27.12.

2011

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Foundation Engineering

Earth Retaining Structures

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures

• Preliminarily, in order to improve our ability to
compute the lateral earth pressures in retaining
wall problems, we will make the following
simplifying assumptions:
– The earth retaining wall is vertical
– The interface between the wall and the soil is
frictionless
– The soil surface is horizontal and no shear
stress acting on horizontal and vertical
boundaries
– The wall is rigid and extends to an infinite depth
in a dry, homogeneous, isotropic soil mass
– The soil is loose and initially in an at-rest state

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures

• Consider the wall shown below. If the wall remains rigid and no movement
occurs, then the vertical and horizontal effective stresses at rest on
elements A, at the back of the wall, and B, in the front of the wall, are
 z  1   z
 x   3  Ko1  Ko z
where Ko is the lateral earth pressure at rest. Mohr’s circle, for the at-rest
state is shown by the black circle below.

t
e
e lin
fa ilur
mb
o ulo
hr-C
Mo

′x=Ko′z ′z ′

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures

• Let’s assume a rotation about the bottom of the wall sufficient to
produce slip planes in the soil mass behind and in front of the wall.
• The rotation required to produce slip planes in front of the wall is much
greater than that required for the back of the wall, because
– The soil mass at the back of the wall is assisting in producing failure
– The soil mass in the front of the wall is resisting failure (you have to
rotate the wall against the soil to produce failure)

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures

• When the wall rotates as

shown below
– The vertical effective
stress on either
element A or B will not
change
– Lateral effective stress
on element A will be
reduced
– Lateral effective stress
on element B will be
increased

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures

• We can plot the Mohr circles corresponding to the stress conditions
imposed on elements A (red circle) and B (blue circle).
• Both circles are drawn such that the decrease (element A) or increase
(element B) in lateral effective stress is sufficient to bring the soil to the
Mohr_Coulomb failure state.

t
e
e lin
fa ilur
mb
o ulo
hr-C
Mo
f′
′x=Ka′z ′x=Ko′z
′z ′x=Kp′z ′

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 27.12.2011

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures
• The ratio of lateral principal effective stress to vertical principal effective
stress for element A (active – red circle) is
 3  f  x  f 1  sin f   f 
   tan 2  45    K a
1  f  z  f 1  sin f   2

Active lateral earth pressure coefficient

t
ine
re l
failu
mb
o ulo
hr-C
Mo
f′
′x=Ka′z ′x=Ko′z
′z ′x=Kp′z ′

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures
• The ratio of lateral principal effective stress to vertical principal effective
stress for element B (passive – blue circle) is
 3  f  x  f 1  sin f   f 
   tan 2  45    K p
1  f  z  f 1  sin f   2

Passive lateral earth pressure coefficient

t
ine
ilu re l
mb fa
ulo
-Co
M ohr

f′
′x=Ka′z ′x=Ko′z
′z ′x=Kp′z ′

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures
1
• The relationship between Ka and Kp is K p 
Ka
• The stress states of soil elements A and B are called Rankine active state
and Rankine passive state, respectively.
• Each of these Rankine states is associated with a family of slip planes.
f
• For the active state the slip planes are oriented at a  45  to the horizontal
2
• For the passive state the slip planes are oriented at
f
 p  45  to the horizontal
2

t Pole for
e the
e lin
ilur passive
mb fa
o ulo state
hr-C
Mo
f′ 45°+f′/2 45°-f′/2
′x=Ka′z ′x=Ko′z ′z ′x=Kp′z ′

Pole for the

active state

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures
The lateral earth pressure for the active state is  x a  Ka z  Ka z
The lateral earth pressure for the passive state is  x  p  K p z  K p z
For a homogeneous soil layer, the lateral earth pressure varies linearly with depth.
The lateral active and passive coefficients are applied only to effective stresses.

Ho Ho
1 1
 K p z  K p H o2 Pa   Ka z  2 Ka H o
2
Pp 
0
2 0

The lateral forces Pa and

Pp are located at the
centroid of the lateral
earth pressure
distribution diagram. (In
this case, the centroid is
at Ho/3 from the base.

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures
• If groundwater is present, you need to add the hydrostatic (porewater)
pressure to the lateral earth pressure.
• For example, if the groundwater level is at distance hw from the base of the
wall, the hydrostatic pressure is
u   whw
and the hydrostatic force is
1
Pw   whw2
2

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Reminder for Lateral Earth Pressures
• Surface stresses also impose lateral earth pressures on retaining walls.
• A uniform surface stress, qs, will transmit a uniform active lateral earth
pressure of Kpqs.
• The active and passive lateral earth pressures due to the soil, groundwater,
and the uniform surface stresses are then
 x a  Ka z  Ka qs  u a &  x  p  K p z  K p qs  u  p
• The lateral forces from different different types of surface loads are calculated
using the methods that assume elastic distribution of stresses in soils.

