating
rotatingcascades
cascades examples:
examples: (a)(a)Sketch
Sketch of rotor
of rotor platform
platform cooling
cooling flows [39]
flows [39]
Five blade
(b) Fiverotor
blade cascade [16],
rotor cascade (c)(c)Seven
[16], Seven blade rotor
blade rotor cascade
cascade [24,25],
[24,25], (d) Turbine
(d) Turbine rotor compon
rotor component
with stator
with stator cavity
cavity andand labyrinth seal
labyrinth sealofofTPFL
TPFL[29,30].
[29,30].
In Table 1 some relevant geometrical parameters, related to purge slot design, declared
In Table
in the 1 some
published relevant
literature geometrical
are reported, parameters,
whose schematics related
are shown to2.purge
in Figure slot desi
Slot width
declared in the
typically lies published
between 5.5% literature
and 22.8%are reported,
of the whose
axial chord schematics
and the seal breaksare shown in Figu
at varying
positions upstream of the passage, as indicated
2. Slot width typically lies between 5.5% and 22.8% by x made non-dimensional using
LE of the axial chord and the the
seal brea
axial chord (ranging between some percentage points till 40% of the axial chord). The
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 5 of 25

underneath labyrinth-like sealing system is often reproduced (in the following coded as S2),
otherwise a simple cavity feeds the slot (coded as S1), eventually shaped in such a way as
to reproduce real geometry. Internal fins (coded “f”) or devices to generate a swirling flow
emerging from the slot (coded “s”) are used to better mimic some of the rotation effects in a
stationary
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, x FOR PEERcascade.
REVIEW Stationary wakes are often reproduced in front of the blade cascade,
5 of 26
together with vane-related passage vortex (coded “w”). Finally, rotating rig cases are coded
as “r”.
atTable
varying positions
1. Typical upstream
slot geometry and ofdetails
the passage,
of purgeas indicated
flow by
supply system. made non-dimensional
using the axial chord (ranging between some percentage points till 40% of the axial chord).
The underneath Reference
labyrinth-likeStudy sealing system is often w/Caxreproduced
L/s (in thexLE /Cax
following Code
coded
as S2), otherwise a simple
Gao et al., 2009 [13]; Liu cavity feeds
et al., 2014 [14];the slot (coded as S1), eventually shaped in such a
0.125 1.5 0.076 S2
Narzary et al., 2012 [15]
way as to reproduce real geometry. Internal fins (coded “f”) or devices to generate a
Chen et al., 2017 [16] 0.072 3 0.072 S1s
swirling flow Wright
emerging from[19]
et al., 2008 the slot (coded “s”) are used to better mimic some ofS2the
0.019 1.5 0.225
rotation effectsWright
in a stationary cascade. Stationary wakes are often reproduced in front
et al., 2009 [20] S2w of
Suryanarayanan et al., 2010 [30] 0.055 - 0.120 S2r
the blade cascade, together with vane-related 0.228
(Li et al., 2016) [18]
passage vortex4.1
(coded -“w”). Finally,
S1s
rotating rig cases et
(Barigozzi areal.,coded as “r”.
2013, 2014) [22,23] 0.068–0.127 3.4 0.146 S1f

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure2.2.Typical
Typicalslot
slotconfigurations:
configurations:(a)
(a)S1f
S1f[22],
[22],(b)
(b)S2
S2[13]
[13]and
and(c)
(c)S1s
S1s[18].
[18].

Table When
1. Typical slot geometry
considering and details
stationary of purge
cascades flowsimulated
with supply system.
purge swirling flow, injection
conditions are further described including the swirl ratio SR, defined as the ratio between
Reference Study w/Cax L/s xLE/Cax Code
the coolant circumferential velocity component and blade rotational speed or mainstream
Gao et
inlet al., 2009To[13];
velocity. Liu et al.,
reproduce 2014
the [14]; flow’s exit angle, fins can be installed inside the
coolant 0.125 1.5 0.076 S2
Narzary et al., 2012 [15]
slot to give the purge flow a tangential direction. Fin inclination angles between −10◦ and
−20◦ (with Chen et al., 2017
reference to the [16]
tangential direction 0.072
y in Figure 2a)3 are used 0.072to simulate
S1s the
Wrightwith
rotation effect, et al.,the2008 [19] value selected according to manufacturer indications
former S2 to
0.019 1.5 0.225
match designWright et al.,condition,
engine 2009 [20] whilst the latter inclination angle was chosen to reproduce S2w
Suryanarayanan
injection angle variations et al.,with
2010MFR.
[30] 0.055 - 0.120 S2r
Similarly, inal.,
(Li et Figure
2016) 3, [18]
some of the considered discrete cooling
0.228 4.1 hole designs
- are gathered
S1s
to (Barigozzi
illustrate their
et al.,positioning
2013, 2014)within [22,23]the blade channel, e.g.,3.4
0.068–0.127 holes located
0.146 on theS1f fileted
end wall along the blade pressure side as in [21] and distributed along the inter-platform
gap When
[24], downstream
consideringhalf of the passage
stationary cascades towards the trailing
with simulated edgeswirling
purge as in [20,26,30] and over
flow, injection
the whole platform, as in [13,14].
conditions are further described including the swirl ratio SR, defined as the ratio between
Table circumferential
the coolant 2 reports detailsvelocityabout the size, inclination,
component and bladeshape, etc. of speed
rotational every or single available
mainstream
configuration.
inlet velocity. ToThe differentthe
reproduce hole configurations
coolant flow’s exitcan be grouped
angle, fins can into three main
be installed classes,
inside the
i.e., holes mainly distributed along the PS, named H1; holes roughly
slot to give the purge flow a tangential direction. Fin inclination angles between −10° and located in the down-
stream
−20° halfreference
(with of the passage, i.e., H2; holes
to the tangential occupying
direction a large2a)
y in Figure part of used
are a blade passage (H3).
to simulate the
Clearly the hole shape plays a key role in determining the platform
rotation effect, with the former value selected according to manufacturer indications coverage level; a cylin-
to
drical design
match cross section
engineiscondition,
assumed as baseline
whilst configuration
the latter inclination(“c”), whilst
angle was more
chosen complex shapes
to reproduce
are labelled
injection angleas variations
(“s”). All adopted
with MFR. holes are characterized by a compound angle set to inject
coolant in the local freestream direction, the latter usually derived from preliminary CFD
Similarly, in Figure 3, some of the considered discrete cooling hole designs are
simulations. Please note that data reported in Tables 1 and 2 are only representative of avail-
gathered to illustrate their positioning within the blade channel, e.g., holes located on the
able cooling schemes. They have been selected since they report exhaustive information on
fileted end wall along the blade pressure side as in [21] and distributed along the inter-
platform gap [24], downstream half of the passage towards the trailing edge as in
[20,26,30] and over the whole platform, as in [13,14].
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 6 of 25

tested geometries and represent typical cooling pattern implemented in modern engines.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, Notice
7, x FOR that
PEERaREVIEW angle of 11.5◦ is not indeed common, but it was imposed
small injection 6 of by
26
the actual blade design, to take the coolant from the secondary air distribution system.

Figure 3.
Figure Discrete cooling
3. Discrete cooling hole
hole locations
locations in the blade passage.

