Esc3701 SG

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ESC3701/1/2020–2022
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Contents
SECTION A: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION v
Introduction vii
Learning Unit 1: African philosophy and education 1
Learning Unit 2: Empiricism and education 7
Learning Unit 3: Phenomenology and education 11
Learning Unit 4: Hermeneutics and education 17
Learning Unit 5: Critical theory and education 23
Learning Unit 6: Postmodernism and education 27
Learning Unit 7: Critical realism and education 33
SECTION B: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION 39

An introduction to sociology of education 41
Learning Unit 8: Theories in Sociology of education 43
Learning Unit 9: Functionalism 57
Learning Unit 10: Conflict theory 67
Learning Unit 11: Symbolic Interactionism 75
Learning Unit 12: Practices in sociology of education: Social institutions, ecology and
the role of the school in society 87
Learning Unit 13: Citizenship education 101
Learning Unit 14: Diversity and culture in education 115
ESC3701/1/2020–2022 (iii)
(iv)
SECTION A: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Prof Philip Higgs

Prof Leonie Higgs
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Learning unit 1: African philosophy and education
Learning unit 2: Empiricism and education
Learning unit 3: Phenomenology and education
Learning unit 4: Hermeneutics and education
Learning unit 5: Critical theory and education
Learning unit 6: Postmodernism and education
Learning unit 7: Critical realism and education
Conclusion
ESC3701/1 (v)
(vi)
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this module is to introduce you to a pluralistic problem-centred approach to
philosophy of education. In doing so, its purpose is twofold, namely, to identify the main ideas of
different philosophies and how they find expression in different philosophies of education, and
to explore what different philosophies of education have to say about contemporary issues and
problems in education.
In this introduction, we will begin by asking the question: What is philosophy of education? We
will then identify a number of philosophies that influence how we perceive education and teaching.
Before we proceed, let us look at the learning outcomes that lead us to the scope of what you should
learn from this unit.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this introduction, you will be able to:
 discuss the relationship between philosophy and education

 respond to the question, what is philosophy of education?
 identify and describe some of the philosophies that influence how we perceive education
KEY CONCEPTS
 philosophy
 education
 philosophy of education
PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
The prescribed book forms the core of the module and is the following:
Higgs, P. & Smith, J. 2017. Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction. Juta: Cape Town.
You will need to consult the prescribed book when working through this wrap-around guide.
(The abbreviation for the textbook, Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction is PET.)
ESC3701/1 (vii)
1
What is philosophy? How would you describe philosophy to your fellow students?
FEEDBACK
Watch the following YouTube links for noting:
 What is philosophy for? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlYdx6lDDhg)

 What is philosophy? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ETUuvYSwcwk)
A moment of reflection: How does your description of philosophy compare with what you have
read and heard about the meaning of philosophy in the feedback above? Was there anything
different in what you read and heard, and if so, what was it? How would you revise your description
of philosophy in terms of what you read and heard in the feedback?
2
What is education? How would you describe education to your fellow students?
(viii)
FEEDBACK
Watch the following YouTube link for noting:
 What is education? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSqrPsgCuOw)
A moment of reflection: How does your description of education to your fellow students compare
with what you have read and heard about the meaning of education in the feedback above? Was
there anything different in what you read and heard, and if so, in what way? How would you revise
your description of education in terms of what you read and heard in the feedback?
3
What is philosophy of education? How would you describe philosophy of education to your fellow
students?
FEEDBACK
 What is philosophy of education? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ml95d6kJ4kc)
A moment of reflection: How does your description of philosophy of education to your fellow
students compare with what you have read and heard about the meaning of philosophy of education
in the feedback above? Was there anything different in what you read and heard, and if so, what?
How would you revise your description of philosophy of education in terms of what you read and
heard in the feedback?
4
On pages 3 to 4 in PET, a number of different philosophies are listed and briefly described. Which
of these philosophies appeal to you most? Can you explain why?
ESC3701/1 (ix)
5
Give some thought as to how each of these philosophies could influence education and then write
up your thoughts. (Later, you can compare your initial thoughts with what you have discovered in
this regard after working through all the learning units in the wrap-around guide).
CONCLUSION
We started by saying that after having worked through the introduction, you will be able to:
 discuss the relationship between philosophy and education

 respond to the question: What is philosophy of education?
 identify and describe some of the philosophies that influence how we perceive education
Are you able to do this?
(x)
Reflection
Before you continue with learning unit 1, reflect on the following questions:
1. Where do you think you will be able to use the knowledge you acquired in this introduction
in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult? Why do you think you found it difficult? Do you understand it
now or do you need more help? What are you going to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this introduction? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this introduction? Are you still on schedule or do
you need to adjust your study programme?
5. How do you feel now?
ESC3701/1 (xi)
(xii)
1
LEARNING UNIT
African philosophy and education
In this unit, we will begin by asking, what is African philosophy? And then, we will look at the
main ideas in an African philosophy of education and their implications for teaching and learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this learning unit, you will be able to understand the main ideas
 in African philosophy, and

 of an African philosophy of education and their implications for teaching and learning.
KEY CONCEPTS
 African philosophy
 African philosophy of education
 ubuntu
 communality
Prescribed book
Read chapter 1 of PET and work through the portfolio activities before proceeding with the activities
that follow. It is important that you do this so that you acquire the necessary background knowledge
and orientation required to work through this learning unit.
6
Do you consider yourself as “African”? Indicate why or why not, and substantiate your answer.
This question is asked because the issue of identity has largely been westernised on the African
continent because of the colonial occupation of Africa.
ESC3701/1 1
FEEDBACK
Read the following sections in PET:
 What is African philosophy? (pages 14–15).

 African philosophy and the history of Africa (pages 15–17).
AND
Also watch the following YouTube links for noting:
 African Philosophy: Dr. Reginald Oduor, Part 1 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQQPurqxAIc)

 African Philosophy: Dr. Reginald Oduor, Part 2 (https://youtu.be/Xaep1a5iYys)
7
What was the significance of the call for an African Renaissance in education?
FEEDBACK
 Read the following section in PET: African philosophy and education (pages 17–18).
AND
 Also read the article: Higgs, P. 2012. The decolonization of education in Africa: Some critical
reflections. Education Philosophy and Theory, 44(2):37–55.
A moment of reflection: The call for an African Renaissance represented a reaction to the
colonialization and subjugation of Africa and attempted to reassert distinctively African ways of
thinking and of relating to the world in education.
8
What are the main ideas in an African philosophy of education?
2
FEEDBACK
Read the following section in PET:
 African philosophy and education (pages 17–21).
AND
Read the following article and watch the YouTube link for noting:
 Ramose, R. 2004. In search of an African Philosophy of Education. South African Journal of Higher
Education, 18(3).
 Molefi Kete Asante – Afrocentric Education (https://youtu.be/YVtR71DMpk0).
9
In what way is the notion of ubuntu important when it comes to the relationship between teachers
and learners?
FEEDBACK
 Read the following section in PET: uBuntu and education (pages 18–19).
AND
Read the following article:
 Waghid, Y & Smeyers, P. 2012. Reconsidering uBuntu: On the education potential of a particular
ethics of care. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(2):6–20.
ESC3701/1 3
10
In what way is the notion of communality important when it comes to the relationship
between educators and learners?
FEEDBACK
 Read the following section in PET: Communality in education (pages 19–21).

AND
 Higgs, P. 2008. Towards an indigenous African educational discourse: a philosophical reflection.
International Review of Education, 54(3/4):445–458.
 Okeleke, D. I am because we are (https://youtu.be/vBUy7XmbB7M).
11
What would an African philosophy of education have to say about education in Africa?
4
FEEDBACK
 Read the following section in PET: An African philosophy of education (pages 22–23).
AND
Read the following article:
 Waghid, Y. 2004. African philosophy of education: implications for teaching and learning. South
African Journal of Higher Education, 18(3):56–64.
12
By way of completing this unit and, in the light of what you have come to know about African
philosophy, formulate a brief description of an African philosophy of education by listing the
characteristics of such a philosophy of education.
CONCLUSION
We started this unit by indicating that after having studied this unit, you will be able to discuss:
 the main ideas of African Philosophy

 African philosophy in the context of philosophy of education and, teaching and learning, that
is, an African philosophy of education
ESC3701/1 5
Reflection
Before you continue to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:
1. Where do you think you will be able to use the knowledge you acquired in this chapter in
your professional life?
3. What did you find interesting in this chapter? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this chapter? Are you still on schedule or do you
need to adjust your study programme?
6
2
LEARNING UNIT
Empiricism and education
In this unit, we will start by asking what empiricism is and then we will look at empiricism in the
context of philosophy of education and educational research and practice.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this learning unit, you will be able to discuss:
 the main ideas of empiricism

 empiricism in the context of philosophy of education and educational research and practice
KEY CONCEPTS
 verification
 objectivity
 experience
 analysis
 factual truth
Prescribed book
Read chapter 2 of PET, and work through the portfolio activities before proceeding with the
activities that follow. It is important that you do this, so that you acquire the necessary background
knowledge and orientation required in working through this learning unit.
13
How will you explain the meaning of empiricism to fellow students?
ESC3701/1 7
FEEDBACK
 What is empiricism (pages 33–35).
 Concluding remarks (page 41).
Empiricism focuses on two issues, namely:
 Facts that can be proven by experience (watch the YouTube link: What is Empiricism? (https://
youtu.be/FWiqrZhoZkQ)
AND
 Facts that can be precisely defined and measured (watch the YouTube link: What is positivism?
(https://youtu.be/dsM5j-uPUhU)
By way of clarification when reflecting on empiricism, consider the following:
 In the first instance, empiricism claims that something is true if the truth can be determined
through sense experience. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary defines empiricism as “the theory that
regards experience as the only source of knowledge’’. In other words, empiricism asserts that
the only real knowledge one has, comes from experience – either one’s own or those of others.
Empiricists propose that knowledge gained from our senses (e.g. seeing, hearing, touching,
smelling and tasting) is the most reliable kind of knowledge.
 Secondly, empiricism tries to verify all statements and claims that subjective statements cannot
verify emotions, such as hope, fear, love, religious and political commitment are not important,
because they cannot be measured and checked in the same way scientific statements can be
checked.
14
Read up on the work of the following educators who worked on empiricism, namely John Locke,
Richard Peters and Harvey Siegel. How would you describe an empirical philosophy of education
on the basis of what these educators have to say about education, teaching and learning?
FEEDBACK
 Education and empiricism (pages 35–36).

 Educators, empiricism and analysis (pages 36–38).
8
Empiricism and education
AND
Interesting article and YouTube links for noting:
 Kerdeman, D & Phillips, DC. 1993. Empiricism and the knowledge base of educational practice.
Review of Educational Research, 63(3):305–313.
 Positivism and Philosophy of Education (https://youty.be/Lvl4eCnWA1o)
 https://coffeeshopthinking.wordpress.com/2013/10/25/john-lockes-philosophy-of-education
 Harvey Siegel: Rationality and education (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=538j8V6Aodk)
15
When it comes to examples of empiricism in the context educational research and practice, one such
example is exam marks where educators can measure the ability of learners. What other examples
can you think of?
FEEDBACK
 Empiricism and education (pages 38–40).

