15. SEMICONDUCTOR, ELECTRONICS Semiconcduetors — . The materials which have Conductivity and resistivity inbetween conductors and insuledors are calleol semiconcluctors- Examples - Silicon Csi) , Germanium Cae) ete. Ene Band Theory af Solids - According to Bohr's theory How axe well olefinel entagy Jevels of electrons in an etom. If large. Number of atoms are byot close. 40 one another to form @ crystal, they begin to influence eoch other. Dus to this inden die. infevacton tere 4s no modification in the energy Auels of the electrons in the outer shel but there 12 a Conticlrable modification in the energy Aurele of the electrons in the outey shells - FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP 1 (____ tap? 3s? 1 ' t ' 1 ' ' ' t ‘ 1 t ENERGY ==> i 2s? | CRYSTAL mice SPACING fg s? Hi faerie a x INTERATOMIC SPACING, r=——> To understand modification in enaxqy levels of elechans Consider a Silicon crystod Containing N atoms.umesn najoria Silicon Csi) atoms have four valance elechors te, Number of elechons in the outermost obit Js 4. Therefore the otal number of valena elechons in the crystal of Si Us 4N. CD Ts the intesctomic spacing: of the si afoms is Very Longe Cred), then twee Js no interatomic interaction. Gi) When the interatomic spacing ¥ is Los then of but greater than c,ther thee 4a no visible spliting of energy Awels. Gis) When the interatomic spacing ia equal 4o Cc, the energy of Outermost Shel) electrons of Neighboukin Silicon afoms stort changing ie the spliting: of these en Aurels occurs. Whereas ture is no change in the enevey. Awvels of electrons in the inner shells. Gv) When inkyedmic spacing ¥ Les inbehweon b and ¢ C bevy instead of a single as or 3p ue), we get a Jonge number of Closely packed Awels. Whe 2N Arvels Corresponding te a Single 3s deel and EN levels for a Single 3p level of an isolated atom. This Apreacling of ensragy Luvels reduces the enmagy between 8s ae ap Levels of free atom. ee TRS Collection of Closely spaced levels JA calltd an energy band- (v) lohan the infevoomic spacing ¥ becomes equa) to b but greater than a (r=b7a), the energy gap behoean 3S and ap levels Completely disappers+ Tr such a Situation, st 4s not possible to distinguish between the electrons belonging 40 38 and 3p subshells. We can only say that 4N levels ave filled ond 4n levels are empty.umesn Rajoria, (Vi) When tre fnteratomic spacing r becomes equol to a Cr=a) then the band of aN filleal energy Awels ts separateal from the banol of 4N unfilled energy levels, by ean ency Catled: entrgy band wolich ee eunsteat oe ees The Aower Completely filled bend Js Colles Valance band omel tue upper unfilled banol is Glled Conduction bend. The mmimum en uired for shifting electrons from votlanw ees to Conduchon band is eguot to ensragy band gap (&)- Difference between Meduls (Conductors), Insulators and semiconcucioys om the bala af Bonds Conductors (Metals) — In Conductors the Conduction amd valance band portly overlap each other. and tere 33 no enngy gab in betweon + CONDUCTION BAND, EMPTY (CONDUCTION 7 : a ) FILLED VALENCE VALENCE BAND BAND Cendluctors Insutetors Semiconductors foo Masanten Bron €taed Clone Panes Ain sennansasae aananceoca [OR]vireon mayors Semiconductors - In semieonductrs the valence band Ad totally Filled amd the conduction band ts empty but the eningy gap betwen Cordlucten bana and valance. band id quite small. It is Les than 3 ev. Ey for germanium 4s 0-72 ev ond for Silicon it is fev. At zero kelvin temparatu semiconductor behaves as insulator. Insulotors - Tn inadotors the enengy at quite CEq > sev). Dus 4o Lang cies no electon 44 able to ge fem the walaee “her tie Conduction band . Hence electical cenduéhon im these materials 43 impossible omd Hey behave. ah jnsulotors. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS - A Pure Semjtonductr which Ja Free of ene impurity 44 Called intrinsic semiconductor. Examples- Silicon Csi} and Germanium Cae), CREE i a ae oreo | SHORE AW Silicon ‘as 1s* 28) eee Germanium (32) 1s*2s*2p6 actsp$aq!?yst up Both the atoms (Si and Ge) have four valance electrons. EMPTY CONDUCTION BANDTae four valance elechons of a geemaniurin otom form four Covalent bands by shoring Hae electrons of neigwoouring four germanium atoms. The minimum enngy required to break a Covalent bend iA o-72ev for Ge ond Liew for sj. At room temperoture when an electron breaks awoy from & Covalent bond , tre empty place or vacancy Apt in the bore is Catled a hole. When an extemol electric filed Ay opplies|, these free elechons ond holes méve in opposite oUvechons and Constitute A Cuvunt. The number of free electrons omd holes are exactly equot in an “intrinsic Semiconductor. Adso the Conductivity of intrinsic semiconcluctor is very Low. The hole is Consiclrrecl as an ache partele in the valance benol , having a positive charge equod to thet of an electron. Doping :- pa: Dopin Ab a process of addition of @ olesivable Impurity attms to a pure semiCendluctor +o moolify its ropertics in a Controlled manner. The impurit atoms abil ae Called olepants. we Dopi of a Semicorclucfoy increases ts electrical casts S a great exterd. Methods of cleping:. (1) Acll the impurity afoms in the melt of semiconolucty: Gi) Implant clopant atoms by bombaxing the Semitorducty with thir tons. (iit) Heat ythe Semiconductor in atmosphere of clopant atoms.EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ~ A clopec) semiconductor or a semitendlucter with Suitable impwuty atom addecl to it is Called extrinsic Semiconductor» Extrinsic semicencluctors ang of two types- Ci) N-type Semiconductor Ci) P-type Semiconoluctoy (L) N-type Semiconductr— bohen Q pure Semicencluctor of silicon (si) or Gevmenium CGe) is cloped with pentavalint atoms whith have’ five valance electrons (Phosphorous, Arsenic, antimony oy Bismuth) ten ibis coltea} n-type Semiconductor: The four of the five “valance. elechons of the impurity atoms will form Covalent band with tHe acljoining four atrms of the silfeon , while the bifth eae ds free to move Thus each impurity atom added corntes one gree electron to tne crystal These impurity atoms are Called conor otoms. Since the Conduction ob electricity 4s olue to the motion of electrons (te. negative charges), So thot the resulting semitoncluctor is ¢ n-tye or olonoy type Semiconductor: REE oottav : for Si _— 7 DONOR pero y~.- ENERGY oT " STATE Be ! she i RRR ™ n- Pet Semiconductors electrons are majority Conners and holes are minority carriers.Git) P-type Semiconductor — When a pure semiconductor of silicon Csi) or Germanium (Ge) it copeal with @ Controlled amount of trivalent atoms ,which have thre valance electrons CBorm, Aluminium, Gallium, Inclium) then Ut 44 Cabled P-Fype Semiconsluctor- The three valance elechons of tre impuri adem will form Covalent bands with the adjoining three atoms of geemanium Cae), while tere will be one incomplete Covalent bond with a nel curing Ge atom, this oleficiency of an electron creates a ‘hole’. The trivalent atoms are Calteol acceptor atoms and the Conduction of electricity occurs olue (to motion of holes (L-e- Positive charges) 50 the resulting semiconductor 1A Catteot p-type oy acceptor type sem) conductor. In p-type semitonclucfor elechons are minor ty Carriers and holes are mojority Covciers.Distinction behten Intrinsic and éxtrenale semconductors INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR It is pure semiconducting material and no impurity atoms are added to it. » Examples are crystalline forms of pure silicon and germanium. . The number of free electrons in conduction band and the number of holes in valence band is exactly equal and very small indeed. |. Its electrical conductivity is low. . Its electrical conductivity is a function of temperature alone. n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR |. Itis an extrinsic semiconductor which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of Vth group of periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon semiconductor. The impurity atoms added, provide extra electrons in the structure, and are called donor atoms, The electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers. The electron density (n,) is much greater than the hole density (n,), 42. , >> My. 3. The donor energy level is close to the conduction band and far away from valence band. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR |. Itis prepared by doping a small quantity of impurity atoms to the pure semiconducting material. » Examples are silicon and germanium crystals with impurity atoms of arsenic, antimony, phos- phorous etc. or indium, boron, aluminium etc. . The number of free electrons and holes is never equal. There is excess of electrons in n-type semiconductors and excess of holes in p-type semiconductors. Its electrical conductivity is high. : Its electrical conductivity depends upon the temperature as well as on the quantity of impurity atoms doped in the structure. P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR . Itisan extrinsic semicondugtor which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of II group of Periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon semiconductor. ‘The impurity atoms added, create vacancies of electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and are called acceptor atoms. }. The holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. . The hole density (n,) is much greater than the electron density (n,), i.¢.,n, >>n,. . The acceptor energy level is close to valence band and is far away from conduction band.P-N JUNCTION 2 when a p-type semiceoluctor crystal As Joineol with an n-dype Aemiconclucty crystal , Hen tre resulting arrangement 4s Colltel a pon junction or junchon diode. Formation of PN- Tunctin — Te make a Pen junction , the n-type ome P-type silicon crystals axe cut Into thin wafers. Ih on a wafer of n- ty pe Silicon ,an aluminium film Js placed and heated 40 a high temperature sao, aluminium diffuses int> silicon and a p-type Aemiconductor 1s formed on an n-type Aemidoncluctoy: Stich 9 formaction of P-region on N-reyon 46 called Pn junction, Diffusion and Drift - When Pen juncton 4s formed due to olifference In Concentration of Chorge Corriens in two regions of Pn Junction, the electrons from n-region oliffuse thro the junction into p-region and holes from p- region diffuse Into n-reglon. The motion of change Carriers gives rise to diffusion Current across the junction. Hole Electron Depletion Layer HoleDue to diffusion ob electrons ano holes a Layer of positively chargeol deny atoms in n-vegion and a Layer of negacavel ch acceptor atoms in p-region are created. This positive anol negative space charge regions on both sides of p-n junction will form a region which has immobile lons and is calteol olpletion région. Due % positive anol negative Space ch reyion at p-n junction, an electric. fell is ae aces fe junction. Dus a this electric field olewelpedl ab the junction ,an electron on p-siole of the junction moves to n-sicle and a holes on n-siole of junchon moves to P- Siole of Junction. . Tke motion ox these ch Carriers lus. Ap electric field is Called drift. As a redult of ita chift Current starts, which is opposite in alivection to the diffuson current - In the begining the diffusion Current is dorge but drift cuwunt id small As the oliffusion process Conk- nues y the sivength of electric field across He junction imeveases and thurby drift cunt increases. This process Continues until the oliffusion cwoent becomes equal to the orift current. Now the p-n junction 4s date fo be be in equili- brium Atate and thre £8 no Current across the pn junction. At this stage, the Potential barviey across the Junehon has maximum valut Ve. Now the movement of majority charge Carries acvoss Hu junction stops amd the potential acts as a barriet, hence Known ab potential barney. At room stumperatire (300k) Vo Bd about av for Ge cmd O7V for Si. The value of Va increases with vise in temperature for Ge and si.BIASING OF THE PN JUNCTION - Theve at two methods of biasing the pn junction— G) Fovward biasing Gi) Reverse biasing (1) Forward Biasing !- A pon junction is said 4o be forward biased if the pasitive terminal of the external battery is Connected to p-sicle and the negative terminal to the n-sicle of p-n janction. Depletion Layer of In forward biasing tHe forward votlage opposes the potential ae Ve. As a result of st ohendle) barrier and wiolth of depletion layer clcreaes. The effectve value of potentiod barrier in fonwend biasing is re (2) Rewerse_Blasing !