Table 2 reports details about the size, inclination, shape, etc. of every single available
Table 2. Typical hole geometrical parameters.
configuration. The different hole configurations can be grouped into three main classes,
i.e., holes mainly
Reference distributed
Study along the PS, named
D (mm) L/DH1; holes
D/Caxroughlyα located Code in the
downstream half of the passage, i.e.,
Gao et al., 2009 [13]; Liu et al., 2014 [14]; H2; holes occupying a large part of a blade passage
(H3). Clearly theethole shape 1.6 8 0.019 30◦ H3c&s
Narzary al., 2012 [15]plays a key role in determining the platform coverage level;
◦
a cylindrical cross
Chen section
et al., is assumed as baseline
2017 [16] 1.6 configuration
8 (“c”), whilst
0.019 30 more complex
H3c
shapes are Wright et al.,
labelled as2008 [19]
(“s”). All adopted holes2.5 are characterized
10.16 0.015 30◦
by a compound H2c set
angle
Barigozzi et al., 2012, 2018 [21,24] 0.7 20 ÷ 48 0.0068 11.5 ◦
to inject coolant in the local freestream direction, the latter usually derivedH1cfrom
Suryanarayanan et al., 2010 [30] 1.0 - 0.024 35◦ ÷ 37◦ H2c
preliminary CFD simulations.
(Barigozzi et al., 2012) [25]
Please note that
1.0
data reported
14 ÷ 34
in
0.0098
Tables 1
40
and
◦ 2 are
H3s
only
representative of available
(Barigozzi et al., 2019) [26]cooling schemes.
1.0 They have
20 been selected
0.0098 since
30 ◦ they report
H2s
exhaustive information on tested geometries and represent typical cooling pattern
implemented in modern engines. Notice that a small injection angle of 11.5° is not indeed
It is well acknowledged that, whatever the cooling strategy employed, the coolant flow
common, but it was imposed by the actual blade design, to take the coolant from the
path and its metal protection level is mainly determined by the mutual interaction with the
secondary air distribution system.
secondary vortices. As already mentioned, the ultimate effectiveness is influenced both by
the operating thermodynamic conditions and by selected geometrical parameters. Among
Table 2. Typical hole geometrical parameters.
the latter parameter family, beside the details concerning interface gap or holes geometry
and position,Reference Study
the aerothermal D (mm)can also
performance L/Dbe influenced
D/Cax by other Code
α geometrical
features,
Gao et al.,like
2009 platform
[13]; Liuprofiling, or related to operating issues, such as the presence of
et al., 2014
platform misalignment, gap width 1.6 8 0.019 30° H3c&s
[14]; Narzary et al., 2012 [15] variations etc. Finally, also the presence of mid-passage
gaps in Chen
between blades
et al., 2017has[16]been shown 1.6 to have an impact
8 on0.019
platform thermal
30° protection.
H3c
InWright
the following, a general
et al., 2008 [19] description
2.5 of secondary
10.16 flow
0.015structure evolution
30° across
H2c
a rotor blade cascade is presented, discussing how it is influenced by coolant injection
Barigozzi et al., 2012, 2018 [21,24] 0.7 20 ÷ 48 0.0068 11.5° H1c
over the platform. Then, an attempt is made to summarize the existing literature, both
Suryanarayanan et al., 2010 [30] 1.0 - 0.024 35° ÷ 37° H2c
considering the aerodynamic performance and the heat transfer to the platform. Finally, the
(Barigozzi et al., 2012) [25] 1.0 14 ÷ 34 0.0098 40° H3s
discussion will focus on the thermal protection capability of the available cooling schemes,
(Barigozzi et al., 2019) [26]
trying to sum up the impact of relevant parameters. 1.0 20 0.0098 30° H2s

It is well Flow
2. Secondary acknowledged
Structuresthat, whatever
in Rotor Bladethe cooling strategy employed, the coolant
Cascade
flow Apath and itsand
complete metal protection
deep level isofmainly
understanding determined
secondary by the mutual
flow phenomena interaction
characterizing the
with the secondary vortices. As already mentioned, the ultimate effectiveness
blade platform is of cornerstone importance to elaborate on effective design of advanced is
influenced both by the operating thermodynamic conditions and by selected geometrical
parameters. Among the latter parameter family, beside the details concerning interface
gap or holes geometry and position, the aerothermal performance can also be influenced
by other geometrical features, like platform profiling, or related to operating issues, such
as the presence of platform misalignment, gap width variations etc. Finally, also the
 the discussion will focus on the thermal protection capability of the available cooling
schemes, trying to sum up the impact of relevant parameters.

2. Secondary Flow Structures in Rotor Blade Cascade

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22A complete and deep understanding of secondary flow phenomena characterizing 7 of 25

the blade platform is of cornerstone importance to elaborate on effective design of

advanced cooling techniques in modern gas turbines. Several researchers have
investigated
cooling the boundary
techniques in modernlayergas
development
turbines. at the end
Several wall of thehave
researchers nozzle vane and rotor
investigated the
blade cascades.
boundary Ref. [40] discussed
layer development at thehow
end the
wallboundary layervane
of the nozzle of the leading
and rotor edge
bladestems into
cascades.
Ref. [40] discussed
a horseshoe vortex how
which theitself
boundary layertooftwo
gives rise thevortical
leading legs
edgethatstems into awithin
develop horseshoetwo
vortex
adjacentwhich
bladeitself gives (see
passages rise to two vortical
Figure legs that
4). The strong develop
pressure within drives
gradient two adjacent blade
the pressure
passages
side leg of(see
theFigure 4). The
horseshoe strong
vortex pressure
across gradient
the passage, drives the
entraining lowpressure
momentum sidefluid
leg offlow.
the
horseshoe vortex across the passage, entraining low momentum fluid
The newly formed passage vortex becomes the dominant feature of the flow and moves flow. The newly
formed
toward passage vortex
the suction side.becomes
Later on,the dominant
other studiesfeature of the flow
were presented in and moves toward
the literature aimingthe at
suction side. Later
further showing theon, other studies
evolution were presented
of the secondary, in the
complex, literature
vortical aiming
structures, at [41–43].
e.g., further
showing the evolution
A more recent surveyofoverthe secondary,
aerodynamic complex,
losses,vortical
due to structures, e.g., [41–43].
the development A more
of secondary
recent survey over aerodynamic losses, due to the development
flows from airfoil/end wall interaction, was presented by [44]. of secondary flows from
airfoil/end wall interaction, was presented by [44].

Figure 4. Three-dimensional
Figure 4. Three-dimensional flow
flow field
field in
in the
the end
end wall
wall region:
region: secondary
secondary flow
flow vortex
vortex structure
structure as
as
proposed
proposed by
by [42].
[42].

The classical secondary flow description, as previously introduced, typically refers to