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Example 1: For the frictionless wall shown below, determine
a) The active lateral earth pressure distribution with depth
b) The passive lateral earth pressure distribution with depth
c) The magnitudes and locations of the active and passive forces
d) The resultant force and its location
e) The ratio of passive moment to active moment

qs=30kPa

=15kN/m3 4m
f′=20° sand

=16kN/m 3
2m
f′=30°

Silty sand Silty sand

sat=20kN/m 3
6m sat=20kN/m3
f′=30° f′=30°

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Solution: Necessary lateral earth pressure coefficients are calculated for each layer:

For the sand layer (top layer) For the silty sand layer
 20   30  1 1
K a  tan 2  45    0.49 K a  tan 2  45   Kp  3
 2   2  3 Ka
 
Then using the obtained coefficients, active and passive lateral earth pressures are
calculated  (kPa) ′ (kPa) (′ ) (kPa)
Active side Depth (m) u (kPa) z z x a
Surcharge 0 0 30 30 15
4 0 30 30 10
Sand 0 0 0 0 0
Sand 4 0 60 60 29
Silty sand 4 0 60 60 20
Silty sand 6 0 92 92 31
Silty sand 12 60 212 152 51

Passive side Depth (m) u (kPa) z (kPa) ′z (kPa) (′x)p (kPa)
Silty sand 0 0 0 0 0
Silty sand 6 60 120 60 180

 wH
 H  z  u K p z
(using only bulk  )

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.)

Distribution of lateral earth,

Active side Depth (m) u (kPa) z (kPa) ′z (kPa) (′x)a (kPa)
surcharge, and hydrostatic Surcharge 0 0 30 30 15
pressures with depth 4 0 30 30 10
Sand 0 0 0 0 0
Sand 4 0 60 60 29
qs=30kPa Silty sand 4 0 60 60 20
Silty sand 6 0 92 92 31
sand 0 15 Silty sand 12 60 212 152 51

surcharge
4m
Passive side Depth (m) u (kPa) z (kPa) ′z (kPa) (′x)p (kPa)
Silty sand 0 0 0 0 0
29 15 Silty sand 6 60 120 60 180
20 10
2m Silty
sand 31
0 0 0
0 Silty
surcharge

sand
6m Active
Passive
earth
earth
water pressure water
pressure

60 51 10 180 60
Lateral Pressures

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.) For the sake of simplicity in computation, pressure distribution
diagrams are divided into rectangle and triangle distributions:
qs=30kPa

sand 0 15
4m
C
A
29 15
20 10
2m Silty
sand D E
0 11 20 0 B 0 0
Silty
sand
6m G
W H W
F

60 20 31 10 180 60

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CE 431 qs=30kPa Çinicioğlu

Solution (cont.)
sand 0 15
4m
C
A
29 15
20 10
2m Silty
sand D E
0 11 20 0 B 0 0
Silty
sand
6m G
W H W
F

60 20 31 10 180 60
Type of Moment arm from base Total Moment
Area Depth range (m) Force (kN) Moment (kNm)
loading (m) (kNm)
A 0-4 4*15=60 8+4/2=10 60*10=600
B 4-12 8*10=80 8/2=4 80*4=320
C 0-4 0.5*29*4=58 8+4/3=9.33 58*9.33=541
D 4-6 0.5*11*2=11 6+2/3=6.67 11*6.67=73
Active 2852
E 4-6 2*20=40 6+2/2=7 40*7=280
F 6-12 0.5*20*6=60 6/3=2 60*2=120
G 6-12 6*31=186 6/2=3 186*3=558
W 6-12 0.5*60*6=180 6/3=2 180*2=360
H 0-6 0.5*-180*6=-540 6/3=2 (-540)*2=-1080
Passive -1440
W 0-6 0.5*-60*6=-180 6/3=2 (-180)*2=-360
Slateral forces  -45 Smoment  1412

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.)
Type of Moment arm from base Total Moment
Area Depth range (m) Force (kN) Moment (kNm)
loading (m) (kNm)
A 0-4 4*15=60 8+4/2=10 60*10=600
B 4-12 8*10=80 8/2=4 80*4=320
C 0-4 0.5*29*4=58 8+4/3=9.33 58*9.33=541
D 4-6 0.5*11*2=11 6+2/3=6.67 11*6.67=73
Active 2852
E 4-6 2*20=40 6+2/2=7 40*7=280
F 6-12 0.5*20*6=60 6/3=2 60*2=120
G 6-12 6*31=186 6/2=3 186*3=558
W 6-12 0.5*60*6=180 6/3=2 180*2=360
H 0-6 0.5*-180*6=-540 6/3=2 (-540)*2=-1080
Passive -1440
W 0-6 0.5*-60*6=-180 6/3=2 (-180)*2=-360
Slateral forces  -45 Smoment  1412