AND
Interesting articles for noting:
 Alger, CL. 2009. Secondary teachers’ conceptual metaphors of teaching and learning: changes over
the career span. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(5):743–751.
 Sabol, TJ. 2012. Recent trend in research on teacher-child relationships. Journal of Attachment and
Human Development, 14(3):213–231.
 Broder, JM. Empiricism and the art of teaching (https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/7020710.pdf).
 Ponce, O. Philosophy of Science and educational research. (https://arxiv.org/pdf/1803.01220).
CONCLUSION
 the main ideas of empiricism
ESC3701/1 9
 empiricism in the context of philosophy of education and, teaching and learning, that is, a
philosophy of education based on empiricism
Are you able to do so?
Reflection
10
3
LEARNING UNIT
Phenomenology and education
In this unit, we will begin by asking, what is phenomenology? Then, we will look at phenomenology
in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After having studied this learning unit, you will be able to discuss the:
 main ideas of phenomenology

 concerns of a phenomenological philosophy of education and how these concerns relate to
teaching and learning
KEY CONCEPTS
 phenomenon
 lived world
 inner world
 real self
 essence
 consciousness
Prescribed book
that follow. It is important that you do this, so that you acquire the necessary background knowledge
and orientation required in working through this learning unit.
16
How would you describe phenomenology to your fellow students?
ESC3701/1 11
FEEDBACK
 What is phenomenology? (pages 54–56).
AND
Read the following article and watch the YouTube links for noting:
 Berndtsson, I, Claesson, S, Friberg, F & Ohlen, J. 2007. Issues about thinking phenomenologically
while doing phenomenology. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 38(2):256–277.
 What is phenomenology (http://youtu.be/tLYXvgu-TLl)
 Understanding phenomenology (http://youtu.be/d5geMLe5tbM)
17
What are the concerns of phenomenology when it comes to education?
FEEDBACK
 Phenomenology and education (page 57).
18
What do the works of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Max van Mane and Shaun Gallagher have to say
about how phenomenology views education?
12
FEEDBACK
 Educators and phenomenology (pages 57–59).
AND
Interesting articles on phenomenology for noting:
 Merleau-Ponty – Stoltz, SA. 2015. Embodies learning. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(5):475–487.
 Van Manen – Alerby, E & Westman, SW. 2013. The phenomenon of teachers work: images of control,
chaos and care. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(4):222–233.
 Gallagher, S. 2014. An education in narratives. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 46(6):600–609.
19
What do you regard to be the main characteristics of a phenomenological philosophy of education?
FEEDBACK
 Phenomenology and education (page 57).

An interesting chapter on “phenomenology” in: Nodding, N. 2018. Philosophy of Education. New York:
Routledge, for noting.
ESC3701/1 13
A moment of reflection on a phenomenological philosophy of education: One of the characteristics
of a phenomenological philosophy of education is that it emphasises the importance of human
consciousness in education. To be “conscious” means to be awake and cognisant of who you are
as an educator, and who the learner really is. As conscious human beings we actively participate in
things. We are not merely passive spectators. Teachers should assist learners to get to know their real
selves and to become that which they could become. Phenomenology asks learners to explore the
world, and teachers to assist learners in their exploration in the development of conscious experience.
20
How does a phenomenological philosophy of education view teaching and learning?
FEEDBACK
 Phenomenology and FAQ’s (pages 60–61).
AND
Read the following interesting articles and watch the YouTube links for noting:
 Hultgren, FE. 1995. The phenomenology of doing “phenomenology”: the experience of teaching and
learning together. Human Studies, 18:372–388.
 Roth, W-M, Masciotra, D & Boyd, N. 1999. Becoming-in-the-classroom: a case study of teaching
development through co-teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(7):777–784.
 Phenomenology and learning (https://youtu.be/6uvTEYIDN5g).
 The phenomenology of teaching (https://youtu.be/mnHdsUPqWlo).
21
By way of completing this unit and, in the light of what you have come to know about phenomenology,
please formulate a brief description of a phenomenological philosophy of education by listing the
14
CONCLUSION
 the main ideas of phenomenology

 phenomenology in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning, that is, a
philosophy of education based on phenomenology
Reflection
ESC3701/1 15
16
4
LEARNING UNIT
Hermeneutics and education
In this unit, we will begin by asking, what is hermeneutics? Then, we will look at hermeneutics in
the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After having studied this learning unit, you will be able to discuss:
 the main ideas of hermeneutics

 hermeneutics in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning
KEY CONCEPTS
 interpretation
 understanding
 meaning
 context
Prescribed book
22
How would you describe hermeneutics to your fellow students?
ESC3701/1 17
FEEDBACK
Here are four descriptions of the meaning of hermeneutics for you to reflect on:
 Hermeneutics is a theory about creating our own meanings regarding complex issues such as sexuality,
democracy, the purpose of life or issues about identity – who we are, and what makes us who we are.
 Hermeneutics is the science of interpretation.
 Hermeneutics is about personal understanding (why the emphasis on “personal”).
 Hermeneutics is contextual, that is, meaning and understanding must be guided by the community’s
traditions and symbolism.
What are the four key words in these descriptions of hermeneutics?
 What is hermeneutics (pages 64–65).
AND
 What is Hermeneutics? (https://youtu.be/R4XWlgX7HLE)

 Hermeneutics: A Very Short Understanding (https://youtu.be/6wPTV5hyB0Y)
23
What do Ken Wilber and Jean Baudrillard add to your understanding of hermeneutics?
FEEDBACK
Read the sections in PET:
 Ken Wilber’s work in hermeneutics (pages 65–67).

 Hermeneutics and Western consumerism (pages 67–68).
AND
View the following YouTube links for noting:
 The rise and fall of Ken Wilbur (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TK9PWQeAQZg)
 Jean Baudrillard and Consumerism (www.the-philosophy.com/baudrillard-consumer-society)
18
24
What do Hans-Georg Gadamer, Rudolf Steiner and Shaun Gallagher have to say about how
hermeneutics views education?
FEEDBACK
Read the sections in PET:
 Hans-Georg Gadamer (pages 68–69)

 Rudolf Steiner (page 69)
 Shaun Gallagher (pages 69–70)
AND
Read the following article and book, and watch the YouTube link for noting:
 Gadamer, H-G. 2001. Education as self-education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 35(4):529–538.

 Gallagher, SG. 1992. Hermeneutics and education. New York: State University of New York Press.
 What is Steiner education? (https//www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNf8rJ2cRZY)
25
How can hermeneutics contribute to our understanding of education?
ESC3701/1 19
FEEDBACK
 Hermeneutics and education (page 68).

 Hermeneutics and education: beware (pages 70–72).
 Concluding remarks (page 73).
AND
Read the following articles for noting:
 Brauer, D. 2009. Alternate readings: Student Hermeneutics an academic discourse. Rhetoric Review,
29(1):69–87.
 Higgins, C. 2010. Teaching experience: Toward a hermeneutic of teaching and teacher. Journal of
Philosophy of Education, 44(2/3):435–478.
26
What has hermeneutics got to say about teaching and learning?
FEEDBACK
 Hermeneutics and education (page 68).

 Hermeneutics and education (pages 70–72).
 Concluding remarks (pages 72– 73).
AND
 Maggioni, L & Parkinson. MH. 2008. The role of teachers’ epistemic cognition, epistemic beliefs,
and calibration of success. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4):445–461.
 Reimagining Classrooms: Teachers as Learners and Students as Leaders (https://youtu.be/
w6vVXmwYvgs).
20
A thought for reflection when it comes to what has hermeneutics got to say about teaching
and learning:
Hermeneutics asserts that all human beings need to understand and interpret the world around
them and other people. Consequently, when a teacher finds one of her learners is slower than the
rest, the teacher will then need to understand and interpret the situation correctly. Is this learner
actually less intelligent than the other learners? Or is she suffering from problems at home that
make it difficult for her to concentrate in class? Or does she have some physical problem (e.g. poor
hearing) which means she misses many of the things that the teacher says? The teacher and the
learner’s parents need to understand what is really going on.
By way of completing this unit and, in the light of what you have come to know about hermeneutics,
please formulate a brief description of a hermeneutic philosophy of education by listing the
CONCLUSION
 the main ideas of hermeneutics

 hermeneutics in the context of philosophy of education and, teaching and learning, that is, a
philosophy of education based on hermeneutics
Reflection
ESC3701/1 21
22
5
LEARNING UNIT
Critical theory and education
In this unit, we will begin by asking, what is critical theory? Then, we will look at critical theory
in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 the main ideas of critical theory

 critical theory in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning
KEY CONCEPTS
 empowerment
 emancipation
 liberation
 freedom
Prescribed book
27
How would you describe critical theory to your fellow students?
ESC3701/1 23
FEEDBACK
 What is critical theory? (pages 87–88).
AND
 What is Critical theory? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= Hx2KnjUNcPo)

 Critical theory (http://fuchs.uti.at/wp-content/CT.pdf)
The following points to reflect on as you think about critical theory:
 Critical theory encourages a critical approach to the way in which social structures, be they ideological,
religious, economic, cultural, or linguistic, influence our very thought processes and actions.
 Critical theory views human society as pathological because of society’s ideology, religion, economics,
culture and language which have an oppressive impact on the lives of the less privileged in society.
 Critical theory claims that in human society rules are made that favour the elite and powerful groups
in society which in turn influence our beliefs and the way we think.
 Critical theory attempts to make people conscious of what is being done to them by society in its
oppression of their freedom as individuals and resulting negation of their human dignity.
 Critical theory encourages us to question what we are told and is sceptical in its methods of enquiry.
28
How does critical theory have the potential to change the way we think about and practise education?
In answering this question, remember that, according to critical theory, schools themselves are
simply institutions in which teachers compel children and young people to reproduce existing and
oppressive social structures.
24
Critical theory and education
FEEDBACK
 Critical theory and education (page 90).

 Critical theory and education: FAQ’s (pages 92–93).
 Conclusion (page 94.)
AND
 Decolonising the Curriculum; Melz Owusu:

 (https://youtu.be/zeKHOTDwZxU).
 Critical Theory and Education Policy (https://youtu.be/g75cfVWfv4A).
29
Refer to the portfolio activity 1 in PET (page 93) and then respond to the following question:
Adorno tells us that he “… could not presume to sketch out the plan of such
an education.” What do you think should be included in such a liberating and humane plan for
the education of children? In other words, what constitutes a critical pedagogy when it comes to
re-thinking school curriculums, and what should and should not be taught and learnt in the
classroom, and how should this be done?
FEEDBACK
Note that critical theory in the context of education is referred to as critical pedagogy.
Watch the YouTube link for noting:
 What is Critical Pedagogy? (https://youtu.be/ZljTKhd6hsA).
AND
Also, watch the following YouTube links for noting:
 Critical Pedagogy: Learning from Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed (http://youtu.be/JRiL7YSzMjg).