The classical secondary flow description, as previously introduced, typically refers
a cascade standalone situation, corresponding to a stationary, tangentially uniform, zero-
to a cascade standalone situation, corresponding to a stationary, tangentially uniform,
incidence approaching boundary layer. Indeed, the flow entering a rotor blade cascade
zero-incidence approaching boundary layer. Indeed, the flow entering a rotor blade
is far from this simple case, being periodically affected by the preceding row. Nozzle
cascade is far from this simple case, being periodically affected by the preceding row.
vane wakes and secondary flow vortical structures alter the flow evolution across the
Nozzle vane wakes and secondary flow vortical structures alter the flow evolution across
rotor. Localized and time dependent pressure variations at rotor inlet section translate into
the rotor. Localized and time dependent pressure variations at rotor inlet section translate
modifications of the incidence to the blade that strongly modify horseshoe and passage
into modifications of the incidence to the blade that strongly modify horseshoe and
vortex formation and development. Besides the presence of unsteady phenomena, the
passage vortex formation and development. Besides the presence of unsteady
relative motion between stator and rotor platforms gives rise to a skewed inlet boundary
phenomena, the relative motion between stator and rotor platforms gives rise to a skewed
layer at the rotor inlet section. The intensity of this skewness is, of course, not constant, but
inlet boundary
modulated layer
by the vaneattothe rotorrelative
blade inlet section.
position.The intensity
With the aim ofof
this skewness
better is, of the
simulating course,
real
not constant,
cascade but modulated
inlet condition byby
affected thethe
vane to blade
relative relative
motion position.
between vaneWith
and the aim
blade of better
platforms,
simulating
several the real cascade
investigations have inlet
beencondition
performed affected
in the by
pastthe[45–47]
relative
tomotion between
assess the impact vane
of
and blade platforms, several investigations have been performed in
this skewed boundary layer on secondary flow generation and development across boththe past [45–47] to
planar and annular turbine blade cascades. Generally, rotation induces a negative inlet
skew. Since the skew direction goes with the passage vortex-related cross flow direction,
as shown by the red arrows in Figure 5a, i.e., against rotation, it significantly affects the
development of the passage vortex and loss core across high turning blade cascades. In
particular, secondary flow effects are increased; the pressure side leg of the horseshoe
vortex reaches the suction side earlier and the end wall cross flow is intensified.
 development across both planar and annular turbine blade cascades. Generally, rotation
induces a negative inlet skew. Since the skew direction goes with the passage vortex-
related cross flow direction, as shown by the red arrows in Figure 5a, i.e., against rotation,
it significantly affects the development of the passage vortex and loss core across high
turning blade cascades. In particular, secondary flow effects are increased; the pressure
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 8 of 25
side leg of the horseshoe vortex reaches the suction side earlier and the end wall cross
flow is intensified.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure5.5.Skewed
Skewedflow
flowduedueto to
rotational effect:
rotational (a) (a)
effect: schematic of cascade
schematic inletinlet
of cascade flowflow
condition and and
condition (b)
simulated streamlines issuing from a stator to rotor gap from Green et al., 2012, side view—not to
(b) simulated streamlines issuing from a stator to rotor gap from Green et al., 2012, side view—not to be
be scaled as reported in [33] (c) simulated streamlines issuing from a stator to rotor forward looking
scaled as reported in [33] (c) simulated streamlines issuing from a stator to rotor forward looking after
after side view—not to be scaled as reported in [33].
side view—not to be scaled as reported in [33].
3.
3.Aerodynamics
Aerodynamicsand andHeatHeatTransfer
Transfer Phenomena
Phenomena in in Film-Cooled
Film-Cooled Rotor Rotor Platforms
Platforms
Similarly, stator to rotor platform relative motion imposes
Similarly, stator to rotor platform relative motion imposes a negative tangential a negative tangential
velocity
velocity
component to the purge flow, resulting in a highly skewed flow emerging from thefrom
component to the purge flow, resulting in a highly skewed flow emerging slot,
the slot, asinshown
as shown Figure in 5b,c,Figure
taken5b,c,fromtaken from
[33], the [33], the
research research
of which of which numerically
numerically investigated
investigated
the unsteadythe unsteady aerodynamic
aerodynamic interaction between interactionpurge between
flow and purge flow andon
mainstream mainstream
a full stage
on
higha full stagetransonic
pressure high pressure stage. transonic
A 0.72% seal stage.
purgeA 0.72%
mass flowseal ratio
purgewas mass flowtoratio
shown causewas an
shown to cause
increasing suction an increasing
side incidence suction
on thesideblade.
incidence on the blade.
AA recent
recent numerical
numerical investigation
investigationof ofaa simplified
simplified rotating
rotating rigrig studying
studyingthe the effects
effects ofof
purge flow on the secondary flow structure establishment
purge flow on the secondary flow structure establishment was reported in [37]. In particular, was reported in [37]. In
particular, the simulations,
the simulations, carried out for carried out fordomain
approximate approximate modelsdomain models
of increasing of increasing
complexity using
complexity
URANS approach, using URANS similarapproach,
to the resultssimilar ofto the results
Green et al., of Green et al.,
highlighted highlighted
the occurrencethe of
occurrence
an egress plumeof an egress
near the plume
region near the region pressure
of minimum of minimum pressure
associated withassociated
the bladewith the
SS; this
blade SS; interacting
structure, this structure, with interacting
the mainstream withflow,the wasmainstream
indicated flow, was indicated
as a strengthening as of
factor a
strengthening
the secondaryfactor flows of in the secondary
blade passage. flows in the blade passage.
As
As already
already mentioned,
mentioned,film filmcooling
coolingof ofthe
the blade
blade platform
platformcan canbe be obtained
obtainednot not only
only
exploitingthe
exploiting thepurge
purgeflow,flow, simulating
simulating the the stator-rotor
stator-rotor seal, seal, but
but also
also byby including
including discrete
discrete
holes,properly
holes, properly located
located overover the
the exposed
exposed surfaces.
surfaces. The Theinjected
injectedcoolant
coolantmassmassflowflowmust
mustbe be
largeenough
large enoughto topossibly
possiblyavoidavoidthe thewashing
washingactivity
activityof ofsecondary
secondaryflows.flows.On Onthe
theother
otherside,
side,
the design
the design of of satisfactory
satisfactory cooling
coolingsolutions
solutionsfrom fromthe the aerothermal
aerothermalpoint pointof of view
view requires
requires
the obtaining of a good metal coverage, while limiting,
the obtaining of a good metal coverage, while limiting, as much as possible the related as much as possible the related
aerodynamic loss generation. Clearly, owing to the
aerodynamic loss generation. Clearly, owing to the complexity of the involved complexity of the involved phenomena,
it is not possible,
phenomena, it isnor notfeasible,
possible, to perform
nor feasible, a directto comparison
perform a among different cooling
direct comparison among ap-
proaches,cooling
different so, instead, trends, phenomenological
approaches, so, instead, trends, descriptions and qualitative
phenomenological comparisons
descriptions and
are provided.
qualitative comparisons are provided.
Notwithstanding
Notwithstanding the therelevance
relevance of of the
the topic,
topic, due
due to tothe
thehigh
highcomplexity
complexityof ofthe
theoverall
overall
competing phenomena and their interaction, there are
competing phenomena and their interaction, there are few works in open literature thatfew works in open literature that
thoroughly investigate aerodynamic and heat transfer
thoroughly investigate aerodynamic and heat transfer behaviour (besides evaluation of behaviour (besides evaluation of
companion cooling effectiveness) of rotor blade platforms.
companion cooling effectiveness) of rotor blade platforms. To the best knowledge of the To the best knowledge of the
authors,Refs.
authors, Refs.[22–26]
[22–26]are are among
among the the most
most complete
completeexperimental
experimentalworks workspresented
presentedin inthe
the
literature, covering aerodynamic, thermal and cooling efficiency
literature, covering aerodynamic, thermal and cooling efficiency topics, and giving design topics, and giving design
and verification guidelines as well. All investigations were performed on a low-speed rotor
blade cascade, at an isentropic downstream Mach number of 0.3. In some cases, the inlet
turbulence intensity was artificially increased to about 8%; more often it was on a low level,
about 0.6%. Both discrete holes and slot cooling were analysed.
In [26] a comprehensive analysis of the aerothermal behaviour of a linear cascade
was provided starting with an early investigation, carried out on the solid cascade, i.e.,
without any cooling scheme implemented, to assess the influence of secondary flows on
loss generation, fluid flow angle deviation and platform convective heat transfer coefficient
distribution. These observations were considered useful for a preliminary design of cooling
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 9 of 25

holes inside of the passage. In particular, the measured heat transfer coefficient was in
agreement with distributions already presented in the literature [48]. Ref. [49] highlighted
a significant increase of heat transfer inside the blade passage, near the suction side,
downstream of the passage vortex separation line, where cooling activities are commonly
deemed necessary.
The aerodynamic behaviour of the cooled cascade was afterward investigated using
a five-hole pressure probe, to consider the case of coolant flow injected downstream of
the passage vortex separation line. Measurements highlighted that for this positioning,
the impact on losses was negligible because the coolant flow did not interact with the
horseshoe vortex and passage vortex generation, but instead it only energised the platform
boundary layer. As also shown in [21,24], testing different hole patterns, still located inside
of the passage, the platform flow field is mainly influenced by the passage vortex and its
interaction with coolant flow. When the injected cool air is not captured by the vortex, only
the end wall crossflow acts, and secondary flows are barely affected.
Further assessment on the overall losses generated within the blade passage was
formerly given in [22,23] where a sensitivity analysis was presented to account for the
influence of purge slot cooling design. To simulate at least the impact of rotation on purge
flow ejection, fins were inserted inside the slot to give the coolant a tangential velocity com-
ponent. Fin inclination angle in the tangential direction, gap width and radial misalignment
were individually varied to assess their impact on the cascade aerodynamic performance
for variable injection conditions in terms of MFR. Whatever the slot geometry, losses con-
tinuously increased with rising MFR up to 2.0% and, in particular, radial misalignment had
an impact on coolant distribution. A limited influence of purge flow injection angle on loss
generation was finally observed for MFR values below 1.0%. A significant impact instead
took place as soon as the injected mass flow rate became larger than 1.0%, because of the
increase in the passage vortex intensity. In [23], positive injection angles were also tested,
showing a reduction in secondary flows, particularly relevant at high injection rates. In
this case, injecting coolant against the passage vortex-related cross flow direction mitigated
secondary flow activity, according to [47].
Another interesting study on the aerothermal performance of a highly loaded rotor
blade (low speed, large scale linear cascade), using upstream purge flow tangentially injected,
was presented by [27,28]. Thoroughly validated numerical simulations were performed on
different rim seal geometries typically encountered in industrial applications. Regions of
improved cooling effectiveness were described, also in their work, as being characterized
by higher values of the heat transfer coefficient. In particular, the interaction between an
increased leakage flow and the secondary vortical structures, strengthened the blade passage
structures, possibly resulting in a much higher heat transfer. At the highest leakage values
considered (1.5%), the augmented tangential relative velocity ensured a significant increase in
the metal coverage, but at the expense of dramatically increasing aerodynamic losses (both
legs of the horseshoe vortex were, in fact, fed). Their concluding remarks finally indicated a
redistribution of the heat transfer within the blade passage and platform.
Figure 6 displays the energy losses measured at x/Cax = 108% by [22] at design injection
condition (MFR = 1.0%); the contours display a well-defined passage vortex, denoted by the
loss core (the purge flow was injected 15 mm upstream of the blade leading edge). The image
also illustrates the line contours of the total pressure coefficient, along with flood contours at
the measurements plane (x/Cax = 150%), and leakage mass fraction of 1% (in this case, the flow
was injected at 26 mm upstream the blade), obtained by Popovic et al. [28]. We notice that
these two results show a fairly good agreement one another, in terms of shape, positioning and
overall size of secondary flow structures, even though the solution fields referred to different
facilities and experimental campaigns (please notice that the top right part of Figure 6a was
taken from [28] and its axis modified according to the available energy loss contours from [22],
for the sake of better comparison of main flow structures). Also, the quantitative evaluation
of the overall losses introduced by a leakage flow in [22,27,28] are characterized by similar
trends in terms of mixed-out loss coefficient increase (see Figure 6b) moving from the baseline
 Popovic et al. [28]. We notice that these two results show a fairly good agreement one
another, in terms of shape, positioning and overall size of secondary flow structures, even
though the solution fields referred to different facilities and experimental campaigns
(please notice that the top right part of Figure 6a was taken from [28] and its axis modified
according to the available energy loss contours from [22], for the sake of better comparison
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022,of7,main
22 flow structures). Also, the quantitative evaluation of the overall losses introduced 10 of 25
by a leakage flow in [22,27,28] are characterized by similar trends in terms of mixed-out
loss coefficient increase (see Figure 6b) moving from the baseline case (no rim cavity) to
the nominal cooling condition, i.e., 1.0% for both cases, up to high injection rates.
case (no rim cavity) to the nominal cooling condition, i.e., 1.0% for both cases, up to high
Moreover, both increasing the swirl ratio and reducing the fins angle results in an increase
ininjection rates.
the overall Moreover,
loss, whatever both increasing
the injection the swirl ratio and reducing the fins angle results in
ratio.
an increase in the overall loss, whatever the injection ratio.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Overall losses due to leakage: (a) Local kinetic energy loss distribution measured at x/Cax
Figure 6. Overall losses due to leakage: (a) Local kinetic energy loss distribution measured at
= 108% and MFR = 1% (top), platform configuration (mid) and mixed-out loss coefficient (bottom)
x/Cax = 108% and MFR = 1% (top), platform configuration (mid) and mixed-out loss coefficient (bottom)
by [22] and (b) total pressure loss coefficient lines superimposed over flood contours measured at
x/Cax = 150% for leakage concentration of 1% (top), rim seal configuration (mid) and aerodynamic losses
and sealing effectiveness (bottom) by [28].