 Active lateral forces  675kN

Resultant lateral force  45kN
 Passive lateral forces  720kN
Location of the active lateral earth force

za 
 Active moments  2852  4.22m Since the active moment is
 Active lateral forces 675 greater than the passive
moment, the wall will rotate
Location of the passive lateral earth force
6m
zp   2m
3

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

• Coulomb (1776) proposed that a condition of limit equilibrium exists

through which a soil mass behind a vertical retaining wall will slip
along a plane inclined at an angle  to the horizontal.
• Coulomb then determined the slip plane by searching for the plane
on which the maximum thrust acts.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

• For obtaining Coulomb’s earth pressure theory, we will consider a
vertical, frictionless wall of height Ho, supporting a soil mass with a
horizontal surface.
• We are going to assume
– Dry, homogeneous soil mass (′=)
– Slip occurs on a plane inclined at an angle  to the horizontal
• The free-body diagram can be drawn as

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory
We can solve for Pa using statics as follows
 Fx  Pa  T cos  N sin   0
 Fz  W  T sin   N cos  0
1
The weight of the sliding mass is W   H 02 cot 
2
At limit equilibrium T  N tan f 
1
Solving for Pa, we get Pa   H o2 cot  tan   f  
2

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

1
Pa   H o2 cot  tan   f  
2
To find the maximum thrust and the inclination of the slip plane, we differentiate P a wrt
to : Pa 1
  H o2 cot  sec2   f    csc2  tan   f    0
 2  
f
which leads to   cr  45 
2
1
Substituting this into Pa   H o2 cot  tan   f   we get
2
1  f  1
Pa   H o2 tan 2  45    K a H o2
2  2 2

This is the same result

obtained earlier from
considering Mohr’s
circle.

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

• Several investigators have attempted to find Ka and Kp values for
cases where wall friction () is present, the wall face is inclined at an
angle  to the vertical, and the backfill is sloping at an angle .
• Poncelet (1840), using Coulomb’s approach, obtained expressions
for KaC and KpC, where subscript C denotes Coulomb:

cos 2 f    
K aC  2
 1 
  sin f     sin f      2 
cos  cos     1  
2

 cos     cos      
  
cos 2 f    
K pC  2
 1 
 sin f     sin f      2 
cos  cos     1  
2
 
 cos     cos      

 
Poncelet, J.V. (1840) “Memoire sur la stabilite des revetments et de leurs foundations. Note additionelle sur les relations a nalytiques
qui lient entre elles la poussee et la butee de la terre.” Memorial de l’officer de genie, 13.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

• You should note that KpC  1/KaC.
• You should remember that the lateral earth pressure coefficients are
applied to the effective stresses.
• The inclination of the slip plane to the horizontal is
 1 
tan   
 sin f  cos   2   tan f 
 1 
 cos f   sin f      
2

where the positive sign refers to the active state (a) and the negative sign
refers to the passive state (p).
cos 2 f    
K aC  2
 1 
  sin f     sin f      2 
cos  cos     1  
2
 
 cos     cos      

 
cos 2 f    
K pC  2
 1 
 sin f     sin f      2 
cos 2  cos     1   
 cos     cos      
  
Poncelet, J.V. (1840) “Memoire sur la stabilite des revetments et de leurs foundations. Note additionelle sur les relations analytiques
qui lient entre elles la poussee et la butee de la terre.” Memorial de l’officer de genie, 13.

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory
• The lateral forces are inclined at  to the normal on the sloping surface.
• The sign conventions for  and  are shown in the figure.
• You must use the appropriate sign in determining KaC and KpC.
• The direction of the frictional force on the wall depends on whether the wall
moves relative to the soil or soil moves relative to the wall.
• In general,
– the active wedge moves downward relative to the wall (+)
– the passive wedge moves upward relative to the wall (-)
• The point of application of these forces are Ho/3 from the base of the wall as
shown in the figure.

CE 431
Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure for a SlopingÇinicioğlu
Backfill and a Sloping Wall Face
• With reference to the figure, the lateral earth pressure coefficients
according to Rankine’s analysis are
cos      1  sin 2 f   2sin f  cos  a  f  1  sin  
K aR  where  a     sin 1 
 

cos 2  cos   sin 2 f   sin 2  4 2 2 2  sin f  

cos      1  sin 2 f   2sin f  cos  p  f  1  sin  

K pR  where  p     sin 1 
 

cos  cos   sin f   sin 
2 2 2 4 2 2 2  sin f  

 values are the inclinations of the

slip planes to the horizontal.
The sign conventions for  and 
are shown in the figure.
Anticlock rotation is positive.