 Henry Giroux on Education (https//youtu.be/RL5Wkx98zEE)
ESC3701/1 25
In considering the above question, remember that critical theory seeks to encourage critical thinking
to free the individual from an education that is merely concerned with the transfer of knowledge,
which is deemed ideologically important and necessary. The most valuable contribution that critical
theory can make, and has made to education, is that critical theorists has forced us to re-examine
what we mean by the term “knowledge” in teaching and learning. The various ideas critical theorists
have had about knowledge have caused educationists to re-think school curricula and what should,
and what should not, be taught and learnt in the classroom.
30
By way of completing this unit and, in the light of what you have come to know about critical theory,
please formulate a brief description of a critical theory philosophy of education (also referred to a
philosophy of critical pedagogy) by listing the characteristics of such a philosophy of education.
CONCLUSION
 the main ideas of critical theory.

 critical theory in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning, that is, a
philosophy of education based on critical theory.
Reflection
1. Where do you think you will be able to use the knowledge you acquired this chapter in your
professional life?
26
6
LEARNING UNIT
Postmodernism and education
In this unit, we will begin by asking, what is postmodernism? Then, we will look at postmodernism
in the context of philosophy of education and educational research and practice.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 the main ideas of postmodernism

 postmodernism in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning
KEY CONCEPTS
 asserts difference over uniformity
 rejects meta-narratives
 rejects absolute/universal/scientific truth
 emphasises local narratives
Prescribed book
31
How would you describe postmodernism to your fellow students?
ESC3701/1 27
FEEDBACK
 What is postmodernism? (pages 108–109).
AND
Read the following articles and watch the YouTube link for noting:
 Marzagora, S. 2016. The humanism of reconstruction: African intellectual decolonial critical theory
and the opposition to the “posts” (postmodernism, post-structuralism, postcolonial). African Cultural
Studies, 28(2):161–178.
 Cooper, S. 2016. Language cannot encompass being: post-structuralism and postmodernism. Arena
Journal, 45/46, 28–50.
Journal, 45/46, 28–50.
 Postmodernism (https://youtu.be/DO_gaxFIRXw).
For noting:
The prefi x “post” means “after” and so when referring to postmodernism, we are referring to
what comes after modernism. Postmodernism can be seen to be critical of modernism. What you
need to ask yourself is, what it is about modernism that postmodernism is critical of and why
should this be the case?
Modernism was characterised by its universal application, which was characterised by what was
referred to as the “grand narratives” of the modern day. These grand narratives held validity and
relevance irrespective of where one found oneself in the world. Postmodernists reacted to this view
and argued that one cannot offer universal understandings, explanations and solutions to problems
that arise in a particular context. Each context has conditions that are peculiar to it and in order to
understand the problem, offer an explanation, or try to fi nd a solution you have to investigate the
problem in its local context. In this instance, this view of postmodernism resonates with African
philosophy. This means that knowledge is culture specific and consequently the transmission of
knowledge through education needs to be culture specific and take into account the local context.
32
In The postmodern condition, Jean-Francois Lyotard grapples with the different ways in which we
define “knowledge” in a post-industrial society that is equipped with new media, fast changing
technologies that make information readily available to users. The questions he ponders on are:
Who controls scientific knowledge in the digital era? How can such knowledge be legitimated?
Who controls its transmission?
Can you please pause for a moment and reflect on these questions in your context as an educator.
Who legitimises the syllabus that you are required to teach and complete in an academic year?
How do we know that what we teach in the syllabus is legitimate knowledge that will be useful
for the learners in their lives?
28
FEEDBACK
 What is critical theory (pages 87–88). Here you will be reminded of how society, and by implication
the education system in society, influences the way people think.
AND
 The postmodern condition. (https://wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Postmodern_ Condition).
33
How does postmodernism view knowledge?
FEEDBACK
 Postmodernism and education (pages 110–111).
AND
See the following articles and watch the YouTube links for noting:
 Rata, E. 2012. The politics of knowledge in education. British Educational Research Journal, 38(1):103–124.
 Niesche, R & Gowlett, C. 2015. Advocating a post-structuralist politics for educational leadership.
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(4):372–386.
 Trifonas, P. 2012. Critical pedagogy in the new dark ages: challenges and possibilities. Counterpoint,
422:213–229.
 Postmodern View of Education (https://youtu.be/GU2S2SHjs20).
By way of reflecting on the question, How does postmodernism view knowledge? – remember that
postmodernism and critical theory have a similar view on knowledge, namely, that our knowledge
is about those knowledge constructions imposed on us by powerful agencies in society, be the
government, the church, the school or the corporate world.
ESC3701/1 29
Also, postmodernism is critical of “the validity of our knowledge”. It wants us to reflect in a serious
way about “the basis of our claims about what we think we know”. In a sense, postmodernism
queries claim about “real” or “objective” knowledge. In doing so, postmodernism claims that “our
knowledge is a little more than constructions imposed on us by the powerful”. In this regard, the
feminist postmodernist Judith Butler claims that “schooling does little more than impose a fabricated
view of reality on learners”. She further argues that schooling “alienates the learner and disables
the learner’s natural ability to question and explore”. Think about some of the institutionalised
practices in your school. Which of those can be said to alienate and disable the learner intellectually?
34
Wittgenstein, a proponent of postmodernism, underscores the “different little languages” we use
to communicate and make sense of the world. Wittgenstein then coined the expression “language
games” and in his book, Philosophical investigations, he argues that “our language can be seen as
an ancient city: a maze of little streets and squares, of old and new houses, and of houses with
additions from various periods”. In reflecting on his view of “language”:
How do you think this understanding of language affects the view that the role of a teacher is that
of transmitting knowledge in the classroom?
And given that language, or “language games” suggests a multiple understanding of certain
concepts, what do you think this means to our practice as educators?
FEEDBACK
 Educators and postmodernism (pp 111–112).
AND
Journal, 45/46:28–50.
 Bringing Cultural Context and Self-Identity into Education (https://youtu.be/bX9vgD7iTqw).
In reflecting on the importance of language in education remember that language is a very powerful
agent in the transmission of knowledge and is culture specific. Language is, therefore, important
when it comes to educating children in the context of their own culture. Educating children in the
30
language of another culture could impose another set of values on them different from the values
of their own culture and consequently result in their experiencing a loss of cultural identity.
35
By way of completing this unit and, in the light of what you have come to know about postmodernism,
please formulate a brief description of a postmodern philosophy of education by listing the
FEEDBACK
 Postmodernism in a nutshell (pp 114).
CONCLUSION
 the main ideas of postmodernism.

 postmodernism in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning, that is, a
philosophy of education based on postmodernism.
Are you now able to do so?
ESC3701/1 31
Reflection
32
7
LEARNING UNIT
Critical realism and education
In this unit, we will begin by asking, what is critical realism? Then, we will look at the main ideas
in a critical realism philosophy of education and its implications for teaching and learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After having studied this learning unit, you will be able to discuss the main ideas:
 in critical realism.
 of philosophy of education in critical realism and its implications for teaching and learning.
KEY CONCEPTS
 alethic truth
 ontology
 epistemology
 objectivity
 subjectivity
Prescribed book
Read chapter 10 of PET and work through the portfolio activities before proceeding with the
activities that follow. It is important that you do this, so that you acquire the necessary background
knowledge and orientation required in working through this learning unit.
36
How would you describe critical realism to your fellow students?
ESC3701/1 33
FEEDBACK
 Preface (page 117).

 What is critical realism philosophy? (pages 118–119).
 Critical realism as a philosophy of (social) science (pages 121, 2nd paragraph).
 Concluding remarks (pages 132–133).
AND
 What is Critical Realism? (www.asatheory.org/current-newsletter-online/what-is-critical-realism).

 About Critical Realism (https://centreforcriticalrealism.com/about-critical-realism).
 What is Critical Realism (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YWDkiVGSgW8.)
As you will have seen, critical realism is not an easy philosophy to understand because it is very complex.
Whereas empiricists focus on a way of finding truth that can be knowable, postmodernists claim
that there is no truth. Critical realism, however, sees truth as existing (alethic truth), but sometimes
unknowable. Knowledge, therefore, is constituted by our best approximation of that alethic truth.
37
Roy Bhaskar, who is seen as the key theorist in the development of critical realism, claims that as
a (social) science critical realism embraces ontological and epistemological elements that tell us
what structures, entities and mechanisms make up the social world. In unravelling this claim, try
and indicate what you understand by the following:
 What is ontology?
 When it comes to ontology, what is critical realism based on?
 What is epistemology?
 The ontological premises of critical realism give rise to certain epistemological claims directed
at what?
34
FEEDBACK
 Ontology (pages 121–122).

 Epistemology (pages 125–126).
AND
Read the following article and watch the YouTube links for noting:
 Cruickshank, J. 2002. Critical Realism and Critical Theory. Journal of Critical Realism, 1(10):49–66.
 Morgan ST (https://www.stmorgan.co.uk/epistemology-and-ontology-html).
 Danermark, B. Explain society, in An introduction to Critical Realism in the social sciences (http://
scholar.google.co.za/scholar_url/?url=https:// content.tayl).
It is certainly not an easy matter to master critical realism as a philosophy. It requires much critical
reading and reflection on its ontological and epistemological structures. However, critical realism’s
conception of truth provides a most useful philosophical framework for democratic education in
a multicultural context. In grappling with the philosophical tenets of critical realism, bear this in
mind when exploring the possibilities of a meaningful philosophy of education in critical realism.
38
How does critical realism view education and how can it be compared with the view of education
held by postmodernism, hermeneutics, empiricism and phenomenology?
ESC3701/1 35
FEEDBACK
 Critical realism and education (pp 129–130)
AND
An interesting article and book to read on critical realism:
 Corson, D. 1991. Bhaskar’s Critical Realism and Educational knowledge (https://www.jstor.org/

stable/1392896).
 Shipway, B. 2011. A Critical Realist Perspective on Education. New York: Routledge.
39
What can critical realism help us to do in education?
FEEDBACK
 Critical realism and education (page 131).
36
40
By way of completing this unit and, in the light of what you have come to know about critical
realism, please formulate a brief description of a critical realist philosophy of education by listing
the characteristics of such a philosophy of education.
CONCLUSION
We started this unit by saying that after having studied this unit, you will be able to discuss:
 the main ideas of critical realism.