The influence of rotation on one side and the low Mach number operating condition
on the other side could limit the general applicability of the previously analysed results,
if not thoroughly assessed. Other authors elaborated on this topic, with different degrees
of approximation. Mac Lean et al. [50] presented an investigation on the aerodynamic
effects related to wheel space coolant injection placed at the platform root, radially, or by
impingement, within a high-pressure turbine stage, as shown in Figure 3 in [50]. Already
using a small amount of coolant flow (1%), significant losses were observed. The strongest
effect on the velocity profile modification was measured for the case of root injection,
which indeed showed significant variation (reduction) of the amount of overturning and
under-turning, and the strongest change in total-to-total efficiency.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 11 of 25

Pau et al. [31] studied the impact of coolant flow on the performance of a transonic
turbine stage of two cooling strategies, i.e., purge flow from the cavity, and cooling at the
rotor platform. The overall performance showed an increase compared with the case of no
rim seal. The shock structures and the purge cavity blockage stemmed into a decreased
rotor inlet Mach number, corresponding to altered incidence in the relative frame, which
finally gave rise to enhanced heat transfer on the platform, especially at low rotational
speed. Measurements, predictions and correlations all indicated that ejecting purge flow
leads to an increased efficiency level, mainly due to a reduction in shock losses of the stator
trailing edge.
Ong et al. [51] performed time-resolved measurements and simulations on a full stage
with hub leakage flow of 1.33% MFR. A significant secondary loss increase was observed,
mainly attributed to negative incidence induced with the leakage flow. They also tested the
application of injection holes located on the stator hub just inside the cavity, to control the
inlet skew.
Regina and Kalfas [36] considered the unsteadiness effects on the hub passage vortex
establishment of a highly loaded axial turbine with rim seal purge flow, and discussed the
impact of mixing processes on unsteady flow fields, based on measurements performed
using a pneumatic five-hole probe and fast response aerodynamic probes. Their high-
quality measurements allowed quantification of the detrimental impact of purge flow
injection on stage efficiency and the periodic modification in the passage vortex radial
penetration with vane passing frequency.
In [34], measurements based upon double sided heat flux gauges were presented by
Nickol et al. to discuss the heat transfer capability of a cooled transonic turbine stage at
design-corrected operating conditions. The measurements evidenced that the presence of
coolant flow does not directly alter the heat transfer magnitude, instead it has an impact on
the characteristics of the passage vortex.
In [48], heat transfer measurements and flow visualizations obtained in a rotor cascade
with an injection slot upstream of rotor blades were presented at different blowing ratio
values. No attempt was made to simulate the impact of rotation. As a result, coolant
injection through the slot translated into a passage vortex size reduction.
Finally, in an attempt to reduce secondary losses, some authors explored the impact
of rim seal purge flow on end wall-profiled stages. Schuepbach et al. [35] experimentally
and numerically investigated two different non-axisymmetric end wall geometries and a
baseline configuration. Time resolved results demonstrated that the pressure field at the
exit of the gap is dominated by the rotor and that end wall profiling must be designed
to also account for the influence of purge injection. Lynch et al. [52] came to a similar
conclusion, experimentally testing a stationary cascade looking for the effects of swirled
and un-swirled purge flow on flat and axisymmetric profiled end walls.
Table 3 summarizes the research considered in this section, indicating the implemented
approach, numerical or experimental, the flow regime over which testing was performed,
in terms of Reynolds number and turbulence intensity level, when available, the range of
considered injection conditions, the stationary or rotating frame and the cooling scheme
adopted, relying upon different slot and hole configurations labelled by the same coding
already implemented in Tables 1 and 2. From the reported discussion, it can be concluded
that purge flow injection is always responsible for intensification of a secondary flow and,
consequently, for an increase of related loss, and the larger the injected mass flow the higher
the loss. The reason centres on incidence variation at the blade suction side leading edge
giving a strong interaction with horseshoe vortex formation. Cascade stationary testing can
lead to erroneous results when the presence of a skewed purge flow induced by rotation is
not considered. Otherwise, it is able to capture the correct trend of loss variation with rising
injected purge flow. Of course, only testing on rotating facilities can capture the unsteady
interaction between stator, rotor and purge flow, allowing assessment of the time variation
of secondary flow intensity and location.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 12 of 25

Table 3. Summary of considered literature—aerodynamic aspects.

Reference Study Exp./Num. Flow Regime Tu% MFR (%) Code

Variable rpm −0.1 ÷ 0.8 S2r
Pau et al., 2010 [31] Both -
Re = 1.1 × 106 0.02–0.043 H2r
Green et al., 2012 [32,33] Both - - 0.72 S2r
Ong et al., 2012 [51] Both Re1 = 3.7 × 105 - 1.33 S2r
Regina and Kalfas, 2015 [36] Exp. Re = 3.8 × 105 - −0.1 ÷ 1.2 S2r
Nickol et al., 2018 [34] Exp. Transonic - 5.3 ÷ 8 also including blade cooling S2r
Schreiner et al., 2020 [37] Both Re = 7.2 × 105 - 1.7 (DR = 1.5) S2r
McLean et al., 2001 [50] Exp. Re1 = 3–5 × 105 - 1 ÷ 1.5 S1r
Papa et al., 2011 [48] Exp. Re = 6 × 105 0.2–4 M = 0.5 ÷ 1.5 S1
Popovic et al., 2013 [28] Num. Re = 5 × 105 0.5 1.5 S2s
S1s
H3c
Lynch et al., 2013 [52] Exp. Re = 2 × 105 6 0.75
Inter platform
gap
Barigozzi et al., 2013, 2014 [22,23] Exp. Re = 7.4 × 105 0.6 0.3 ÷ 2 S1f
Barigozzi et al., 2019 [26] Both Re = 7.4 × 105 7.6 0.09 ÷ 0.27 H2s

4. Platform Film Cooling Effectiveness Overview

More often than not rotor blade platform cooling systems have been investigated
taking the thermal protection point of view. Indeed, film cooling effectiveness experimental
and numerical investigations are more commonly documented in the open literature,
exploring the impact of injection conditions (MFR and DR) and mainstream turbulence
intensity level (Tu) on the thermal protection of slot and hole cooling schemes. Taking
the experimental point of view, the application of Thermochromic Liquid Crystals (TLCs)
and IR camera have been progressively substituted by the use of Pressure Sensitive Paints
(PSPs), taking advantage of the adiabatic intrinsic condition of the latter. In the following
open literature is analysed with increasing degree of complexity, from cascade to rotating
rig testing.

4.1. Blade Cascade Researches

When considering wind tunnel testing on stationary blade cascade, it is worth men-
tioning the investigations performed over the years at Texas A and M, that have contributed
highly in highlighting the thermal behaviour of different cooling schemes, both interface
gap and discrete holes, both cylindrical and shaped, under variable operating conditions.
In Wright et al. [19] the film cooling effectiveness of a blade platform was measured in a
cascade configuration equipped with a labyrinth-like seal. Discrete film holes (cylindrical)
were placed in the downstream half of the passage, injecting at 45 deg toward the pressure
side to increase the coverage area. This study showed that purge flow and coolant for holes
acted independently of one another, but synergistically offered the potential to reach a good
level of effectiveness. Their results also highlighted that the pressure side of the passage
remains a critical area that requires higher levels of coolant flow. Gao et al. [13] evaluated
the cooling effectiveness of a slot purge flow and fan-shaped discrete-hole film cooling
within a linear cascade operating with medium to high Mach number conditions. Their
results showed that effects of purge flow and discrete film cooling can be superimposed.
From a thermal point of view, laid back fan-shaped holes outperformed cylindrical holes
(increasing effectiveness were found for increasing blowing ratio). In fact, fan-shaped holes
act like a diffuser reducing the coolant momentum and, thus, improving the coolant flow
persistency and lateral distribution. Another detailed study on film cooling effectiveness
of a typical stator-rotor seal plus discrete (cylindrical) holes cooling was presented in [53],
using the temperature sensitive paint technique. The measurements campaign showed
how the effectiveness was decreased at higher turbulence intensity levels, whereas it in-
creased with purge flow and density ratio. In [14], a PSP campaign aimed at studying the
film-cooling effectiveness of a simulated stator-rotor seal combined with discrete-hole film
cooling was presented. The thermal performance was evaluated as close as possible to en-
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 13 of 25