- A pn junction is saicl to be veverse biased) tf the positive terminal of Hw external battery is Connected to n-side and the negative termine] do p-sicle of the p-n junction. Tn reverse biasing the revewe bias veltage supports the potentential bawder Ve. As a result of ab bovviier potential: amet asidth of olepletton region Inereases -Me effective value of barriey petenhal under yeverse bias is CVe+Vv). Depletion Layer = ‘ ak Tn reveete blasing, there, 422 no Conduction across the junction olue fo majority cawuers+ However a fro minokity Carriers of pon junction eliede cross the juncHon after bemg accelerated by high reverse bias voltage- They constitute “a cunrent which us Calle reverse Curent or leakage current CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE Ci) Forward Chanactenistics - On plotting a graph between forward bias voltage and forward current we get te following graph. Forward Current Threshold Velage Voltage (for silicon diodes Vm = 0.7V) Tt 48 found that beyond forward voltage V = VK, Callid Knee voltage (o3v for Ge and 0-7 v for Si)the current TTHheough the junction starts increasing Yapicly with Voltage and showing the Ainear voration: But below the Knee voltage the variakon m Current is negligible amd the cure is non- Unear. (ii) Reverse Characteristics - On plotting a gimph behsean reverse bias voltage ond revese Current, we get the reverse cheracteristes as Shown in fig From the cwwe we note that in reverse biosing of P-n Junction, the Curent is very small (4% HA) and Js indepenclent on Voltage upto Cerdoin reverse blas voltage » Known a5 breakolown, voliage * REVERSE BIAS (V) 8 6 4 -2 (ytl) aNauUND BSUBATT Ih the rewrse bias voltage exceeds the breakolown voltage, the reverse cwouunt th the pen junction wil) incvease abruptly. Th tia Cuwunt exceeds the vated value. of pen junction (specified by manufacturer), the p-n junchion will get damaged.PN-DIODE As A RECTIFIER- Rectifier is a deajce which is used for Converting, altemnating cuvent/voltage ive livect curment/Vorrage, Thre are two hypes of rectifier — a) Half wave rectifier Gi) Full Wave RecHfer (1) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER - AC. voltege +o be rectified is connected to the PAimary winding FP. of a stepdown transformer: S)S2 42 the secondary coil of the transformer, S, is Connected +o the Porton P of the p-n junction. Sa is connected to the portion n thro Load resistance R. Output is taken across the Lead resistance R, ouTPuT VOLTAGE — WORKING - During positive hal eycle of A-C., suppase $1 becomes posite, Sa becomes negative and the pn juncten 4s forwaro biased. Tre weslstance of pnjunclon becomes Low. The maximum Forward current flows in the circuit and we get output across - Load. During negative halfy cycle ob Ac. S, becomes negative. and Sa ds posrtive » The pon Junction is reversebiased. Tt offers high resistance and hence there 3 no flow of cument amd thus no output across Load, Hence in the output, we have current Correspon— oling 40 one halls cycle of the wave and the othr he J& missing. That is why the process UU Cableo} hedf wave vrechHeation « (2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER — For full wave recHfication, we have to we two P-n junction cliodes Dy and Di- the Civcwit ws Shown in the given Fp WORKING During the positive half eycle of AG the ook Dy is forward biased and the olidde Da [s reverse biabed. The forward current Flows through dicde dD, in the clirection as shown in fia. During the negative half cycle of Ac. Hu. cliods D, Js ie bescleeg the ‘ie Ag is forward biased. The forward Curent flows Hough ok Dae We Observe ted duxiag both the half cycles of A.C. Current though R flows in the same direction.Due to; Due to ; Due to Hence the output signed Voltage is unidirectional having ripple Contents Ct-e, ole. Components and. at. Components voltage). It can be converted into ac voltage by Filtering through a filtey clreuit - FILTER- A single Capacitor of high value of Capacitance Connected across the, output of rectifier Can wark ab the filter TAL Capacitor offers Low impeclanee to a.¢. Component (% 2 de = ate) amd offers infinite impedance to alc. Dus 4o ot, the ae. Comporend Ls bypawed or filteucl out. Tt proctuces a Voltoge clrop across Lead yesjstomee Rue asa filtered bt. oudput which uw almast AC. voltage. Such Filler Js wicldly used dn purer supplies, Output voltage 2 in 9 a ia mi 2SPECIAL PURPOSE PN JUNCTION DIODE - EN SUNCTION DIODE Some cdwias which are basically P-n juncHon ods au clewvelopes| for lifferert applications. (i) Zener prove - Tt Js oluignedl Specially 0 operate in reverse breakdown veltage region continuously without bei damagect. In zener diode both p-side omd n-sike of Pen juncHon are heavily oloped, Forward current (mA) Reverse (V) ‘ voltage Forward (V) voltage Reverse current (1A) A cener Hoole has a unique feature that the. Voltage oop across ab iA indepenclnt of