 critical realism in the context of philosophy of education and teaching and learning, that is, a
philosophy of education based on critical realism.
ESC3701/1 37
Reflection
Before you continue to section B, reflect on the following questions:
38
SECTION B: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Dr Sue du Plessis
Dr Marian Baker
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Learning unit 8: Theories in sociology of education
Learning unit 9: Functionalism
Learning unit 10: Conflict theory
Learning unit 11: Symbolic interactionism
Learning unit 12: Practices in Sociology of Education: Social institutions ecology and the role of
the school in society
Learning unit 13: Citizenship education
Learning unit 14: Diversity and Culture in Education
Conclusion
ESC3701/1 39
40
An introduction to sociology of education
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the module: Sociology of education! We hope that you will enjoy exploring the prescribed
book, Sociology of education, with its interactive text, and that you will find the content interesting
and informative. This serves as a wrap-around guide which will provide you with additional support
and will facilitate your understanding of the prescribed book and the supplementary readings.
We are cognisant that you have graduated from different academic institutions and disciplines, and
that some of you might not have studied sociology of education previously. Sociology of education
focuses on schools as educational systems and how they relate to broader society. Therefore, this
module constitutes a new journey which will engage you and will provide insight into educational
processes and their links to society.
Importantly, we hope that the module will encourage you to think about the individual, the family
and the education system within the context of the broader society. The word “society” is key to
the discipline of sociology of education, which is concerned with how schools interact with social
structures (such as the economy). You will notice in your prescribed book that there are different
theories, which explain the relationship between schools and society. One of the aims of the module
is to introduce you to a selection of these theories. You will quickly grasp that there is no single
theoretical understanding of schools in society and that the different theories often present ideas
that are oppositional.
We aim to enable you to apply sociological thinking to education globally and to the local South
African context. You will find a range of case studies in the prescribed textbook Sociology of education.
These have been included to assist you to understand how certain theories or ideas can be applied
to the realities of education within the Africanised social context. In addition, the sociology
of education requires that we consider a historical view of society. This you will find in chapter 3 of
your prescribed book. The chapter also includes the topics of citizenship and citizenship education.
Chapter 4 examines diversity and culture in education and covers the central issues of gender, race
and social class.
In this wrap-around guide, we shall guide you through seven Learning Units (LU 8–14), which
will be linked to the chapters 1–7 in the prescribed textbook. Therefore, you will need to use
this guide in conjunction with the prescribed textbook. You will find a variety of exercises in the
textbook, which you are encouraged to complete. These will be supplemented by exercises in your
wrap-around guide.
We shall provide general learning outcomes in your wrap-around guide and more specific learning
outcomes at the start of each Learning Unit. We shall provide you with a supplementary list of
recommended readings, which can be accessed through myUnisa. As graduate students, you
will be expected to read beyond the prescribed textbook and to engage meaningfully with the
supplementary readings. There is also a comprehensive reference list at the end of each chapter in
your prescribed textbook that will help you select relevant literature.
If you want to contact your lecturers for additional guidance, use the web page myUnisa or e-mail
us to continue with academic-related discussions.
We wish you all the best with your studies in the sociology of education.
Your lecturers
ESC3701/1 41
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
 work with sociological concepts and theories in the context of education

 use a sociological perspective in your understanding of education
 identify and understand the major concepts of functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic
interactionism
 identify and understand micro-sociological and macro-sociological perspectives and
understand their interrelationship
 work with the ecological model of the school
 identify some of the merits and shortcomings of the sociological theories
 apply sociological thinking to education in general and to South African education in particular
 grasp the concept of citizenship in South Africa and globally
 analyse schooling in South Africa by adopting a sociological perspective, which addresses
both past and present concerns.
PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Your prescribed textbook, Sociology of education (2018), forms the core of this module. While
you are working through the wrap-around guide, you will need to consult the mentioned
prescribed textbook frequently. To simplify the reference to the prescribed textbook, Sociology
of education, the abbreviation SoE will be used throughout the wrap-around guide.
Guidelines for the activities in the wrap-around guide:
Ensure that you do the following:
 Understand the questions and that you meet the demands of the questions in your answers.
 Take note of the structure of the response. For example, do you need to provide a short answer or
provide a paragraph-type response? Do you understand action words, such as describe, discuss,
explain, evaluate, identify, compare, summarise, mind-mapping, et cetera?
 Demonstrate your ability to explain key concepts in your own words. Do not simply rewrite
answers from the textbook or from the recommended readings.
 Provide your own examples to illustrate key concepts and sections.
 Write your responses in full sentences and in coherent, well-structured paragraphs when
requested to do so.
In addition, you are expected to proceed with the following:
 Use the prescribed textbook, SoE as a source for your responses.

 Consult other recommended sources to develop your understanding of the topic.
 Familiarise yourself with the University’s policy on copyright infringement and plagiarism
from the inception of the module.
 Familiarise yourself with the Augmented Harvard Method of referencing.
42
8
LEARNING UNIT
Theories in Sociology of education
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After working through this learning unit, you will be able to:
 understand the concept of sociology of education

 explain how schools are linked to social institutions or systems and to social structures
 recognise micro-sociological and macro-sociological approaches
 understand the notion of the sociological imagination
 provide a broad explanation of three of the major sociology of education theories.
NB: Learning Unit 8 links with Chapter 1: Theories in Sociology of Education.
SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
MAIN IDEAS
 Sociology
 Education
 Sociology of education
 Society
 Social systems
 Social structure
 Sub-systems
 Macro-sociological and micro-sociological perspectives
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
 Assimilation and transmission of culture and traditions
 The development of new social patterns
 The activation of constructive and creative forces
THREE MAJOR SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION THEORIES
 Functionalism
 Conflict theory
 Symbolic interactionism
NOTE THE FOLLOWING
 Key concepts in the schematic overview: Keep the above concepts in mind when reading
through SoE. We shall clarify the concepts as we work through the textbook.
 Learn to engage with your prescribed text: There is a glossary on page 1 of SoE which
provides a list of some of the key concepts found in the chapter. Ensure that you understand
these concepts on completing the learning unit.
ESC3701/1 43
The purpose of chapter 1 in SoE is to discuss and define three key concepts: sociology, education
and sociology of education. In addition, the chapter reviews three theories associated with sociology
of education, namely functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. Learning Unit 1 of
your guide will examine major concepts and will assist you in thinking about them systematically.
In the Learning Unit you will be addressing the question: What is the sociology of education?
In addition, the learning unit will provide a brief overview of the three theories: functionalism,
conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. You will examine these theories in much more detail
in Learning Units 2, 3 and 4.
For this Learning Unit, you are expected to read through different pages of your prescribed textbook
(SoE). You will also be required to read the supplementary sources provided on page 17 of the
textbook.
What is sociology of education?
The sociology of education uses theoretical perspectives and rigorous research to provide important
insights into the ways in which schools affect individuals and groups. We begin by clarifying three
basic concepts: sociology, education and sociology of education.
Sociology is the study of social groups and individuals, and their interrelationships with social
structures. Most of us see the world in terms of what is “every day” and familiar to us-think of your
family, friends, school and workplace. According to the sociologist, Anthony Giddens, sociology helps
us to “think ourselves away” from familiar routines and to look at them with fresh eyes (Giddens
2009:6). Sociology helps us to develop a broader perspective on our lives and helps us to explain
why we act as we do. It also teaches us to question what we think is “natural” and what we take
for granted in society and in our everyday practices. For example, is it natural for girls and boys to
line up separately in schools or is this practice shaped by society? Sociology is not just about the
collation facts, such as a school has ten classrooms. Instead, sociologists want to know why certain
things happen in society and why, for example, we have the coexistence of well-equipped schools
and less privileged schools. Sociological theories also look at why societies are structured in the
way that they are and how these societies change over time.
You will see that chapter 1 of Sociology of education (SoE) introduces some of sociology’s main
theories of education, which examine schools within the context of modern, industrialised societies.
Importantly, sociology is about humans and their complex behaviour and as such it is difficult to find
one answer to social problems or to devise a universal theory which explains the whole of society.
The discipline of sociology of education sometimes uses the notion of education as synonymous
with “schooling” as in the use phrase “the education system”. This guide, intermittently, also
uses the terms interchangeably, but it is worth considering Giddens’ (2006:834) differentiation
between education and schooling, as he states that “… there is a difference between education and
schooling. Education can be defined as a social institution, which enables and promotes the acquisition
of skills, knowledge and the broadening of personal horizons. Education can take place in many
social settings. Schooling on the other hand, refers to the formal process through which certain
types of knowledge and skills are delivered, normally via a predesigned curriculum in specialised
settings: schools. Schooling in most countries is typically divided into stages such as those in
primary and secondary schools, and in many societies schooling is a mandatory requirement for
all young people up to a specified age.” (Giddens 2009:834).
44
Theories in sociology of education
41
Think about the two basic components of sociology of education: sociology and education. Read
pages 2 to 4 in your guide and summarise these two components.
42
Read the following quote and then complete the exercise below:
“According to the sociologist C. Wright Mills, sociology should be about examining the biographies
of individuals in the context of the history of societies. The sociological imagination is not just of
use to sociologists–it is important to all members of society, if they wish, to understand, change
and improve their lives” (Haralambos & Holborn 2013:19).
Reflection
The following activity reflects the quote above:
 Jot down or mind map biographical notes about your experience of school. Briefly describe
what your school was like and what you learnt there.
ESC3701/1 45
 Think about your school’s context, its history and how your school’s context reflected broader
society. Write down a few contextual notes to indicate the social mindset of those times.
 Understanding and critique: What do you think were the shortcomings of your school? Do
you think there were challenges in the broader educational system? If you did not experience
challenges, think about why not. Why did the other learners in your school cohort possibly
experienced difficulties?
46
 Change and reform: What should schools be like? How would you improve the schooling system?
You are starting to use your sociological imagination if you are going beyond merely describing
your school experience and if you are providing a “public” context of your schooling.
ESC3701/1 47
NOTE: What is the sociological imagination?
According to Mills (2000:6): “The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and
biography and the relations between the two in society.” Mills (2000:9) focused on the relationship
between the private (or personal troubles) and public issues. He conducted research into divorce
and posited that it is experienced as a personal trouble but that it is also a public issue. He wrote,
“Consider marriage. Inside a marriage a man and woman may experience personal troubles, but
when the divorce rate during the first four years of marriage is 250 out of every 1,000 attempts,
this is an indication of a structural issue having to do with the intuitions of marriage and the
family and other institutions that bear on them.”
Haralambos and Holborn (2013:19) expand on Mills’ explanation: “Mills called the ability to study
the structure of society while also studying individuals’ lives the “sociological imagination”. He
argued that the sociological imagination allowed people to understand their “private troubles”
in relation to “public issues”. People experience unemployment, war and marital breakdown
in terms of the problems these events cause in their personal lives … However, to Mills, these
issues can only be fully understood in the context of wider social forces” (Haralambos &
Holborn 2013:19).
Thus, the sociological imagination helps us to contextualise social structures and dynamics
and to view the taken-for-granted with fresh eyes.
43
Return to your views on schooling above and review them. Did you manage to discuss certain
“personal troubles” within the “context of wider social forces”? Did you manage to make any
links with other social institutions? Did you manage to think yourself away from the day-to-day
exigencies of schooling and provide afresh, more explanatory narrative? Outline your thoughts.
48
Read section 6.2.3 on page 4 in SoE. Sociology of education focuses on “educational structure,
processes and practices from a sociological perspective”. “Educational structures” can be interpreted
in a variety of ways. They could mean how education is structured by the state, for example, the
provision of state schools in society. Educational processes could also mean what goes on in
the educational field perhaps around the curriculum and practices relating to school operations. A
typical school practice is organising the day around a timetable.
44
Provide your own examples of educational structures, processes and practices within an educational
context.
NOTE: What is meant by “curriculum”?
One meaning of curriculum is that it reflects all the modules taught at a school. Curriculum
can also be construed more broadly in that it embraces everything that is taught in schools
both explicitly and implicitly. Learners cover various subjects at school, but they also learn
about being punctual and polite (this acquisition of social skills is sometimes referred to as the
hidden curriculum). A broader interpretation of the curriculum includes the idea of power. A
key question pertaining to power includes: Who decides what is taught in the schools?
In contrast to a curriculum, a syllabus generally has a narrower focus and provides a guide as
to what should be taught in, for example, mathematics on a day-to-day basis.
Micro-sociological and macro-sociological approaches