gine operating conditions, exploring the density ratio, the blowing ratio and the turbulence
intensity effects, for two different hole geometries (cylindrical versus laidback fan-shaped)
distributed over two staggered rows located toward the PS of the passage. In this study,
shaped holes guaranteed better coverage, thermal performance and also lessened coolant
lift-off. In general, as expected, the effectiveness increased with the density ratio, and
decreased with increasing Tu% due to enhanced mixing between mainstream and coolant
flow. The presented measurements draw attention to the blade PS to platform junction
which is left unprotected, due to lift-off/deflection toward SS driven by the passage vortex
related cross flow.
Indeed, the arrangement of cooling holes within the platform is a key issue. At
Bergamo University a research activity was carried out over some years to design and
verify the introduction of discrete holes at different locations: close to the pressure side,
to exploit the passage vortex cross flow [21], along the inter-platform gap [24] and rear in
the passage, downstream the throat [26]. The aim was always to effectively protect specific
regions of the platform particularly exposed to hot gas contact, while, in the meantime,
considering the constraints imposed by the secondary air system. In particular, Ref. [24]
performed an aero-thermal investigation (based on thermochromic liquid crystal) to assess
the capability of a newly designed set of holes conceived to better protect the inter-platform
front region. Measurements highlighted that good overall performance could be achieved
for low values of blowing ratio, avoiding coolant lift off from the platform surface. Further
insight into thermal and aerodynamic behaviour of a first stage rotor blade cascade was
provided in [26], where a complete data set of experiments, conducted jointly with CFD
simulations, were given for design purposes, suited to lead a validation process within a
complete design approach.

4.2. Blade Cascade Research with Simulated Rotation Effects

The aforementioned studies have been mostly carried out on linear cascades. The
interaction between the mainstream flow coming from the stator with properly defined
coolant streams is further complicated, which can imply rotor secondary flow reinforcement,
with an increase in the heat load to the platform, as previously clarified. Wake passage
and vane secondary flows play a key role in the definition of cooling phenomena at the
rotor platform as they may sweep the coolant off the wall and leave the downstream
region, after separation, unprotected. In [20] this issue was investigated by considering the
influence of the upstream wake and of the passage vortex, due to the stator vanes, on the
rotor platform cooling effectiveness. They employed non-rotating cylindrical rods at four
relative positions to the blades to study the impact of wakes on film cooling effectiveness
distribution. A delta wing, placed upstream of the blades, was used to simulate the passage
vortex coming from the preceding stator. When neglecting the vane influence, an increase
of the seal injection rate resulted in a more uniform coolant distribution by virtue of a
weakened passage vortex influence. No appreciable influence of position of the rods was
observed; instead, the simulated passage vortex evidenced that the vortex mixed up with
the SS leg of the horseshoe vortex, resulting in a stronger vortical structure that might lift
up the coolant with possible dramatic effects.
Barigozzi et al. [22,23] studied the rotational effect on seal flows using inclined fins
installed in the slot, thus neglecting the influence of passing wakes and of stator related
secondary flows. It was observed that neglecting the tangential relative motion led to an
overestimation of cooling effectiveness, besides the underestimation of secondary flow
losses already mentioned.
Another investigation on the behaviour of a cooled rotor blade platform under simu-
lated swirl purge flow conditions was presented by [18]: a PSP study conducted within a
low-speed linear cascade on the cooling effectiveness was presented based on simulated
swirl purge flow. Swirl ratio values from 0.4 (30 deg injection angle) up to 1 (90 deg injection
angle, i.e., radial injection or no relative motion) were obtained installing a set of coolant
hole plates equipped with 50 cylindrical holes of specific inclination in the tangential direc-
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 14 of 25

tion inside of the slot. In particular, the cooling effectiveness increased (as expected) with
MFR, while it was reduced with increasing relative motion, due to changing trajectories of
the coolant (lower platform coverage). Instead, the rotation showed a positive influence
on the thermal performance at a lower MFR value. Similarly, in [16,54] a parametric study
was reported for the combined cooling effects of upstream purge coolant, slash-face leak-
age flow and discrete hole film cooling: MFR showed a strong positive effect on cooling
effectiveness at the cascade inlet (no effect at x/Cax > 0.5). At constant MFR the effectiveness
marginally decreases for increasing DR values. Fan shaped holes further confirm superior
performance over cylindrical holes.
Several key issues have to be considered, such as the unsteadiness phenomena, the
turbulence regime, and the complex boundary conditions to be applied in complex geome-
tries. Turbine film-cooling of real HPT systems has to deal with turbulent flow regimes
as the first stage vanes after the combustor typically experience flow with a turbulent
intensity ranging between 7% to 20%. A number of studies have shown that increasing the
turbulence intensity level mainly leads to a reduced film cooling effectiveness. In [18] the
film cooling effectiveness was measured inside a low-speed linear cascade as a function of
the turbulence intensity and rotational effects induced by a simulated purge swirl vortex.
The authors reported: (i) the beneficial effect of the MFR parameter lessened under rotation
condition; (ii) in general, there was higher effectiveness for higher mainstream turbulence.
Zhang et al. [55] presented a numerical study on the effects of swirl ratio, density
ratio and blowing ratio on the cooling capability of an upstream slot and a mid-passage
gap. RANS modelling, along with the k − ω SST turbulence model, was adopted to assess
the parameter sensitivity when operating at different swirl ratio values. This numerical
investigation showed that both density ratio and swirl ratio have relevant impact on
platform cooling. In particular, increasing the density ratio at fixed blowing ratio gives rise
to a strengthening of secondary flows with a worsening of thermal protection, due to the
reduced purge flow momentum. As is well acknowledged, numerical predictions of heat
transfer for a cooled HP turbine operating at nearly real engine conditions remains a very
challenging task.

4.3. Full Stage Researches

Few works available in the open literature deal with the complex behaviour of rotating
blade rows because of the difficulties encountered in instrumenting rotating parts. Ref. [31]
performed an aero-thermal study through fast-response sensors and double layer thin
film gauges to obtain the cooling effectiveness of a rotating transonic turbine operating at
engine-representative conditions. They reported that a decreased relevance of unsteady
phenomena was recorded for low rotating speeds. Suryanarayanan et al. [29] presented a
PSP campaign to study the cooling effectiveness of purge flow through the circumferential
gap between turbine stator and rotor. Three different rotating conditions were investigated
as a function of different coolant to mainstream mass flow ratios and, as expected, the
effectiveness increased with increasing mass flow ratio. For increasing rotational speed, the
cooling performance improved but its decay in the downstream direction was observed
to be faster than that reported for a slot over a flat plate, mainly because of the complex
passage vortical structure occurring. Measurements highlighted the incomplete coverage
of the platform, essentially due to the adverse impact of the passage vortex on the flow
persistence. Further investigation was provided in [30] complementing the previous work
with a downstream collocation of discrete holes oriented toward the pressure side; the
strategy was shown to be useful in reducing the washing activity of passage vortex and
cross flow movement.
Numerical prediction of stator-rotor interaction of a 1-1/2 turbine stage was described
in [56] solving the RANS equations equipped with a Reynolds stress model. The presented re-
sults, in rather good agreement with available measurements, highlighted that the heat transfer
coefficient decreases sharply with increasing rotating speeds, while the cooling effectiveness
is very high at design condition, but the parameter reduces at off-design conditions.
 Numerical prediction of stator-rotor interaction of a 1-1/2 turbine stage was described
in [56] solving the RANS equations equipped with a Reynolds stress model. The presented
results, in rather good agreement with available measurements, highlighted that the heat
transfer coefficient decreases sharply with increasing rotating speeds, while the cooling
effectiveness is very high at design condition, but the parameter reduces at off-design
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 15 of 25
conditions.
Cooling effectiveness measurements performed on a full stage, rotating facility at
different rotational speeds, as presented in [29], or on a linear cascade implementing a
Cooling effectiveness measurements performed on a full stage, rotating facility at
simulated
differentrotation flow
rotational configuration,
speeds, as presentedasinin[29],
[23],or are
on areported in Figure
linear cascade 7 where the
implementing
effectiveness contours, displayed for a typical operating MFR level of 1%,
a simulated rotation flow configuration, as in [23], are reported in Figure 7 where the show similar
coolant spreading
effectiveness within displayed
contours, the blade for
passage, confirming
a typical operatingthe MFR ability
level of tangentially injected
1%, show similar
purge flowspreading
coolant to reproduce the
within thermal
the protection
blade passage, occurring
confirming in the of
the ability rotating frame.
tangentially injected
purge flow to reproduce the thermal protection occurring in the rotating frame.

t. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 26

(a)