current Flowing ‘through it. Zener diode A4 Q Voltage Regulator — Zener cliode ib used fn makina te constant Voltage power Supply: Tts working Ut basecl on the fact that in reverse. breakelown yegion , @ very small Chenge in voltage across the zeney disc produas a very Large Change Im current through the Cineuit bud the voltage across the zener diode Yemains Constant. The Zentk dode Jd jomed in reverse bias to the fluctuating ol-¢. input voltage Through a resistance R of Suitable valuc+The Constant output voltage Js taken across @ load resistance Ri Connected tn Parallul with zanor cLloole, FLUCTUATING D.C. INPUT VOLTAGE CONSTANT OUTPUT VOLTAGE WORKING ~ When the input ac voltage across zener ool increases beyond Qa certam Umit (be. Zen breakoloum voltage) the ewrent through the circuit rises sharply , Causing a sufficient inerease In the voltage drop across Me dropping. resistor R. As a realt of it, tre Voltage across the zener cllode remain Constant and hence the output voltage lowers back 40 normal Vvedlue- When the input Abe voltage across He zen diode decreases 5 the curment ough the chreuit go down sharply causing. Sufficient olecreae Tn the Voltage cicross the dsoppi' resistor R» As Qq result of ut, the Voltage across the zener diode yvemains Constant and hence the output voltage is reused to normal. Hence the output voltage remains Constant.i) PHotoDIepe - , Photodiode us an optoelectronic clevice In which cuvunt Carriers (electrons and holes) ane gennrated by photons through photo excitation - In pPhotocliode a transparent window is made to ablow the Ught of suitable frequency to fall on Jt. Tt Gs operated under reverse bias. The Conductivity of Pen junction photocliocle Mereaser usith the Increase in intensity of Ught falling on st. UGHT mA REVERSE VOLTAGE | DARK CURRENT, LIGHT volt * INSeuND 3SuaA3y I> lyr ly & Working * When a Li ener reater than forbidden energy gap iro > eb is ene on a reverse biased ~p-n junction” photodioces an additional electron hole pairs are Created in the clepletion layer. These charge Cankiers flow across the junction ana generate a reverse current across the junction. It Js found thatthe reverse saturation cunent through the photodiode varies almost Airaarly usith the Aight iedtensity: luhen the photodiode is reverse biased , ton a certain current exists In the circuit even when no Light ds inciclent on the p-n junction of photocliode. This Cent Js Callid dark cwounh ATumesn ajoria Uses of Photoclioctes ~ ——_ arr Ci) In photodetection for optical signals. Gil) In clemodwlation for optical Signals . (ii) In switching ne Light on and off. ‘Wv) In reading of Computers, punches| cards ano! tapes. Gili) LIGHT EMITTING DIODE CLED) ~ ELUING DIODE CLED) LED wag Photoeketrmic clevice which Converts energy into Aight energy « ; Tt u a heavily clopeal ‘pen juncHon ode: which emits sportantous yadiation CAight) under formar bias. ~LA be dechicol In an LED He r ev of p- Aemicond— uctor is cLepasitec! by ay a one Aayer of Bemiconductr. The metallised Contacts are proveltel’ fov applying the forwarel bias voltoge fo the p-n junction lice From battery thro a rebistance. CRY which controls Hue brlgbdness of Light emitted. ee pon junction is forwatol! biased, the movement of majori Ey Change Cosriers take place acrossthe Junchorn. Tae electrons move. frem n-siole 40 P- Stole through the juneton and holes move from p- Sloe to n-side Hrrough the junction. As a result of ats the ConcentraHon of minority Carrits Increases Yapidly at the junction bounolary « These minority Carriers recombine with majority Corexs near the Junction. On vecombmation of electron and hole the energy Gs given out in the form of heat and Light. In pn junetion cUodes mace of materials Atke geltium anrsenicle ( GaAs), gallium phosphick (GaP) and gallium -arseniole- phosphice (GaAsP) 2 greater per- cent ob released oluring the recombination is in the form of visible Light. Aclvandag es of LED over Bulb :- - CL) LED has Lers power and low operational voltage, (2) LED has fast action and yequires no warm up dime, (3) LED 4 cheap amd easy do hare, (4) LED can be used for vouulehy of use eg, In burglar alarm dyatem, in optical Communication, in cligital watches ete. (al Explain giving teabory , W, the semiconductor Sse use| for fabricablon of visite Lpht Leds must have a band gee of at deost (nearly) 1-8 ev. Sod Semiconductors with bemd gP (Eg) Close to Leev ane pArfersedl Fo make Lepds because the emitted Light fouls im the visible region of Em wave spectrum. Tr other weason to select tHese materias are high optical absorption amd dew cost.