Micro-sociological and macro-sociological approaches help us to understand the level of analysis
of sociological theories.
ESC3701/1 49
The level of analysis of micro-sociological approaches is on “smaller” social interactions. Micro-
sociological approaches focus on the everyday situations and incorporate our face-to-face interactions
(communications, connections) with other human beings. Interactions are found in all social
institutions such as the school, the family and the work place.
If a sociological theory focuses on large social systems, such as the economy or on the political
system, then we tend to think of these theories as “macro” and their level of analysis as macro-
sociological. Macro-sociological approaches tend to focus on long-term processes within society,
such as the development of modern, urban industrialised societies.
What is important to grasp is that the two approaches are interrelated. To understand
face-to-face interactions in the classroom, we also need to understand the institutional background
of people’s lives. So, a sociologist studying everyday behaviour in schools would understand its
activities by observing how the principal and the staff interact and how learners interact with staff
members.
However, for a more complete picture we need to examine the bigger picture, such as the different
social classes (middle class, working class, etc) in the school, technological changes impacting on
the school and/or globalisation.
Also, see page 6 in SoE for a defi nition of micro- and macro-sociological approaches. The
supplementary readings contain additional information on the two levels of analysis.
45
Consider the following issues in education: Bullying, the provision of textbooks and school
buildings. Explain how these can be viewed from both a micro-sociological and a macro-sociological
perspective.
50
Functions of sociology of education

According to your prescribed textbook, education has the following functions: assimilation
and transmission of culture and traditions; development of new social patterns; activation, and
constructive and creative forces. (See pages 4–6 of your prescribed book – SoE.) Note on page 6 of
SoE that the inclusion of culture and tradition in the school must follow the principles of democracy.
In terms of our Constitution, we cannot “force” citizens (or learners) to follow one set of traditions
or subscribe to one culture.
Complete the following activities:
46
What is meant by “assimilation and transmission of culture and traditions” within education?
Do you think schools can develop new social patterns?
Can you think of any other functions apposite to the South African education system?
ESC3701/1 51
Three theories of sociology of education: functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic
interactionism
Only the main ideas of the three theories above will be discussed in this section. Learning Units
8, 9 and 10 will develop a discussion on these theories and will link the theories to family, school
and society. (See pages 14–17 in your prescribed textbook – SoE.)
NOTE: What is a theory?
A theory attempts to “explain” rather than merely “describe” and uses core concepts to aid
the explanation.
Sociological theories (or theoretical approaches) attempt to explain how societies operate and
how they are organised. For example, a core concept of functionalism is “order” and the
maintenance of order in society. In the case of conflict theory, the notion of inequality is central
to its argument and conflict theorists argue that maintaining order is not possible in societies
riven with disparities in wealth and status. Symbolic interactionism focuses on small-scale
interactions often between individuals or groups. A focus of this approach is on how meanings
are created within the intricacies and complexities of human interaction.
Giddens (2009:104) states the following: “A diversity of theoretical approaches is found in
sociology. The reason for this is not particularly puzzling: theoretical disputes are difficult to
resolve even in the natural sciences, and in sociology we face special difficulties because of
the complex problems involved in subjecting our own behaviour to study.” Hence you will
find that the sections of view of the three examined theories are in opposition to one another.
Note that Giddens considers functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism to be
theoretical approaches. He suggests that “theories are more narrowly focused and represent
attempts to explain particular social conditions or types of event. They are usually formed as
part of the process of research and in turn suggest problems to which research investigations
should be devoted. An example would be Durkheim’s theory of suicide …” (Giddens 2009:26).
Your textbook (SoE) also refers to functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism
as “theoretical approaches”. Other texts may refer to this triad as “theories”.
In addition, it is worth noting that theoretical perspectives in sociology are different from
philosophical views. The latter might influence how researchers conduct their research and collect
their data. Philosophical views might include such approaches as positivism and phenomenology.
47
Sociological orientations and theoretical approaches might use different levels of analysis, such as
micro and macro approaches, but they also provide us with arguments and perspectives on how
society “works”.
52
Read the following sections in SoE: functionalism on page 6 (section 1.3), conflict theory on pages
12 to 13 (section 1.4) and symbolic interactionism on pages 19 to 20 (section 1.5). In the table below,
write down the main argument of the theories and the main authors of the theories:
Theory Main argument Authors
Functionalism
Conflict theory
Symbolic interactionism
NOTE
Before you start with the Learning Units on the three theories, take note of the following:
Sometimes you might feel confused about the key ideas and terminology of theoretical approaches
or theories. You need to bear in mind that some ideas are specific to approaches and have even
been “invented” by some of the relevant theorists. Other ideas cross over to different theories.
You might read about the term “social system” in functionalism and “social structure” in conflict
theory. Parsons, a functionalist, also wrote about social structures.
It is also important to remember to keep concepts within the context of the theory in which
you find them. One way of dealing with this confusion is to try to understand that sometimes
terminology is used synonymously or by a variety of theorists. At other times, you may need
to associate the usage of the concepts and terminology with a specific theorist.
48
Identify some of the most apparent differences amongst the three theoretical approaches. For
example, functionalism focuses on social consensus or agreement and confl ict theory addresses
inequalities in modern industrial societies. Explain why these sections are oppositional rather
than complementary to each other.
ESC3701/1 53
49
Use the following quotes as a starting point to explain and summarise some of the key sections in
Learning Unit 1 and in chapter 1 of SoE:
“The practice of sociology involves the ability to think imaginatively and to detach oneself from
preconceived ideas about social life” (Giddens 2009:30). Explain how sociology can assist you to
examine society in less personal and prejudicial ways.
54
“Sociology is the systematic study of human societies, giving special, but not exclusive emphasis,
to modern industrialized societies” (Giddens 2009:30). Explain why sociological emphasis is often
on industrialised societies.
50
To help you consolidate what you have learnt in this Learning Unit, formulate your own glossary
by summarising key terminology. Remember, a glossary should always be in alphabetical order.
Use the recommended sources as well as your prescribed textbook to complete this activity. Start
with the following terms and then add your own to the list:
Education
Sociology
Sociology of education
ESC3701/1 55
Etc
Recommended reading list: Learning Unit 8
Giddens, A. 2009. Sociology. 6th Edition. Cambridge: Polity Press. (Chapter 1).
Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M. 2013. Sociology Themes and Perspectives, 8th Edition. London:
Harper Collins. (Introduction: Sociological perspectives).
Mills, CW. 2000. The Sociological Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, P. & Zaaiman J. 2014. Sociology: A South African Introduction. Cape Town: Juta.
56
9
LEARNING UNIT
Functionalism
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 explain the theory of functionalism in terms of its relationship to schooling

 apply some of the main ideas of functionalism to the family, school and to broader society
 develop a critique of the theory
NB: Learning Unit 9 links with Chapter 1: Theories in sociology of education.
SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW
THREE MAJOR SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION THEORIES

 Functionalism
 Conflict theory
MAIN IDEAS
 Functionalism (macro-sociological): Social order, consensus, social systems, socialisation,
norms and values, manifest and latent functions
 Conflict theory (macro-sociological): Conflict, change, social class, inequalities, power
 Symbolic interactionism (micro-sociological): Capacity for thought, meaning, interaction,
interpretation, self and agency
MAIN PROPONENTS OF THESE THEORIES
 Functionalism: Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton
 Conflict theory: Karl Marx, Max Weber, C Wright Mills, Bowles and Gintis; and Pierre
Bourdieu
 Symbolic interactionism: Max Weber, George H Mead, Erving Goffman, Herbert Blumer
and Charles H Cooley
Overview: Functionalism
Functionalism is concerned with what makes societies “work” (function) and how different social
institutions are interrelated. Emile Durkheim (1956), one of the major proponents of functionalism,
asked the question: What holds society together? Durkheim proposed that there are two types of
solidarity that form the “glue” that holds society together. The first is mechanical solidarity which
occurs when society is held together by shared belief. The second is organic solidarity, which reflects
the specialisation of tasks found in modern industrialised societies. The specialisation of tasks relates
to the vast range of jobs found in modern society: lecturers, computer analysts, health workers and
ESC3701/1 57
so on. Durkheim argues that in these societies people are held together by factors such as economic
interdependence. He contends that to produce social stability, the different parts of modern industrial
society need to work together to form a complex whole. For example, functionalists argue that there
are links between schooling and the economy, and links between schooling and the family. If the
economy does not function, then this will affect schooling and families. Functionalist theorists
sometimes compare society to a living organism. Just as parts of the human body work together,
the various components of society also co-operate to maintain a functioning “whole”.
See page 7 of your prescribed book (SoE) for more information on mechanical and organic solidarity.
You will return to functionalist theory in Learning Units 5 and 7.
51
Functionalism uses an organic analogy or comparison, such as the body, to explain how society
functions. What analogy would you use to explain society? Justify your answer.
Robert Merton, a functionalist theorist, wrote the following about manifest and latent functions:
Manifest functions: These functions are apparent or known to participants of a social activity.
For example, a timetable in a school is “known” and can be seen in most contemporary schools. It
has a manifest function of planning the teachers’ and the learners’ daily activities.
Latent functions cannot be seen, but have certain effects on participants. For example, the timetable
might have the latent function of engendering obedience and compliancy in children.
See page 7 in SoE for further information and examples on Merton’s manifest and latent functions.
52
Draw on your experience of school to provide your own examples of manifest and latent functions.
Explain why your example is manifest and why it is latent.
58
Functionalism
53
Do you think for society to function or work, there must be some agreement on basic values?
Justify your position.
According to your opinion, discuss what the “basic values” of society are.
ESC3701/1 59
Is it possible to find consensus about “basic values” in South African schools? Yes or no? Substantiate
your point of view.
Socialisation
Read pages 6 and 7 (section 1.3) in your prescribed textbook (SoE). This section provides a synopsis
of some of the main concepts associated with functionalism. One of these concepts is socialisation.
Haralambos and Holborn (2013:5) provide the following explanation of socialisation:
“The process by which individuals learn the culture of their society is known as socialisation.
Primary socialisation, probably the most important aspect of the socialisation process takes place
during infancy, usually within the family … By responding to the approval and disapproval of its
parents and copying their example, the child learns the language and many of the basic behaviour
patterns of its society ...” (Haralambos & Holborn 2013:5).
Socialisation continues throughout one’s life and education, peer groups and the media all play a
role in shaping identities.
54
Explain what is meant by socialisation?
60
Functionalism
What is primary socialisation?
What is secondary socialisation?
Norms and values