Figure
Figure 7. 7. Comparison
Comparison betweenbetween
stagestage
and and cascade
cascade results
results at at
MFRMFR= =1%:
1%:(a)
(a)three
three different
different rotational
rotational
tests
tests [29] [29]
(b) (b) static
static test test withoutfins
without fins[23]
[23] and
and(c)(c)static testtest
static withwith
simulated rotational
simulated effects byeffects
rotational inclinedby
fins ( − 10 ◦ ) [23].
inclined fins (−10°) [23].
4.4. Effect of Components Misalignment
4.4. Effect of Components Misalignment
Finally, misalignment between adjacent turbine components, due to manufacturing,
Finally,
assemblymisalignment between adjacent
and design considerations may have turbine components,
a significant duethe
impact on tocomplex
manufacturing,
vortical
assembly and design
structures considerations
developing may and,
within the turbine havethus,a significant impact
also on the film on effectiveness.
cooling the complex
vorticalRef. [57] investigated
structures the inter-platform
developing gap influence
within the turbine on cooling
and, thus, also performance. Small
on the film cooling
variationsRef.
effectiveness. in cascade geometry can have
[57] investigated the relatively large effects
inter-platform gap on effectiveness.
influence on In par-
cooling
ticular, it was reported that the quality of the seal between the plenum
performance. Small variations in cascade geometry can have relatively large effects on and the slot had
significant influence on the cooling phenomena; a decrease of aerodynamic efficiency in
effectiveness. In particular, it was reported that the quality of the seal between the plenum
between 0.46% and 1.54% was measured. An unavoidable stator-rotor clearance gap can be
and the slot had significant influence on the cooling phenomena; a decrease of
designed using a backward facing step, useful to create recirculating zones beneficial in
aerodynamic
avoidingefficiency in between
hot gas ingestion. 0.46%
Ref. [58] and 1.54%
investigated was measured.
the leakage Anpresence
effects in the unavoidable
of a
stator-rotor clearance
platform gap can
gap through be designed
the passage using a backward
and presented measurementsfacing step,
of end useful
wall to create
heat transfer,
recirculating zones
while also beneficial
considering in avoiding
the rotational hotthrough
effects gas ingestion.
a simulatedRef. [58]
swirl investigated
leakage the
flow. Their
leakage effects in the presence of a platform gap through the passage and presented
measurements of end wall heat transfer, while also considering the rotational effects
through a simulated swirl leakage flow. Their results highlighted that an increased
platform gap leakage can lead to higher heat transfer levels and cooling effectiveness.
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 16 of 25

results highlighted that an increased platform gap leakage can lead to higher heat transfer
levels and cooling effectiveness.

5. Analysis of Film Cooling Effectiveness of Purge Flow and Discrete Holes

In this section, the results presented in the above cited research papers summarized in
Table 4 are collected and analyzed to highlight relevant trends of the considered cooling de-
signs and operating parameters. The main objective was to provide qualitative indications
on the cooling level and trends of modern HPT cooling designs.

Table 4. Summary of considered literature—thermal aspects.

Reference Study Exp./Num. Flow Regime MFR% DR Tu% Code

Pau et al., 2010 [31] Both Re = 1.1 × 106 0 ÷ 0.8 - - S2r
Wright et al., 2008 [19] Exp Re1 = 3.1 × 105 2 1 0.75 S2-H2
Wright et al., 2009 [20] Exp Re1 = 3.1 × 105 0.5 ÷ 2 1 5 S2
Gao et al., 2009 [13] Exp Re = 7.5 × 105 0, 0.75 1 1.75 S2-H2s
Narzary et al., 2012 [53] Exp. Mid speed 0.25 ÷ 0.75 1.1, 2 4.2, 10.5 S2-H3
Liu et al., 2014 [14] Exp. Mid speed 0.5 1, 2 4.2, 10.5 S2-H3s
Li et al., 2016 [18] Exp. Re1 = 2.5 × 105 0.5 ÷ 1.5 1.5 0.72 ÷ 13 S2-H3(c&s)
Li et al., 2016 [17] Exp. Re1 = 2.5 × 105 0.5 ÷ 1.5 1.5 0.7 S1s
Chen et al., 2017 [16] Exp. Re = 7.2 × 105 0.5 ÷ 1 1÷2 10.5 S1s
Chen et al., 2018 [54] Exp. Re = 7.5 × 105 0.75 ÷ 1 1–2 10.5 S1s-H3
Barigozzi et al., 2012 [21] Exp. Re = 7.4 × 105 M1 = 0 ÷4 1 0.6 S1s-H3s
Barigozzi et al., 2013, 2014 [22,23] Exp. Re = 7.4 × 105 0.3 ÷ 2 1 0.6 H1
Barigozzi et al., 2018 [24] Exp. Re = 7.4 × 105 M1 = 1 ÷ 2 1 0.6 S1f
Barigozzi et al., 2019 [26] Both Re = 7.4 × 105 0.09 ÷ 0.27 1 7.6 H2s
1.0 (slot)
Suryanarayanan et al., 2010 [30] Exp. Variable rpm 1 - S2-H2s_r
0.5 ÷ 2 (holes)
Yang et al., 2009 [59] Num. Re = 6 × 106 2÷4 1.78 - S2-H2_r
Lynch and Thole, 2017 [58] Exp. Re = 2 × 105 0.75 1 6 S1

A graphical summary of the pitch averaged cooling effectiveness distributions pre-

sented in some of the above-described works is provided in Figure 8. We want to further
emphasize that this figure does not attempt to perform a strict comparison among the differ-
ent performance levels of various techniques, but instead attempts to draw attention toward
the macroscopic cooling phenomena that characterize the vortical structure generation and
the thermal coverage achieved. In Figure 8a, typical purge flow injected through gaps of
different geometries at varying operating conditions are displayed. Coolant effectiveness
generally ensures a good protection level till x/Cax ≈ 0.2–0.4. As shown, the downstream
region cannot be properly cooled due to the lift-off and washing activity played by the
passage vortex, and, thus, discrete holes have to be allocated to protect this region. The
cooling holes can be cylindrical, laidback fan-shaped, etc., and clearly different effectiveness
is expected for different hole design and positioning (see Figure 8b).
To allow a better comparison between different gap geometries, Figure 9 shows some
of the data reported in Figure 8a evidencing the operating conditions (coolant to mainstream
mass flow ratio, turbulence intensity, swirling condition). In particular, for consistency,
only data coming from [18] have been used to create Figure 9, since the campaign of [18]
constitutes quite a complete set. These data support the general conclusion that increasing
MFR and Tu% both result into an improvement in effectiveness, both in terms of η level
and persistency going downstream. Conversely, a stronger swirl always translates into an
effectiveness reduction, that gets stronger at high injection rates. Finally, please note that
the reported distributions only extend over the blade passage. This means that the low
effectiveness values at x/Cax = 0 probably depend on the gap to leading edge distance of
this specific solution, which was not, unfortunately, reported in the original paper [18].
 Yang et al., 2009 [59] Num. Re = 6 × 106 2÷4 1.78 - S2-H2_r
Lynch and Thole, 2017 [58] Exp. Re = 2 × 105 0.75 1 6 S1

A graphical summary of the pitch averaged cooling effectiveness distributions

presented in some of the above-described works is provided in Figure 8. We want to
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Powerfurther
2022, 7,emphasize
22 that this figure does not attempt to perform a strict comparison among 17 of 25
the different performance levels of various techniques, but instead attempts to draw

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26

(a) (a)

(b)
Figure 8. Rotor
Figure platform
8. Rotor film cooling
platform effectiveness:
film cooling (a) purge (a)
effectiveness: flow only, flow
purge S1, S1s [[18],S1,
only, S1fS1s
[22],[18],
[S2]-S1f [22], [S2]-
magenta line [19], S2 purple line [20], S2r [29] and (b) purge flow and discrete holes presented in
magenta line [19], S2 purple line [20], S2r [29] and (b) purge flow and discrete holes presented in the
the open literature S1s-H3 [16], S2-H2 [19], S2-H3 [15], S2-H3c/s [14], S2r-H2 [30].
open literature S1s-H3 [16], S2-H2 [19], S2-H3 [15], S2-H3c/s [14], S2r-H2 [30].
To allow a better comparison between different gap geometries, Figure 9 shows some
of the data reported in Figure 8a evidencing the operating conditions (coolant to
mainstream mass flow ratio, turbulence intensity, swirling condition). In particular, for
consistency, only data coming from [18] have been used to create Figure 9, since the
campaign of [18] constitutes quite a complete set. These data support the general
conclusion that increasing MFR and Tu% both result into an improvement in
effectiveness, both in terms of η level and persistency going downstream. Conversely, a
stronger swirl always translates into an effectiveness reduction, that gets stronger at high
injection rates. Finally, please note that the reported distributions only extend over the
blade passage. This means that the low effectiveness values at x/Cax = 0 probably depend
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 26

Int.J. J.
Int. Turbomach.Propuls.
Turbomach. Propuls.Power
Power2022,
2022,7,7,x 22
FOR PEER REVIEW 1918
ofof
2625