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CE 431
Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure for a Sloping Çinicioğlu
Backfill and a Sloping Wall Face
• The active and passive lateral earth forces are
1 1
Pa  KaR H 02 and Pp  K pR H 02
2 2
These forces are inclined at
 sin f  sin a   sin f  sin  p 
a  tan 1  1
 and  p  tan  

 1  sin f cos  a  
 1  sin f  cos  p 
to the normal of the wall face. The angles a and p are not interface
friction values.
In the case of a wall with a vertical
face, =0, the equations reduce to

1  cos   cos 2   cos 2 f  

K aR   cos   
K pR  cos   cos 2   cos 2 f  
 
and the active and passive lateral earth
forces act in a direction parallel to the
soil surface, that is, they are inclined at
an angle  to the horizontal.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Active state for c-f′ soils (Critical Depth)
• The Mohr’s circles corresponding to wall displacements of x=0 and x>0 are
shown as circles a and b, respectively, in the figure below.
• If the displacement of the wall, x, continues to increase, the corresponding Mohr’s
circle eventually will just touch the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope (circle c) defined
by
s  c    tan f 
• Circle c represents the failure condition in the soil mass, the horizontal stress then
equals ′a referred to as the Rankine active pressure.
• The slip lines (failure planes) in the soil mass will then make angles of (45°+f′/2)
with the horizontal.

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Active state for c-f′ soils (Critical Depth)
• Using the figure below, an equation relating the principal stresses for a Mohr’s circle
that touches the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope:

 
1   3 tan 2 45  f  2  2c tan 45  f  2  
• For the Mohr circle c in the figure
Major principal stress, 1   o Thus,
Minor principal stress,  3   a
 
 o   a tan 2 45  f  2  2c tan 45  f  2  
 o 2c
 a  
tan 45  f
2 
2  
tan 45  f

2 

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Active state for c-f′ soils (Critical Depth)
Rearranging  a 

tan 45  f
2 
 o



2c
tan 45  f


where K a  tan 2 45  f  
2 
2 2


We get  a   o tan 2 45  f

2   2c tan 45  f 2     K  2c o a Ka

Using the obtained relationship, the variation of the active pressure with depth is given
below.
The pressure distribution
shows that at z=0 the
active pressure equals

2c K a
indicating a tensile stress
that decreases with depth
and becomes zero at a
depth z=zc called depth of
tensile crack or critical
depth.

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Çinicioğlu
Active state for c-f′ soils (Critical Depth)
CE 431

 a   o Ka  2c Ka can be written for depth z  zc as

 zc Ka  2c Ka  0
2c The depth zc is usually referred to as the depth of
and as a result zc  tensile crack, because the tensile stress in the
 Ka soil will eventually cause a crack along the soil-
wall interface.

Thus, the total Rankine active force per unit length of the wall
before the tensile crack occurs is
H
Pa    a dz 
0
H H
   zK a dz   2c K a dz 
0 0
1
 Pa   H 2 K a  2cH K a
2

Çinicioğlu
Active state for c-f′ soils (Critical Depth)
CE 431

However, after the tensile crack appears, the force per unit length on the wall will
be caused only by pressure distribution between depths z=zc and z=H, as shown
by the shaded area in the figure. This force may be expressed as
1 2c 
Pa 
1
2

 H  zc   HKa  2c Ka  or Pa   H 

2

  HK a  2c K a
 K a 

However, it is important to realize that The necessary amount of outward displacement
the active earth pressure condition will of the wall is about 0.001H to 0.004H for
be reached only if the wall is allowed to granular soil backfills and about 0.01H to 0.04H
yield sufficiently. for cohesive soil backfills.

zc

2c
zc 
  Ka

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Example 2: A 6m high retaining wall is to support a soil with unit weight =17.4kN/m 3,
soil friction angle f′=26°, and cohesion c′=14kN/m2. Determine the
Rankine active force per unit length of the wall both before and after the
tensile crack occurs, and determine the line of action of the resultant in
both cases.
 26 
Solution: K a  tan 2  45    0.39  K a  0.625
 2 

Active force before the tensile crack appeared
1 1
Pa   H 2 K a  2cH K a  17.4  62  0.39  2 14  6  0.625  122.16  107.7  14kN / m
2 2

1
 H 2 Ka 2cH K a
2

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.): Active force before the tensile crack appeared
1
Pa   H 2 K a  2cH K a  122.16  107.7  14.46kN / m
2
The line of action of the resultant can be determined by taking the moment of the area of
the pressure diagrams about the bottom of the wall

6 6
122.16   107.7 
Pa z 3 2  5.5m

Pa 14.46

1
 H 2 Ka 2cH K a
2

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):

Active force after the tensile crack appeared

2c 2 14
zc    2.6m
 K a 17.4  0.625

Pa 
1
2

 H  zc   HK a  2c K a 
1
  6  2.64 16.4  6  0.39  2 14  0.625  38kN / m
2

H  zc 6  2.64
z   1.1m
3 3

Çinicioğlu
Passive state for c-f′ soils
CE 431

• Figure below shows a vertical frictionless retaining wall with a

horizontal backfill.
• At depth z, the effective vertical stress on a soil element is ′o=z.
• Initially, if the wall does not yield at all, the lateral stress at that depth
will be ′h=Ko′o.This state of stress is illustrated by the Mohr’s circle a.
• Now, if the wall is pushed into the soil mass by an amount x, the
vertical stress at depth z will stay the same. However, the horizontal
stress will increase.
• Thus, ′h will be greater than Ko′o. The state of stress can now be
represented by the Mohr’s circle b.