Norms and values are central concepts in functionalist theory. Norms can be defined as “informal
rules that govern behaviour” (Haralambos & Holborn 2013:5). For example, there might be norms
associated with specific functions in relation to dress codes and the observance of certain practices.
Importantly, norms are variable and are subject to shifts in society over time. Values are associated
with moral judgments. They too are affected by changing practices and time.
55
Select a few norms that you think are specific, either to South African urban society or to South
African rural society.
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Can you identify norms that previous generations considered important, but that are now considered
outdated?
Durkheim and Parsons

As we have seen above, two major authors, Durkheim and Parsons, are associated with the theoretical
approach of functionalism. (See pages 7–10 of SoE). Durkheim viewed education, and particularly
the teaching of history, as an important foundation for that stability.
56
Read the quote from Haralambos and Holborn (2013) on page 8 of SoE and identify the main
points Durkheim makes about the functions schools serve in society.
62
Functionalism
A later protagonist of functionalism, Parsons, elaborated on the work of Durkheim. Parson’s work
focused on “how society functions as a system”. (See page 8 – SoE). He argued that if social systems
are to survive, they need to perform four basic functions what he called the “AGIL model”.
57
Read the summary of Parson’s AGIL model on page 9 (SoE). Do you agree that these functions
must be in place for a society to work? Could this model be problematic? Substantiate.
ESC3701/1 63
NOTE
Read Parson’s premises on functionalism on page 9 (SoE). You will see that even though it is
important for society to differentiate so it can adapt to modern industrialisation, differentiation
can also cause problems because it is difficult to co-ordinate large numbers of social systems.
One of the reasons for this is that differentiation can lead to some systems seeing themselves
as independent from other systems. For instance, the government, rather than being part of a
social “whole” could see itself as being “above” other social systems.
Achievement and differentiation

Parsons suggests that all learners are treated equally when they start school. So, to use an analogy,
the starting blocks of the school “athletics race” are identical and the criteria or rules of the race
are the same for all learners. However, through differentiation some learners “win” the race and
others are positioned as “failures” or “low” achievers. The “high” achievers obtain good marks
and they often attain “moral” achievement, for example, by becoming responsible learners and by
learning leadership skills and independence. The low achievers are less successful and as such can
be deemed to be “failures” by schools.
58
Think about whether all learners start school “equally”. For instance, do all learners come from
similar family backgrounds and are all families of the same fi nancial status? Discuss possible
problems with the assumption that all learners have equal opportunities when they start school.
Is differentiation amongst learners only based on their hard work and achievement in schools?
What other factors could impinge on learners’ level of achievement?
64
Functionalism
Critique of functionalism
Giddens (2009:835) writes: “There is little doubt that functionalist theory does tell us something
significant about education systems; they do try to provide individuals with the skills and knowledge
needed to participate in societies, and schools do teach children some of the values and morals
of wider society. However, functionalist theory appears to overstate the case for a set of society
wide values. There are many cultural differences within a single society and the notion of a set of
central values that should be taught to all may not be accurate or well received. This highlights a
recurring problem within functionalist accounts, namely the concept of ‘society’ itself. Functionalists
see education systems as serving several functions for society as a whole, but the problem is that
this assumes that society is relatively homogeneous [the same] and that all social groups share
similar interests. Is this really true?” What this means is that although functionalism has valid
sections to make about education systems it can be criticised by assuming that there is only one
culture in society and schools must transmit that culture if society is to function properly. As
Giddens suggests, this is problematic.
59
Read through section 6.3.3, “Critique of functionalism” on page 12 in your textbook (SoE). Also
refer to the recommended reading list. Identify the major criticisms of functionalism.
ESC3701/1 65
NB: Your critique of functionalism will deepen once you have completed learning unit 3 on conflict
theory. Although conflict theory shares some concepts with functionalism (such as the notion
of social structures), it also takes a critical stance towards the theory.
Blackledge, D. & Hunt, B. 1985. Sociological Interpretations of Education. London: Routledge.

Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M. 2013. Sociology Themes and Perspectives. 8th Edition. London:
Harper Collins. (Introduction: sociological perspectives).
66
10
LEARNING UNIT
Conflict theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 understand the main ideas of conflict theory

 identify the main proponents of conflict theory
 explain how inequalities exist in modern capitalist societies
 develop a critique of the theory.
Please also refer to the schematic overview in Learning Unit 9.
Overview: Conflict theory
As opposed to functionalism, conflict theory argues that there are deep, persistent divisions in
society. The theory accentuates issues of power and the inequalities found in society.
Conflict theorists tend to reject the emphasis on consensus found in functionalism and argue that
there is an insufficient focus in the approach on the divisions and inequalities found in society.
These inequalities are often based on race, class and gender differences and lead to confl ict rather
than consensus. Conflict theorists study the power relations and tensions between dominant and
disadvantaged groups in society. They also focus on how domination is reproduced (or perpetuated)
in society. Divisions emerge in societies because different groups in society pursue different
interests. These separate interests benefit some groups more than others. Conflict theorists argue
that in a society riddled with inequalities, it is axiomatic that the schooling system reinforces social
inequalities. For example, conflict theorists argue that it is in the interests of the middle class to
dominate the education sphere at the expense of the working class.
This does not mean that functionalists have a uniform focus on consensus. Functionalists acknowledge
that conflict can occur in society, but these differences should be resolved and smoothed over so that
society continues to function effectively. They suggest that all social groups will benefit in the long
run if they can resolve differences and focus on their similarities rather than on their differences.
Conflict theory attempts to provide a model which explains how the whole of society works and it is
concerned with large structures, such as social class, hence it takes a macro perspective on society.
Conflict theory is influenced by the writings of Karl Marx. In the 1800s (19th century), there was
an unprecedented growth of industrialisation and the economic system of capitalism also became
influential. Marx focused his attention on the development of capitalism and developed a strong
critique of the system. Capitalism was and is characterised by the following:
ESC3701/1 67
 The ownership of capital, that is, money and assets such as machinery. The owners are known
as capitalists.
 Wage labour. These are the employees who work for the owners. Most of the population are
waged workers and they are referred to as the working class.
(A central issue of an industrialised society is the social class system.)
 Marx argued that the relationship between the capitalists and the working class was based on
conflict because it was inherently unequal and exploitative.
 Capitalists and workers are dependent on one another, but they are in an unequal relationship.
 Why are there inequalities? Marx argued that workers do not have access to the means of
production (e.g. the factory building, machinery etc) because the capitalist owns them. Workers
are obliged to sell their labour to an owner who extracts profit from this labour.
What can we conclude from these sections? That society is based on conflict between workers and
owners: The haves and the have nots. Society is made up of social classes such as the owners, middle
class and working class, which are often in conflict with each other. Conflict theorists also argue
that because of inequalities, society needs to change and we need to create a more equal society.
The work of Max Weber has also influenced conflict theory. Unlike Marxist interpretations, Weberian
approaches do not concentrate on class divisions only. Instead, they address issues of power and
focus on the following questions: Who holds authority? Who is excluded from authority? Who are
the rulers and who are the ruled?
60
Read section 6.4.1 on page 14 (SoE) on Marx, Weber and Mills. The three theorists have different
ideas about how conflict manifests itself in society. Weber, for instance, argued that economic factors
were important, but that ideas and values also could bring about social change. Mills focused on
the different interests that emerge in society. For example, the middle classes might have certain
interests and privileges in society, which they work hard at protecting.
Outline the theorists’ three different notions of conflict. Provide examples, which reflect their
approaches
Marx Weber Mills
Examples: Examples: Examples:
68
Conflict theory
61
You have already thought about your school experience in Learning Unit 1. Now focus more on
your own identity. Jot down some autobiographical information. You will need to include something
about your family background and how it might have had an impact on your schooling.
My narrative:
Now, read the three case studies presented in your textbook (pages 13, 15 and 16 in SoE).
 Are there any similarities and/or differences between your narrative and the case studies?
ESC3701/1 69
Then proceed to read the sections on conflict theory and families: Section 1.4.2 on page 14 and
section 1.4.3 on page 16 (SoE) about conflict theory and society.
 Reflection: Consider whether your life reflects any aspect that conflict theory proposes.
In these sections, confl ict theory proposes that society (including the work place) and family
background both play a role in perpetuating inequalities.
62
Think critically about sections 1.4.2 and 1.4.3 of SoE and write down your responses below:
 That families work towards reproducing social inequalities
 That education is equal for all learners
70
Conflict theory
 That conflict exists between various interest groups
Complete this activity in conjunction with the activities found on page 17 in your prescribed text
book (SoE).
Correspondence theory
Correspondence theory proposes that certain practices, attitudes and behaviours in schools
correspond with the needs of the workplace in industrialised societies. For example, most schools
have timetables which teach learners eventually to be punctual at the workplace.
63
Provide further school-based examples of the correspondence principle. Are there any criticisms
that can be directed towards the approach?
ESC3701/1 71
Criticism of conflict theory
One of the criticisms on page 19 (SoE) is that conflict theory can be deterministic. This means
that social forces can determine or control who we are and what jobs we end up doing. For example,
someone is born in a working-class family and will go to a working-class school and into working-
class employment. This is seen as a deterministic position because it does not consider free will,
human agency and the ability to move into a different class position. Conflict theory also does not
always acknowledge that schools do not merely reproduce social class structures. For example,
some schools actively encourage learners to be aspirational.
64
What are the criticisms that can be levelled against conflict theory? In three paragraphs, present
a critique of conflict theory. You will need to refer to the recommended additional readings, as
well as to your textbook (SoE, page 19).
PARAGRAPH WRITING
The activity is intended to encourage the habit of writing coherently and of conveying ideas.
In academic writing, your paragraphs should be well structured and can include the following:
 A topic sentence which presents the main idea of the paragraph (in general, the rule is one
idea per paragraph).
 Supporting details: Facts, and examples. These constitute your supporting sentences.
 Conclusion sentence: This sentence summarises the main idea or it might provide a
connection to the following paragraph.
Please note that an academic paragraph often takes on this structure, but the above should not
be considered as an infallible method. As you write more, you will develop your own style of
writing. However, it will be useful for you to follow this structure in the activity.
For the purposes of this activity make sure your sentences and paragraphs are logically sequenced.
Linking words and phrases are useful when writing a series of paragraphs. Examples of linking
words and phrases which express ...
 differences include: On the contrary; conversely; as opposed to.
 similarities include: Likewise; similarly.
72
Conflict theory
65
As mentioned in Learning Unit 10 (page 71), conflict theory presents a critique of functionalism.
Using your knowledge of confl ict theory, write one to two paragraphs presenting a critique of
functionalism which extends your previous criticisms of the theory. Make use of the same paragraph
format as the above-mentioned.
ESC3701/1 73
Ballantyne, J., Hammock, FM. & Stuber, JA. 2017. Sociology of Education. A Systematic Analysis.
London/New York: Routledge. (Chapter 3).
Bourdieu, P. 2007. The forms of capital. In A.R. Sadovnik (Ed.), Sociology and Education: A Critical
Textbook (pp 83–95). New York: Routledge.
74
11
LEARNING UNIT
Symbolic Interactionism
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 understand the main ideas of symbolic interactionism

 identify the main proponents of symbolic interactionism
 explain the ideas of interactionism and interpretation
 explain human agency
 develop a critique of the theory.