Figure 9. Platform rotor blade film cooling effectiveness as a function of operating conditions (figure
newly created herein using data taken from [18]).
Platform
Figure9.9.Platform
Figure rotor
rotor blade
blade film
film cooling
cooling effectivenessasasa function
effectiveness a function
ofof operating
operating conditions(figure
conditions (figure
newly
newly created
created
Figure 10herein
herein using
using
extends data
data
the takenfrom
taken
considered from [18]).
[18]).
data set further, allowing comparison of different
slot geometries and locations with respect to the blade leading edge at a fixed MFR of 1%.
Figure1010extends
Figure extends theconsidered
considered dataset set further,allowing
allowingcomparison
comparisonofofdifferent
different
A general agreement inthe the decreasingdata trend offurther,
effectiveness inside of the channel can be
slotgeometries
slot geometriesand and locationswith withrespect
respecttotothe theblade
bladeleading
leadingedge edge ata fixed
a fixed MFR ofof 1%.
observed. The samelocations
figure also allows different approaches to modelatpurge MFR
flow 1%.
injection
A Ageneral
generalagreement
agreementininthe thedecreasing
decreasingtrendtrendofofeffectiveness
effectivenessinsideinsideofofthethechannel
channelcan canbebe
through the stator to rotor interface gap, to be compared i.e., simple radial injection across
observed.The
observed. Thesame
samefigure
figurealso
alsoallows
allowsdifferent
differentapproaches
approachestotomodel modelpurge
purgeflow flowinjection
injection
a cavity (S1) or a labyrinth-like cavity (S2), the simulation of purge flow tangential
through
through the stator to rotor interface gap, to be compared i.e., simple radial injection across
injectionthe usingstator to rotor
fins (S1f) interface
or swirlgap, to be compared
generator (S1s) andi.e., fullsimple radial
rotating injection
rig testingacross
(S2r).
a cavity
aInteresting (S1)
cavity (S1) or a labyrinth-like
or a islabyrinth-like cavity (S2),
cavity the simulation
(S2), the of
simulation purge flow
of installedtangential
purge flow injection
tangential
to note that simulating the rotation effects using fins inside the slot
using fins
injection (S1f)fins
or swirl generator (S1s) and full rotating rig rotating
testing (S2r). Interesting to
can roughly replicate the effectiveness level in a rotating ring with similar slot width(S2r).
using (S1f) or swirl generator (S1s) and full rig testing and
note is
Interesting that simulating
to note the
is thatleadingrotation
simulating effects
theLower using
rotation fins installed
effects using inside the
fins characterize slot
installed inside can roughly
the slot
distance
replicate from
the the blade
effectiveness level edge.
in a rotating effectiveness
ring with similarlevels
slot width and simple
distance slot
from
can roughly replicate
configuration S1 and the effectiveness
labyrinth-like S2 level in a rotating
configuration, due ring
to with
the similar
larger slot width
distance from and
theS1
the blade
distance fromleading
the edge. leading
blade Lower effectiveness
edge. Lower levels characterize
effectiveness levelssimple slot configuration
characterize simple slot
blade leading edge S2
and labyrinth-like (unfortunately,
configuration,data due before the leading
to the larger distance edge
fromarethe
notblade
available).
leadingSwirl
edge
configuration
simulation S1 andthe labyrinth-like S2level
configuration, due toplatform,
the larger distancetofrom the
(unfortunately, data before the leading edge are not available). Swirl simulationthe
reduces effectiveness over the whole similarly fins
reduces
blade
effect. leading edge (unfortunately, data before the leading edge are not available). Swirl
the effectiveness level over the whole platform, similarly to the fins effect.
simulation reduces the effectiveness level over the whole platform, similarly to the fins
effect.

Figure10.
Figure Rotorplatform
10.Rotor platformpitch
pitchaveraged
averagedfilm
filmcooling
coolingeffectiveness MFR==1.0%
effectivenessatatMFR 1.0%forfordifferent
different
coolingslot
cooling slotconfigurations:
configurations:S2r S2ratatdesign
designrotational
rotationalspeed
speed[29],
[29],S1
S1and
andS1f
S1fwith −10◦fins
with −10° fins[22],
[22],S1S1and
and
Figure
S1s 10.SR
S1swith
with Rotor
SR ==0.4 platform
0.4[17], pitch
[17],S2S2with
with averaged
simulated
simulated filmeffect
stator
stator cooling effectiveness at MFR = 1.0% for different
effect[20].
[20].
cooling slot configurations: S2r at design rotational speed [29], S1 and S1f with −10° fins [22], S1 and
S1s with SR = 0.4 [17], S2 with simulated stator effect [20].
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 26

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 19 of 25

Similarly, Figure 11 compares pitch averaged film cooling effectiveness distributions

in the region of discrete hole cooling, i.e., downstream x/Cax = 0.2. In this figure, the
Similarly,
different coolingFigure 11 compares
schemes pitch
identified averaged
in Figure film
3 are cooling effectiveness
compared. Please notedistributions
that H1 refers in
the region of discrete hole cooling, i.e., downstream x/Cax = 0.2. In this figure, the
to holes located only along the blade pressure side, H2 to holes placed rear in the passage,different
cooling schemes identified in Figure 3 are compared. Please note that H1 refers to holes
while H3 considers cooling schemes where holes are distributed over most of the
located only along the blade pressure side, H2 to holes placed rear in the passage, while
platform. Both stationary and rotating rigs (suffix “r”) are considered, while only one case
H3 considers cooling schemes where holes are distributed over most of the platform. Both
refered to shaped holes (H2s). Clearly, the more upstream the holes are located, the higher
stationary and rotating rigs (suffix “r”) are considered, while only one case refered to shaped
is the effectiveness level reached approaching the trailing edge. As a general trend,
holes (H2s). Clearly, the more upstream the holes are located, the higher is the effectiveness
increasing the blowing ratio translates into an effectiveness reduction when considering
level reached approaching the trailing edge. As a general trend, increasing the blowing
cylindrical holes, both for stationary and rotating platforms, due to jet lift-off phenomena.
ratio translates into an effectiveness reduction when considering cylindrical holes, both for
The adoption of shaped holes allows good thermal protection at the rear in the passage,
stationary and rotating platforms, due to jet lift-off phenomena. The adoption of shaped
higher than with cylindrical holes. Increasing the density ratio results in higher
holes allows good thermal protection at the rear in the passage, higher than with cylindrical
effectiveness levels, especially in the front of the passage, when injecting coolant across
holes. Increasing the density ratio results in higher effectiveness levels, especially in the
cylindrical
front of theholes distributed
passage, all overcoolant
when injecting the platform (H3) at a relatively
across cylindrical high blowing
holes distributed ratio
all over the
of 1.5.
platform (H3) at a relatively high blowing ratio of 1.5.

Figure 11.
Figure Platform rotor
11. Platform rotor blade
bladefilm
filmcooling
coolingeffectiveness asas
effectiveness a function of operating
a function conditions—data
of operating conditions—
reproduced: H2c from [19], H2cr from [30], H3c from [15], H2s from [26].
data reproduced: H2c from [19], H2cr from [30], H3c from [15], H2s from [26].

In order
In order to
to gain
gain aa more
more general
general understanding
understanding of of cooling
cooling performance
performance achieved
achieved by by
the slot design presented in the open literature, in Figure 12 the pitch-wise averaged
the slot design presented in the open literature, in Figure 12 the pitch-wise averaged film- film-
cooling effectiveness
cooling effectiveness values
values extracted
extracted from
from Figure at x/C
Figure 88 at x/Cax = 0.2 are reported as a function
ax = 0.2 are reported as a function
of the coolant to mainstream mass flow ratio MFR (density
of the coolant to mainstream mass flow ratio MFR (density ratio ratio equal equal
to 1 fortoall1 the
forselected
all the
data). These
selected dataThese
data). allow better
data quantification
allow better of the impact of operating
quantification parameters
of the impact on purge
of operating
flow cooling performance. The behaviour of typical purge flow geometries. S2, shown
parameters on purge flow cooling performance. The behaviour of typical purge flow
along with the related (linear) minimum least square approximation, demonstrates that
geometries. S2, shown along with the related (linear) minimum least square
increasing the MFR is always beneficial in terms of platform thermal protection. This stands
approximation, demonstrates that increasing the MFR is always beneficial in terms of
both for stationary and rotating conditions, whatever the rotational speed considered, high
platform thermal protection. This stands both for stationary and rotating conditions,
or low. As expected, the film-cooling effectiveness of rotating conditions is lower than that
whatever the rotational speed considered, high or low. As expected, the film-cooling
of typical stationary configurations, especially when considering low MFR or low rotational
effectiveness of rotating conditions is lower than that of typical stationary configurations,
speed. The figure also reports data obtained simulating the impact of rotation on the seal
especially when considering low MFR or low rotational speed. The figure also reports
flow exiting the gap through fins or swirl generators. These results highlight that well
data obtained simulating the impact of rotation on the seal flow exiting the gap through
simulated rotation can indeed effectively approximate the effectiveness parameter value.
fins or swirl generators. These results highlight that well simulated rotation can indeed
effectively approximate the effectiveness parameter value.
Int. J.J. Turbomach.
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21 of 26
25

Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 26

Figure
Figure12.
Figure Platform
12.
12. Platform
Platformrotor blade
rotor
rotor filmfilm
blade
blade cooling effectiveness
cooling (extracted
effectiveness at x/Catax x/C
(extracted = 20%)
ax =
ax
as
=20%) a function
20%) as of
as aa function
function of
of
the
themass
massflow
flowratio with
ratio density
with ratio
density DRDR
ratio = 1 (S2
= 1 [13–15,19],
(S2 S1s [16],
[13–15,19], S1s S2w [20],
[16], S2w S1f
[20],[22],
S1f S2r [29,30]).
[22], S2r [29,30]).
the mass flow ratio with density ratio DR = 1 (S2 [13–15,19], S1s [16], S2w [20], S1f [22], S2r [29,30]).