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Çinicioğlu
Passive state for c-f′ soils
CE 431

• If the wall moves farther inward (x is increased still more), the
stresses at depth z will ultimately reach the state represented by
Mohr’s circle c.
• Note that this circle touches the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope, which
implies that the soil behind the wall will fail by being pushed upward.
• The horizontal stress, ′h, at this point is referred to as the Rankine
passive pressure, or ′h=′p.
• Using the geometry of the Mohr circle, the equation below is obtained

 
 p   o tan 2 45  f  2  2c tan 45  f  2  

Çinicioğlu
Passive state for c-f′ soils
CE 431

Remembering K p  tan 2 45  f  
2 
   
 p   o tan 2 45  f  2  2c tan 45  f  2 can be written as

 p   o K p  2c K p
Note that at z  0,
This equation
 o  0 and  p  2c K p
produces the
shown passive and at z  H ,
pressure
diagram  o   H and  p   HK p  2c K p

The passive force per unit length of the wall

can be determined from the area of the pressure diagram
1
Pp   H 2 K p  2cH K p
2

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Earth Retaining Structures
• Practical applications of earth retaining structures include:
– Highway and railroad projects where the required grade
is significantly above or below the adjacent ground
– Bridge abutments
– Building sites on sloping ground where earth retaining
structures are used to create level building pads
– Waterfront facilities where earth-retaining structures are
built to accommodate the berthing of ships
– Flood control facilities
– Unstable ground, where the earth-retaining structure
provides the needed resistance to prevent landslides

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Earth Retaining Structures

• Many kinds of earth retaining structures are available, each of which
is best suited for practical applications.
• Earth retaining structures are classified in two broad categories:
– Externally stabilized systems
• resist the applied earth loads by virtue of their weight and stiffness.
• They can be subdivided as
– Gravity walls
» They rely on their weight to resist lateral stresses
– In-situ walls
» Differ from gravity wall in that they rely primarily on their flexural strength
– Internally stabilized systems
• reinforce the soil to provide the necessary stability.
• They can be subdivided into two categories
– Reinforced soils
– In-situ reinforcement

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Earth Retaining Structures

• Externally stabilized systems can be classified as

– Gravity walls
• Massive gravity walls
• Cantilever gravity walls
• Crib walls
– In-situ walls
• Sheet pile walls
• Soldier pile walls
• Slurry walls
• Internally stabilized systems can be classified as
• Reinforced soils
• In-situ reinforcement

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Externally Stabilized Systems – Gravity Walls

• Massive gravity walls
– Earliest retaining structures
– Often made of mortared stones, masonry, or unreinforced concrete
– Resisted the lateral forces from the backfill by virtue of their large mass
– These walls are very thick, so flexural stresses are minimal and no
tensile reinforcement is needed.
– Required volume of materials is very large and the construction process
is very labor-intensive.
– Rarely used today

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Externally Stabilized Systems – Gravity Walls
• Cantilever gravity walls
– utilize the weight of the backfill soil to provide
most of the resistance to sliding and
overturning.
– since their cross-section is much smaller,
they require much less construction material
– have large flexural stresses, and thus are
typically made of reinforced concrete.
– generally much less expensive than massive
gravity walls
– most common type of earth retaining
systems

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Externally Stabilized Systems – Gravity Walls

• Crib walls
– Consist of precast concrete members linked together to form a crib
– The zone between the members is filled with compacted soil
– The soil supplies most of the weight required to resist the lateral
loads imposed by the backfill soils.

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Externally Stabilized Systems – In-Situ Walls
• Sheet pile walls
– Sheet piles are thin, wide steel piles driven into the ground using pile hammers
– A series of sheet piles in a row form a sheet pile wall
– It is possible to simply cantilever a short sheet pile out of the ground.
– However, it is usually necessary to provide lateral support at one or more levels
above the ground which may be accomplished either by internal braces or by
tieback anchors.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

Externally Stabilized Systems – In-Situ Walls

• Soldier pile walls
– Consist of vertical wide flange steel members with horizontal timber
lagging.
– Often used as temporary retaining structures for construction
excavations.