(lv) SoLAR CeLL - f Pr solan cell Converts solar 2: indo electrical eurgy. Tt as also a pn-junction eliode, LIGHT METAL FINGER ELECTRODES GLASS I METAL CONTACT A Solar cell Conuats of @ Silicon ox gallium— Orsenicle p-n jJuncton ctiode packed In Q can with aad winclow on top: The upper layer is of p-type Aemi- luctor- Tt ts very thin Ao that the lclclent Aight photons may easily yeach the p-n junction. On the top face of p-dayer, the metal finger electrols are prrpared in order 40 have enough spacing between the fingers for the Light do reach the p-n JuneHon through P- layer. Working t= when photons of Aght (of enugy hv > Es) at the junction , electron-hole pairs are ed in the letion layey- The electrons and holes cool move aps atection due to junction pa The photo eo! electrons move towards n-side amd holes move towards p-side of P-n junction, They will be Collected at the two sides of the junction, giving vise 40-0 photo voltage befween the top and betiommeta) electrodes. When an external load id connected across metal elechodes a photo current flows: The V-I chanactenistics ob @ Solan coll Lying in fourth quachart of the Coordin axes. Ft is so because, Solar cell olde net draw current but supplies to the dood. In graph point A represents open circuit voltage amd polnt B yepresents short circuit. Uses t= UD Solar cetls ane used for charging storage batferiet in day Aime, which com Supply Saou ing night Gi) Solan cells are used in satellites to operate tre varies electrical tnstument Kept inisicle the satellite . Gil) Selax cells ake used in coleulators, watches etc. GN) Solan cells are used to Power traffic signals. State the reason, why Gafs is mest commonly used BE in making solar cells. Sel mp ok the maximum intensity of the Scolar yaoliation is near, 1S ev. In order 4o have Photo excitation the enrgy of Yacliation (hy) rust be greater than enrgy band gap (E3)- Therefore the Aemiconductoy with energy band about Sev ov Lower and sith higher absorption coefficient is Mkely to gre better Avlax Conversion efficiency - The entrgy bane} gep for si 4s 4-1 ev and for Gahs Jt is about 153 evNOTE- According to CBSE board Class 12 Physics New Syllabus: 2019 -20 ACC M el ML Me eC Mea as AT Nae Dee tauren Ce Ree Deeg Une ae Se en ia cea cienur iets PB acne ence ar emer tae ies (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR). reat) Oyeates JUNCTION TRANSISTOR — A junchon transistor Ja obtolned by grow a thin Loyer of one type Semiconcluctoy (P or 1) in betwean two thick layers of other ky pe semi - cencluctoy ( n oy P)- Thus a junchon transistor 44 @ Aemjcenducty clavice having two junctions and three terminals. The three Aoupers of junction hensistoys are- Ci) Emitter CE) - of tranaistor. Gi) Base CB- Tt ss Lightly cloped thin Jayer of transistor, which is in midcdle- Tt Ba heavily coped thick layey ii) Collector (O- F4 is @ mednately cloped ‘Huick layer of transistor. Size —> C?PE >B Tre function emitter is to emit the majority c ey ee function of Collector Ya ao collect the majority Cassers. Base Provicle the proper Interaction on dhe emitter and Collector.Umesn Rajoria WORKING -OF JUNCTION TRANSISTOR - re ONE EMMINSISITOR = (4) PNP Transistor - A PNP transistor A obtained by growing & thin layer of n-type Semiconductor in Between two relatively trick layers of p-type Aemionduclor To study the working of p-n-p transistor the experimented ent iS Alnor fn Fi: H VEE le le Veg Vee Veco The emifley— base junction is forwarol biased andl Collectoy-base junction is ewerse biored and this orvvangement as Known @ Common base Conf 107) Holes which ane jority Corsiers in emitter ave yepellecl towards base by obi HVE Potential on emitfer clut do battery Vee, resulting in emitter Cuxant Te - TRe base belng thin and Mighty cloped has Low number olensity of electrons. wohen holes enters the bose region, Hen ‘only a fers holes (say 57%) get reco- mbine usith electrons , resulting im base cudunt Tp - Herd Ib= 5412. = o05E- The remaining 35% holes paw ever to the collector on account of high negative potential clue to battery Vee ,Yesutting In Collector cumert Ie Where Ie = S5%Te = 095K