Finally,
Finally,Figure
Finally, Figure
Figure 1313reports
13reports similar
reportssimilar data
similardata but for
butbut
data highhigh
for high
for and low
and low turbulence
and turbulence
low intensity
intensity
turbulence levels,
intensity
levels,
showing
levels, showing that increasing
that increasing
showing Tu% is
Tu% is always
that increasing always
Tu% isbeneficialbeneficial for stationary
for stationary
always beneficial cascades,
cascades, both
for stationary both both
simulating
cascades,
simulating
simulating the
the rotation the rotation
effect
rotationeffect
or not or or
notnot
simulating
effect simulating
itsimulatingit and
and whatever whatever
it andthewhatever the injection
injection condition.condition.
the injectionNevertheless,
condition.
Nevertheless,
the impact ofthean impact of
increased an increased
mainstream mainstream
turbulence turbulence
intensity intensity
is is significantly
significantly
Nevertheless, the impact of an increased mainstream turbulence intensity is significantly reduced when
reduced whenthe
simulating simulating the rotation
rotation effect effect
on purge on purge
flow flow discharging
discharging from the slot.from the slot.
reduced when simulating the rotation effect on purge flow discharging from the slot.

Figure
Figure 13.13. Platform
Platform rotor
rotor blade
blade filmfilm cooling
cooling effectiveness
effectiveness (measured at x/Catax x/C
(measured ax = as
= 20%) 20%) as a function
a function of of
the
the mass
mass flow
flow ratio
ratio with
with density
density ratio DR DR
ratio = 1.5—turbulence
= 1.5—turbulence effect—Tu%
effect—Tu% = 0.72=&0.72 & 13 (figure
13 (figure newly newly
Figureherein
created 13. Platform
using rotor
data blade
taken film
from cooling effectiveness (measured at x/Cax = 20%) as a function of
[18]).
created herein using data taken from [18]).
the mass flow ratio with density ratio DR = 1.5—turbulence effect—Tu% = 0.72 & 13 (figure newly
6.created herein
6.Phantom
Phantom using data taken from [18]).
Cooling
Cooling
Recently,
Recently, a secondary
a secondary form
form of cooling,
of cooling, defined
defined as “phantom
as “phantom cooling”,
cooling”, has the
has been been the
6. Phantom
subject of Cooling
study. This secondary form of cooling is related to coolant streams that mitigate
subject of study. This secondary form of cooling is related to coolant streams that mitigate
the thermal load in unexpected/unforeseen regions. A small amount of coolant from the
Recently, a secondary form of cooling, defined as “phantom cooling”, has been the
subject of study.
blade may go onThis
thesecondary
end wall, form of cooling
or again is related
from the to coolant
end wall streams
may cool part that mitigate
of the blade;
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 21 of 25

the coolant flow is mainly carried by the passage vortex and redirected toward the blade
suction side providing unintended “phantom” or “secondary” cooling. This phenomenon
may be seen as an energy saving mechanism helpful in protecting certain parts of the
HPT systems. Ref. [55] observed that phantom cooling may have noticeable effects for
SS cooling but also highlighted that the effectiveness could be significantly reduced for
higher relative motion conditions. In fact, complex interaction occurs between primary
and secondary sources of cooling, as also shown in [59]. Predictions indicate that the
unsteadiness phenomena concerned the slot film cooling more than discrete hole cooling;
they also highlighted that for rotating speed other than the design value, the film cooling
effectiveness decreased, due to either reduced blowing ratio or the stronger effect of the
stator wake. Ref. [18] considered the swirl motion effects on phantom cooling, showing a
behaviour similar to the one already observed on platform film cooling.

7. Concludings Remarks
The present paper analysed the published literature on rotor platform cooling, consid-
ering all aspects involved: from the impact on the aerodynamics to heat transfer behaviour,
including both the heat transfer coefficient and the film cooling effectiveness parameters.
The published literature provided quite a complete picture of the complex flow phenomena
taking place when coolant is injected upstream, through the interference gap, and/or inside
the channel. Exhaustive data sets are available for adiabatic film cooling effectiveness from
cascade testing, making it possible to identify the most important influencing parameters, i.e.,
the coolant to mainstream mass flow rate and the mainstream turbulence intensity level, aug-
mentation of which always results in increased effectiveness levels. Nevertheless, the impact
of rotation cannot be discarded, to avoid overestimation of platform thermal protection and
underestimation of loss generation across the passage. Some improvements can be obtained,
thanks to the simulation of coolant swirl or tangential injection: even if effectiveness levels
are still overpredicted, the general trends are correctly reproduced, resulting in an acceptable
approach to the analysis of rotor platform cooling. Of course, to really capture the complex
unsteady flow phenomena taking place at the interface between stator and rotor, a full stage
setup would be mandatory, with all the resulting experimental complications. Whatever the
adopted approach, all published papers report that purge flow emerging from the stator to
rotor interface gap never overcomes the passage vortex separation line, thus requiring the
implementation of discrete hole cooling at specific locations. The higher the turbine inlet
temperature, the more extended the extra cooling required.
Much less information is available concerning the impact of platform cooling on
aerodynamic performance and the platform heat transfer coefficient distribution. Generally
speaking, only coolant injected across the gap can interact with secondary flow generation.
Purge flow injection, due to its low momentum, always enforces horseshoe and passage
vortices, resulting in an increased secondary loss. Again, a correct simulation of rotation
effect, particularly of coolant induced inlet flow swirl, is mandatory to obtain a proper
estimation of secondary flow enforcement that is stronger due to the relative motion
between stator and rotor, since coolant is injected in the passage vortex cross flow direction.
The higher the MFR the higher the negative impact on secondary flow.
The number of documented CFD investigations on rotor platform cooling are still
limited and, due to the complexity of geometry and flow conditions, they are still performed
using conventional numerical approaches.
Certainly, full stage testing, both experimentally and numerically, is the best choice, but it
can hardly provide the detailed, and often scaled up information a blade cascade wind tunnel
can give. So, further improvement in the capability of linear cascade to approach, as close
as possible, real engine conditions should be investigated. Moreover, most of the reported
investigations analysed different operating conditions in terms of coolant injection, but not in
terms of engine loading. The only exception is the full stage investigation of [29,30], reporting
data obtained at variable rotational speeds. Energy transition, with the progressive increase
of renewable energy penetration in Europe, is asking industrial gas turbines to act as grid
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 22 of 25

stabilizers, extending the part load operation of these engines down to a progressively lowered
minimum operating point. The higher operation flexibility will also impact on manufacturing
tolerances of secondary air systems and, particularly, on rim seals, that can undergo dimen-
sional modifications as a consequence of load variation. A better knowledge of coolant to
mainstream interaction at rotor inlets in such conditions would help manufacturers in further
pushing the limit of gas turbine operability, while still granting sure and safe operation.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.B.; investigation, G.B., H.A., S.R. and N.F.; supervision,
G.B. and N.F.; data curation, G.B., H.A., S.R. and N.F.; writing—original draft preparation, G.B., H.A.,
S.R. and N.F.; writing—review and editing, G.B., H.A., S.R. and N.F. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are openly available in the open
literature, cited and reported in the dedicated References section.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

c blade chord
D hole diameter
DR density ratio
H blade height
HPT high pressure turbine
I momentum flux ratio
L hole length
m mass flow
M1 inlet loss free blowing ratio
M hole blowing ratio
MFR coolant to mainstream mass flow ratio
P pressure
PS pressure side
PSP pressure sensitive paints
Re Reynolds number
s blade pitch
S swirl number
SS suction side
TLC Thermochromic liquid crystal
Tu turbulence intensity level
U local mean velocity
X, Y, Z cascade coordinate system
Y total pressure loss coefficient
w gap width
α hole injection angle
η adiabatic film cooling effectiveness (local)
{η } averaged film cooling effectiveness
ζ local energy loss coefficient
ρ density
Subscripts
ax axial
aw adiabatic wall
C cooling flow
LE leading edge
t total
1 at cascade inlet
∞ freestream
Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power 2022, 7, 22 23 of 25

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