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Externally Stabilized Systems – In-Situ Walls
• Slurry walls
– Are cast-in-place concrete walls built
using bentonite slurry.
– The contractor digs a trench along
the proposed wall alignment and
keeps it open using the slurry
– Then the reinforcing steel is inserted
and the concrete is placed using
tremie pipes or pumps
– As the concrete fills the trench, the
slurry exits at the ground surface

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Internally Stabilized Systems – Reinforced Soils
• Soil is strong in compression, but has virtually no tensile strength.
• Therefore, the inclusion of tensile reinforcing members in a soil can significantly increase
its strength and load-bearing capacity (similar to the rebar effect in concrete).
• The resulting reinforced soil is called mechanically stabilized earth (MSE).
• Often MSE is used so that slopes may be made steeper than would otherwise be
possible.
• MSE also may be used with vertical and near-vertical faces, thus forming a type of
retaining wall. In this case, it becomes necessary to place some type of facing panels on
the vertical surface.
• The reinforcement can consist of steel strips, polymer geogrids, wire mesh, geosynthetic
fabric, or other materials.
• MSE walls are becoming very popular, especially for highway projects.
• Advantages include low cost and high tolerance of differential settlements.

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Internally Stabilized Systems – In-Situ Reinforcement

• In-situ reinforcement methods differ from reinforced soils in that the tensile members are
inserted into a soil mass rather than being embedded during placement of fill.
• One type of in-situ reinforcement is called soil nailing.
• Soil nailing consists of drilling near-horizontal holes into the ground, inserting steel
tendons, and grouting. The face of the wall is typically covered with shotcrete.
• These walls do not require construction excavation, thus are useful when space is limited.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
Cantilever Retaining Walls
• The design of cantilever retaining walls must satisfy two major
requirements:
– The wall must have adequate external stability, which means it must
remain fixed in the desired location (except for small movements
required to mobilize the active and passive pressures)
– It must have sufficient internal stability (or structural integrity) so it is
able to carry the necessary internal stresses without rupturing.
• Walls that have insufficient external stability experience failure in the
soil, while those that have insufficient internal stability experience
structural failure in the wall itself.

External stability problem Internal stability problem

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External Stability
• A cantilever retaining wall must be externally stable in all the following ways:
– It must not slide horizontally (a)
– It must not overturn (b)
– The resultant of the normal force that acts on the base of the footing
must be within the middle third of the footing (c)
– The foundation must not experience a bearing capacity failure (d)
– It must not undergo a deep-seated shear failure (e)
– It must not settle excessively (f)

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
External Stability
• When evaluating external stability, engineers consider the wall and the soil
above the footing as a unit.
• This is referred to as the wall-soil unit.

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu

• The external stability of the wall-soil unit

External Stability
is evaluated using the principles of
statics.
• We can evaluate the external stability of
a wall-soil unit only after its dimensions
are known.
• Therefore, first develop a trial design
using the guidelines in the figure, then
check its external stability, and
progressively refine the design.
• The figure is the suggested first trial
dimensions for sandy soil backfills.
• For short walls with strong soils and
level backfill, the toe extension will be
about 0.5B.
• For weaker soils or inclined backfill, the
toe extension will be less (with a
corresponding increase in the heel
extension).

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
External Stability - Overturning
• Figure shows the forces acting on a
cantilever and a gravity retaining wall,
based on the assumption that the Rankine
active pressure is acting along a vertical
plane AB drawn through the heel of the
structure.
• The factor of safety (FS) against
overturning about the toe – that is, about
point C in the figure – may be expressed
as

FS overturning  
MR
 MO
M O  sum of the moments of forces
tending to overturn about point C
M R  sum of the moments of forces
tending to resist overturning about point C

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
External Stability - Overturning
 H 
The overturning moment is  M O  Ph   where Ph  Pa cos 
 3 

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
External Stability - Overturning
• To calculate the resisting moment, SMR (neglecting Pp), a table such as shown
below can be prepared.
• The weight of the soils above the heel and the weight of the concrete (or
masonry) are both forces that contribute to the resisting moment.

• Note that the vertical component of the active force

Pa also contributes to the resisting moment:
M v  Pv B  Pa sin  B
Weight / Moment arm
Moment
Section Area unit length measured
about C
of wall from C
1 A1 W1=1xA1 X1 M1
2 A2 W2=2xA2 X2 M2
3 A3 W3=cxA3 X3 M3
4 A4 W4=cxA4 X4 M4
5 A5 W5=cxA5 X5 M5
6 A6 W6=cxA1 X6 M6
Pv B Mv
SV SMR
1 = unit weight of backfill
c = unit weight of concrete

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu
External Stability - Overturning
Once SMR is known, the FS can be calculated as

M1  M 2  M 3  M 4  M 5  M 6  M v
FS overturning  
Pa cos   H  3

The usual minimum desirable value of the factor of

safety with respect to overturning is 2 to 3.

Weight / Moment arm

Moment
Section Area unit length measured
about C
of wall from C
1 A1 W1=1xA1 X1 M1
2 A2 W2=2xA2 X2 M2
3 A3 W3=cxA3 X3 M3
4 A4 W4=cxA4 X4 M4
5 A5 W5=cxA5 X5 M5
6 A6 W6=cxA1 X6 M6
Pv B Mv
SV SMR
1 = unit weight of backfill
c = unit weight of concrete

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
External Stability - Sliding
• We evaluate the sliding stability using a limit equilibrium approach
by considering the forces acting on the wall-soil unit if it were about
to fail.
• The factor of safety is the ratio of the forces required to cause the
wall to fail to those actually act on it.
• The forces tending to cause sliding (a.k.a. the driving forces) are as
follows:
– The horizontal component of the lateral earth pressures acting on
the back of the wall-soil unit
– Hydrostatic forces, if any, acting on the back of the wall-soil unit
– Seismic forces from the backfill (beyond the scope of this course)
• These encountered by the following resisting forces:
– Lateral earth pressures acting on the front of the wall-soil unit
– Sliding friction along the bottom of the footing
– Hydrostatic forces, if any, acting on the front of the wall-soil unit

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External Stability - Sliding

The factor of safety against sliding is given as:
The sum of the horizontal
resistance forces to sliding

FS sliding  
 FR
 Fd The sum of the horizontal
driving forces for sliding

• Minimum F.S. against sliding is 1.5. This is suitable for walls backfilled and
supported on sands, sandy silts, gravels, or rock.
• However, if the backfill, or underlying soil is a clay or clayey silt, the F.S. should
be at least 2.0.
• This is due to the fact that the shear strength of clayey soils is less reliable and
historically walls constructed on clayey soils performed poorer than that are
constructed on other soils.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

External Stability - Sliding

Figure below indicates that the shear strength of the soil immediately below the
base slab may be represented as

s    tan    ca
Adhesion between the soil and
Angle of friction between the
the base slab
soil and the base slab

Thus, the maximum resisting force that can be derived from the soil per unit
length of the wall along the bottom of the base slab is

R  s  B 1  B  tan    Bca

Weight / Moment arm
Moment
Section Area unit length measured
about C
of wall from C

However, 1 A1 W1=1xA1 X1 M1
2 A2 W2=2xA2 X2 M2
B   sum of the vertical force=V see the table  3 A3 W3=cxA3 X3 M3
4 A4 W4=cxA4 X4 M4
so 5 A5 W5=cxA5 X5 M5
6 A6 W6=cxA1 X6 M6

R   V  tan    Bca Pv
SV
B Mv
SMR
1 = unit weight of backfill
c = unit weight of concrete

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CE 431 Çinicioğlu

External Stability - Sliding

Figure shows that the passive force Pp is also a horizontal resisting force.
Hence,

 FR   V  tan    Bca  Pp

The only horizontal force that will cause the wall to
slide (a driving force) is the horizontal component of
the active force Pa, so

 Fd  Pa cos 
As a result, FS against sliding is
calculated as

FS sliding  
 V  tan    Bca  Pp
Pa cos 

A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against sliding is generally required.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu
External Stability -
Sliding
• In many cases, the passive force Pp
is ignored in calculating the factor of
safety with respect to sliding.
• In general, we can write ′=k1f′2 and
c′a=k2c′2. In most cases, k1 and k2
are in the range from ½ to 2/3. Thus,

FS sliding  
 V  tan  k1f2   Bk2c2  Pp
Pa cos 

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External Stability - Sliding

If the sliding criterion has not been
satisfied, the engineer must modify
the trial design using one or more
of the following methods:
• Extend the heel of the
footing:
– This increases the weight
acting on the footing, thus
increasing the sliding
resistance.,
– Unfortunately, it also
increases construction
costs because it requires a
larger construction
excavation
– If the wall is near a
property line or some
other limit to construction,
this method may not be
feasible

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

External Stability - Sliding

If the sliding criterion has not been satisfied, the engineer must modify
the trial design using one or more of the following methods:
• Add a key beneath the footing:
– This improves the sliding stability by increasing the passive pressure
– Unfortunately, this also increases the active pressure. However, the
increase in the passive is greater than the active, so there is a net gain.
– This method is theoretically most effective in soils with a relatively high
friction angle because the ratio Kp/Ka is greatest in such soils and the net
increase in resisting force is greatest.
If a key is included, the passive force per unit
length of the wall becomes
1
Pp   2 D12 K p  2c2 D1 K p
2
where
 f 
K p  tan 2  45  2 
 2

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External Stability - Sliding

If the sliding criterion has not been
satisfied, the engineer must modify
the trial design using one or more
of the following methods:
• Use a stronger backfill soil:
– The soil must extend at
least to the line of the
critical failure surface.
– This requires a larger
construction excavation
and often requires
imported soil.
– This method is usually
expensive.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

External Stability - Sliding

If the sliding criterion has not been
satisfied, the engineer must modify
the trial design using one or more
of the following methods:
• Install tiedown anchors:
– This increases the normal
force acting on the footing,
thus increasing the sliding
friction.
• Install a tieback anchor:
– This increases the total Conversely, if the
resisting force. sliding FS was
– Tieback anchors might be excessive, the engineer
in the form of a deadman, would reduce the heel
or they may develop extension and/or
resistance through friction remove or shorten the
along an augered hole. key. Adjusting the toe
– Screw-type anchors are extension has very little
also available. effect on the sliding
stability.

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Çinicioğlu
External Stability – Bearing Capacity
CE 431

• The vertical pressure transmitted to the soil by the base slab of the retaining
wall should be checked against the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.
• The nature of the variation of the vertical pressure transmitted by the base slab
into the soil is the same as in the case of a footing.
• qtoe and qheel, the maximum and minimum pressures occuring at the ends of
the toe and heel sections can be determined in the following manner:
The sum of the vertical forces acting on the base slab is V ,
and the horizontal force Ph is Pa cos  .

Therefore the resultant force, R, can be calculated as

R  V  Ph
The net moment of these forces about point C is
Weight / Moment arm

M net   M R   M O
Moment
Section Area unit length measured
about C
of wall from C
1 A1 W1=1xA1 X1 M1
2 A2 W2=2xA2 X2 M2
3 A3 W3=cxA3 X3 M3
4 A4 W4=cxA4 X4 M4
5 A5 W5=cxA5 X5 M5
 H 
 M O  Ph 
6 A6 W6=cxA1 X6 M6
 Pv B Mv
3  SV SMR
1 = unit weight of backfill
c = unit weight of concrete

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

External Stability – Bearing Capacity

Let the line of action of the resultant R insersect the base slab at E. Then the
distance CE is
M net
CE  X 
V
Hence the eccentricity of the resultant R may be
expressed as
B
e  CE
2
The pressure distribution under the base
slab may be determined by using simple
principles from the mechanics of materials.
First, we have

q
V  M net y
A I
M net   M R   M O
I  moment of inertia per unit length of the base section 
1
12
 
1 B3

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Çinicioğlu
External Stability – Bearing Capacity
CE 431

q
V  M net y
A I
For maximum and minimum pressures, the value of y
equals B/2. Thus
e  V 
B
qmax  qtoe 
 V
 2   V 1  6e 
 
 B 1  1  B3
 
 12 
B 
 
B

Similarly,

qmin  qheel 
V 1  6e 
 
B  B

Note that when the value of eccentricity e

becomes greater than B/6, qmin becomes
negative. Thus there will be some tensile
stress at the end of the heel section. This
stress is not desirable because the tensile
strength of soil is very small. If the analysis of
a design shows that e>B/6, the design should
be reproportioned and calculations redone.

CE 431
External Stability – Bearing Capacity Çinicioğlu

The relationships pertaining to the ultimate bearing capacity of a shallow

foundation have been discussed under the topic of shallow foundations.
Recalling the topic, ultimate bearing capacity is:
1
qult  c2 N c d cic   zD
 N q d qiq   2 BN d i
2
where (according to Meyerhod's method)
  vertical effective stress at depth D below the ground surface
 zD
B  B  2e
D
dc  1  0.4
B
D
Depth
d q  1  2 tan f2 1  sin f2 
2
factors
B
d  1
2
  
ic  iq  1  
 90
  Load inclination
2 factors
  
i  1  
 f Note that shape factors, s, are
 2 
all equal to unity because this
 Pa cos  
  tan 1  
can be treated as a continuous
 V 
foundation problem.

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 27.12.2011

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

External Stability – Bearing Capacity

Once the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil has
been calculated, the factor of safety against bearing
capacity failure can be determined:

q
FS bearing capacity   ult
qmax

Generally, a factor of safety of 3 is required.

CE 431 Çinicioğlu

External Stability – Settlement and Deep Seated Failure

• The possibility of excessive settlement of the footing should be
checked using the techniques that are previously introduced.
• A deep-seated shear failure would be a catastrophic event that
could be much larger in scope than any of the modes described
earlier.
• Be concerned about this mode of failure if any of the following
conditions is present:
– The soil is a soft or medium clay and is subjected to undrained
conditions.
– Adversely oriented weak seams or bedding planes are present.
– Some or all of the soil is prone to liquefaction.This phenomenon
occurs during earthquakes in loose saturated sands and silty sands
and causes the soil to lose most or all of its strength.
• If so, evaluate the deep-seated shear stability using a slope stability
analysis.

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