Please refer to the schematic overview in Learning Unit 9.
Overview: Symbolic interactionism
Functionalism and conflict theory both take macro-sociological perspectives that means that the
individual or the human element is sometimes marginalised. Symbolic interactionism redresses
this omission by using a micro-sociological perspective and by focusing on the self or individual
within the context of society. Symbolic interactionism argues that humans make meanings, which
are derived from social interaction (our contact and our communication with other humans). These
meanings are dependent on and modified by interpretation. The theory emphasises the human
ability to think and to exercise human agency.
Furthermore, “symbolic interactionism directs our attention to the detail of interpersonal interaction
and how that detail is used to make sense of what others say and do. Sociologists influenced by
symbolic interactionism often focus on face-to-face interaction in the contexts of everyday life.
They stress the role of such interaction in creating society and its institutions. Max Weber was an
important indirect influence on this theoretical approach because, although he acknowledged the
existence of social structures – such as classes, parties, status groups and others – he held that these
structures were created through the social actions of individuals” (Giddens 2009:25).
66
Read pages 19 to 21 in SoE.
Discuss the following two positions around the notion of agency.
Do people have agency in societies?
ESC3701/1 75
Are people moulded by social structures?
Symbol and interaction

We shall consider the composition of the two concepts in the theory of symbolic interactionism:
“symbol” and “interaction”. A symbol is a material object that represents an object, function or
process, for example, a flag symbolises a country. Words are also symbols, as are non-verbal gestures,
such as nodding your head in agreement. As Haralambos and Holborn (2013:978) suggest, “A
symbol does not simply stand in for an object or event; it defines it in a particular way and indicates
a response to it. Thus, the symbol [word] ‘chair’ not only represents a class of objects and defines
them as similar, it also indicates a line of action: that is, the action of sitting.”
So, words stand in for “things”; hence, the word “chair” symbolises or stands in for the real chair.
Also, the word “chair” represents a “class of objects” in that even though there are many types
of chair (arm chair, deck chair), we recognise them as chairs because they have the essential
characteristics of a chair. However, importantly, a symbol does not only stand in for a “thing”, it
can also denote action and evoke emotion.
Symbolic interactionists suggest that language allows us to become conscious of ourselves and aware
of our individuality. In the previous exercise in which you wrote a brief autobiographical narrative,
you “saw” yourself through your words which helped you to become aware of your individuality
and perhaps even how other people see you. We need symbols such as words to interact with each
other and to interpret and make meaning of social situations.
76
67
Woods (1983:xi) writes that symbolic interactionism looks at “… small scale detail of interpersonal
relationships, what people do, how they react to each other, the patterning of behaviours, the ebb
and flow of everyday life.”
The above quote contains the following key concepts. Add your own notes and/or examples in the
section “Explanation and examples”:
Key concept Explanation and examples
Small scale Symbolic interactionism falls within a micro-sociological

perspective …
Interpersonal relationships The theory of symbolic interaction concentrates on face-to-

face interaction …
Do (action) Symbolic interactionism proposes that we can take action …
React We interpret people’s behaviour and respond to it …
Patterning Our everyday lives are “patterned” / we have routines …
Everyday life Everyday activities provide structure to what we do …
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Symbolic interactionists argue that everyday life is central to an analysis of society.
As thinking beings, we can make sense of these small worlds through our interpretations of
everyday life, which have the potential to change ourselves, and even influence the context in
which the interactions take place. For example, after being admonished by an educator, a learner
can try to negotiate a hostile situation by changing her behaviour by being courteous and working
conscientiously. The learner has acted (by using agency) and consequently has influenced the
context in which he/she finds him/herself.
The following concepts are also central to symbolic interactionism:

 Context: We tend to behave according to the social context. If you are an educator, you might
play a formal, authoritative role in the classroom, but when you go to the staffroom, you drop
your “front” and relax with your colleagues and refuel with a cup of tea. Irving Goffman
referred to the area in which we play a formal, professional role as “front region” (in this case
the classroom). He called the informal zone (the staffroom) the “back region”.
 Perspectives: We interpret the world through a variety of perspectives. For example, some
teachers might see an aspect of the world through the perspective of rigid gender relations and
might consider girls as inferior to boys. Alternatively, educators might identify boys as “problems”
and girls as hard working.
 Negotiation: As seen above, humans have the power to negotiate situations. However, social
class could be the latent culture in the school, which means that children from the “wrong”
class are limited and have few strategies to negotiate situations.
Read section 1.5.4 on page 22 (SoE) which expands on the above sections.
68
In section 1.5.4 (SoE) we read that children learn to differentiate between the kinds of behaviour
needed in different situations, whether they are on the playground or in classroom.
Sketch a scenario from your own experience which demonstrates this kind of differentiation. Do
you have a “front” and a “back” region?
78
Read section 1.5.3 on families and symbolic interactionism on pages 21 to 22 (SoE).
69
Explain the concept “socialisation” in relation to symbolic interactionism. In what ways do you
think your interactions with your family have socialised you?
70
“Meaning making” is an important concept in micro-sociological perspectives. How is meaning

making a response to and different from macro-sociological approaches?
ESC3701/1 79
71
Discuss how communication, making meaning, symbols and agency are relevant when examining
one of the following:
Discipline in the classroom
Gender expectations of learners in the classroom
Student activism
72
Do you think teachers can play a role in transforming learners’ lives?
80
Criticisms of symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism has been criticised for focusing too much on small interactions in society
and not considering issues of power and social structure sufficiently. However, there are theorists
who try to explain micro human interactions in conjunction with macro theories, such as theories
of gender and social class. However, as Giddens sections out: “Face-to-face interaction is clearly the
main basis of all forms of social organization, no matter how large scale. Suppose we are studying
a business corporation. We could understand much about its activities simply by looking at face-
to-face behaviour” (Giddens 2009:28).
73
Summarise the criticisms of symbolic interactionism.
Now evaluate the criticisms: Are they fair? How would symbolic interactionist theorists respond
to the criticisms?
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74
In a response of one page in length answer the following question:
Are micro- and macro-sociological analyses completely distinct from one another?
Note: You will have noticed that the question elicits a yes/no response. When discussing the above
question, you will need to include a short account of what the two levels of analysis entail. Then
you will have to provide an argument which outlines how and why they are distinct and/or how
and why they are connected. You should also include pertinent examples of the sections you make.
NB: Your prescribed and recommended readings afford conduits to thinking and writing
sociologically and provide direction in relation to your own writing.
How to set out an argument

It will be useful to follow this (reduced) structure of an argument in relation to Activity 74:
 Introduction
 Main claim (e.g. in your main claim, you could claim that the two levels of analysis are
intertwined, or you could claim they are distinct)
 Argument (here you present evidence to support your claim)
 Counter argument (you address any oppositional ideas or claims)
 Refutation (you briefly refute the counter argument by reinforcing your original argument)
 Conclusion
82
ESC3701/1 83
Ballantine, JH. & Spade, JZ. 2008. Schools and society: A sociological approach to education. California:
Pine Forge Press. (Chapter 1).
Giddens, A. 2009. Sociology. 6th Edition. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Woods, P. 1983. Sociology and the school. An interactionist view. London: Routledge, Keegan and
Paul. (Chapter 1).
Recap: Learning Units 9, 10 and 11
What have you learnt in the mentioned learning units? Fill in the table below with the information
that you already have. For example, under functionalism, you will write down something on
consensus, then something on latent and manifest functions, et cetera.
75
Summarise the main assumptions, principles and propositions of functionalism, conflict theory
and symbolic interactionism. See page 11 on functionalism, page 18 on confl ict theory, and pages
20 to 21 on symbolic interactionism in SoE.
Brief explanation of the

Sociology of education Main ideas and
main ideas (Provide your
theories assumptions
own example.)
Functionalism (For example: consensus) (For example: Consensus

happens when people
agree about values and
norms in society and work
together to achieve them.)
84
Conflict theory
76
Plot the differences below between:
 Micro-sociological and macro-sociological perspectives

 Functionalism and theory
 Conflict theory and symbolic interactionism
Similarities:
 Do the theories and concepts have any similarities? If so, include these in the blocks below.
Micro-sociological Macro-sociological Any similarities?
Functionalism Conflict theory Any similarities?
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Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism Any similarities?
Criticisms? Criticisms? Criticisms?

Functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism
Now complete the checklist below:
Question Yes Not yet
Have I read through chapter

1 of the prescribed textbook?
Have I completed the exercises

in the wrap-around guide?
Have I completed the exercises
in chapter 1 of the prescribed
textbook?
Do I understand the main

concepts of the three theories?
Can I give examples of these

concepts?
86
12
LEARNING UNIT
Practices in sociology of education:

Social institutions, ecology and the
role of the school in society
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 grasp the idea of social institutions

 understand the basics of ecosystemic theory
 understand the ecology of the school
 enhance your knowledge on the role of the school in relation to functionalism, conflict theory
and symbolic interactionism.
NB: Learning Unit 12 links with Chapter 2: Practices in sociology of education: Social
institutions, ecology and the role of the school in society.
SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
 Family
 School
 Religion
 Economy
 Government and state institutions
ECOLOGY OF THE SCHOOL
Bronfenbrenner’s theory:
 Microsystem
 Mesosystem
 Exosystem
 Macrosystem
 Chronosystem
ROLE OF THE SCHOOL IN SOCIETY: THREE PERSPECTIVES
 Functionalism
 Conflict theory
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Introduction
In Learning Unit 12, you will revisit and expand on some familiar concepts: social institutions and
their interrelationships. You already have engaged with the notions of micro-sociology and macro-
sociology in the previous learning units. However, in this learning unit we shall introduce a new
model of schooling: the ecology of the school. In addition, we shall provide more detail concerning
the three theories you have covered: functionalism, confl ict theory and symbolic interactionism.
Special emphasis will be placed on their perspectives concerning the role of the school.
On page 28 (SoE) you will find a glossary of words. Bear these in mind while you read through the
chapter and then come back to them at the end of the chapter and define them within the context
of what you have learnt from Learning Unit 12 and Chapter 2.
You have learnt from your engagement with previous learning units that schools and
society are interdependent and that schools play an important role as socialising agents and
in the transmission of norms and values. You have also learnt that social institutions, or
sub-systems contribute to the perpetuation and the stability of that society. You also know that
social institutions can change.
Note: Social institutions: Read pages 29 to 34 (SoE). Complete the activity in SoE on page 34.
This activity provides the opportunity to question and debate some of the issues that are
covered in the section.
The ecology of the school
The ecology of a school can also be termed as “school climate” or “school environment”.
Read page 34 (SoE) and answer the questions below.
77
Have you encountered a school with a particular “climate”? Describe the climate.
88
Practices in sociology of education: social institutions, ecology and the role of the school in society
78
Examine Figure 2.1 on page 35 (SoE). Explain why you think the model is circular.
79
Read up on Bronfenbrenner’s definitions of the five systems. Provide examples of the systems
from your own experience. (For example, in relation to the chronosystem: How have changes over
time – political changes, technological changes – affected you, your family and your schooling?)
80
Indicate what is new about the notion of the ecology of the school. What does it tell you about
schools that you did not know before?
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81
How does the Bronfenbrenner’s eco-systemic (ecological systems) theory help us understand inter-
relationships between the family (microsystem), schooling (exosystem) and overarching beliefs
and values in society (the macrosystem)?
90
The role of school in society (pages 38–48 in SoE)
Schools as we know them today are a response to modern, industrialised societies. They play an
important part in the socialisation process of children through the transmission of norms (standards,
rules) and values (morals). They also supposed to assist with the transference of a selection of
knowledge and skills appropriate to modern, capitalist societies. Your textbook explains the role
of the school in relation to the three theories you have already covered: functionalism, conflict
theory and symbolic interactionism. (See page 38–48, SoE.) In the previous three learning units,
we provided a discussion of the main sections of the theories and provided relevant case studies
to provide a social context for the theories. In this section, you will discover that the three theories
have very different views on the role of the school.
82
See pages 38 and 39 for a brief discussion on socialisation. Identify an aspect of socialisation that
you have encountered, and explain why you think it is a suitable example of socialisation.
Functionalism and the role of the school (pages 39–43 in SoE)
The role of the school is central to the functionalist theory. We have already discussed how
functionalism makes a comparison or analogy between society and a biological organism, such as
the body. According to functionalists, institutions or structures like schools, the family, the economy
and the law are all parts of the “body”, which comprises society in its totality. These institutions
are inherently connected and all of them need to function well for the “body” or society to remain
“healthy”.
So why is schooling so important? According to functionalists, schools play a vital role in the
functioning and in the survival and perpetuation of society. Schools socialise learners so that they
can adapt to a variety of institutions. The economy and schools teach certain skills that will assist
ESC3701/1 91
learners to become part of a competent workforce. Hence, schools perform a manifest or visible
function: teaching learners school subjects, some of which might have relevance to the workplace,
such as the teaching of computer skills. Schools also perform a latent, less visible function such
as the transmission of practices such as punctuality, courtesy and the meeting of deadlines: all
attributes which are pertinent to the workplace. Schooling therefore contributes to the harmony
of society: society cannot function if there is no consensus amongst institutions.
Role differentiation and social solidarity (pages 39–40 in SoE)

For society to function, members of society need to perform different tasks. Functionalism proposes
that the more complex society is, the greater the requirement of specialised occupations. So, the
argument goes that we need doctors, but we also require hospital janitors/caretakers. Thus, all
occupations have important roles to play in society. Importantly, we need to consent or agree to do
our work and the continuation of society depends on the co-operation of these different occupations.
For example, caretakers need to believe that they do important work and that they are required to
keep society functioning.
83
Think of an institution, for example, a hospital or a school, and identify the number of different
roles that employees have in these institutions. Why do we need to differentiate roles in institutions
and ultimately in broader society?
84
Read the section on the essential norms for functioning in a modern society (pages 40–42 in SoE).
Do you agree that schools provide their learners with certain capabilities that families cannot
provide them with? Back up your answer.
92
Dreeben draws on the work of Parsons, who suggests that the family is particularistic and is not
able to pass on the necessary skills necessary for modern societies. That is, the family does not
have the ability to convey the necessary skills and its social ties are based on emotion and family
traditions and rules. Parsons argues that schools are universalistic in that they transmit norms
and values that go beyond the family and are more neutral and “universal” so they pertain to all
learners equally, whereas families sometimes base their rules on the particular circumstances of
the family. For example, older boys might have different rules from younger girls in the family, but
all Grade 5 learners are expected to follow the same rules in schools uniformly.
85
Briefly list of the kind of particularistic rules that families have for children and the universalistic
rules in schools that are devised for learners.
Do you think school rules are fairer and more equal than family rules?
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What is a “norm”?
Read through Dreeben’s “four essential norms”. Comment on whether you think they are relevant
to 21st-century schooling.
Assimilation, political socialisation and modernisation (Read pages 42–43 in SoE)
86
Read page 42 (SoE) and summarise the following concepts:
 assimilation
 political socialisation
 modernisation
94
The notion of meritocracy is predicated on the idea that learners achieve their status according
to their merit, that is, how talented, hard-working and motivated they are. The notion of equal
opportunity is also central to meritocracy. The argument follows from this that all school learners
start with the same opportunity, but they either take advantage of these opportunities (achieve)
or squander them (underachieve).
Conflict theory and schooling (pages 43–46 in SoE)
As discussed in Learning Unit 10, conflict theory differs from functionalism and opposes a range
of the claims made by functionalist theorists. Bowles and Gintis (1976), two American theorists,
criticised functionalism for arguing that that schools promoted equality of opportunity learning
unity and suggested that schools in fact divided rather than learning united learners and tended
to reproduce or perpetuate the hierarchies found in capitalist society.
However, there is also some agreement between the two theories in that both theories see schools as
performing an important function in society and that education is linked to other social institutions
such as the economy.
Class consciousness, false consciousness and hegemony
Read through section 2.4.1.2.1 on page 44 of SoE.
Write down the following definitions:
Class consciousness:
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False consciousness:
Hegemony:
NB: Complete the activity on page 45 (section 2.4.1.2.3) of SoE. Numbers 1 and 3 of the activity
will help you to evaluate hegemony and class consciousness.
What is the hidden curriculum?

In addition to the formal curriculum in schools, there is also a hidden curriculum. The hidden
curriculum teaches learners to be disciplined, to know their place and to accept hierarchical
arrangements as normal. There is not a timetable slot teaching the hidden curriculum. Rather
its lessons are absorbed through, for example, observation and the disciplinary procedures in
schools.
87
Summarise the notion of the hidden curriculum and provide your own examples of how it operates
in schools.
96
88
Write two paragraphs comparing functionalism and conflict theory.
 Main claim: For example, conflict theory differs from functionalism because …
 Sub-claims: Follow this with sub-claims to back up the differences…… For example, schooling
reproduces class differences amongst learners whereas functionalists argue school is beneficial
to learners because ...
 Provide evidence or your own examples.
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Symbolic interactionism and schooling (pages 46–48 in SoE)
As discussed in Learning Unit 11, symbolic interactionism attempts to fill some of the gaps found in
macro-sociological theories, such as functionalism and conflict theory, by focusing on the interactions
and the micro encounters found in schools, for instance, between educators and learners.
According to Blumer (1969), a proponent of symbolic interactionism, the three main premises of
symbolic interactionism are the following:
 Human beings act or “take action” towards things based on the meanings that things have for
them. Such “things” are part of daily life and can be friends, family, school principals, or the
school as an institution. You will act in one way with a friend and in completely different way
in front of the school principal.
 Meaning is derived from interactions with other members of society.
 Meaning is shaped and changed by interpretation; people interpret symbols and their meanings.
If a parent shakes her head, it can be interpreted that she is saying “no”.
Within the school context, symbolic interactionism focuses on how educators and learners interpret
each other in small, subtle ways. For example, learners often can detect the mood of an educator
before that educator has uttered a word. Peter Woods (1983) has conducted classroom-based
research into coping through laughter. He observed how laughter was used in a variety of ways:
as a means of communication, self-expression, bargaining and strengthening social relationships
within the school milieu.
89
Read section 7.4.1.3 (page 46 in SoE) on the “principles of symbolic interactionism”, and explain
how these principles help us understand how learners construct meanings through interacting
with and interpreting their teachers. Provide examples of this process.
98
Recap Learning Units 9–12
Write short paragraphs explaining the following. Include relevant examples in your responses:
(1) Education is not a neutral zone divorced from the rest of society.
(2) Functionalism: Schooling is an integral part of the functioning of society and is interrelated
with other social systems.
(3) Conflict theory: Schools can advantage some students over others in relation to their social class.
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(4) Confl ict theory: Middle-class learners sometimes fit in better with the “culture”
of the school because schools themselves have a middle-class ethos.
(5) Symbolic interactionism: Learners are not passive and can construct their own meanings and
exercise agency.
Blumer, H. 1969. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Los Angeles: University of California
Press.
Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. 1976. Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the contradictions
of Economic Life. New York: Basic Books.
Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Woods, P. 1983. Coping at school through humour. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 4(2).
100
13
LEARNING UNIT
Citizenship education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 define and understand the concepts of democracy, citizenship and citizenship education
 provide an overview of the historical context of democracy, citizenship and citizenship education
 understand that citizenship education should be local and cosmopolitan in its goals and
perspectives.
NB: Learning Unit 13 links with Chapter 3: Citizen education
SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
 Ancient and modern concepts of citizenship
 History of South African citizenship
CONCEPTS
 Democracy
 Active citizenship
 Participation
 Responsibilities
 Curriculum
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
 United Kingdom
 United States of America
 South Africa
What next?
 The future of citizenship education in schools
Introduction
In this learning unit, we will examine what it means to be a citizen and what is understood by
citizenship education. How does this section cohere with the sociology of education? Political
sociologists have long been interested in the notion of state power and governmental activity.
However, power is a contested notion and it has been argued that power extends beyond the scope
of state, in that it permeates the smallest interactions of our lives and most certainly reaches the
intricacies of school organisation.
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There is a thread running through your sociology of education module which links individuals
and communities to larger social systems, such as education, the economy and the state or government.
Learning Unit 13 addresses in more detail what it means to be an active participant or citizen in a
democracy like South Africa. Chapter 3 in your prescribed book provides a historical account of the
concept of citizenship. This is followed by an overview of citizenship in three different countries,
including South Africa. It is proposed in the chapter that learning about democratic citizenship should
not be confined to the formal curriculum in schools, but should go beyond it. To be a citizen also
requires active community involvement and to be “politically literate”. The chapter also considers
South African citizenship and citizenship education in post-apartheid schools. Hence, an important
part of citizenship education is to develop ideas around human rights. The final section presents
a cosmopolitan view of citizenship and citizenship education.
Overview: Citizen education
We shall start off by considering some of the concepts found in the introduction. This will provide
a foundation for your understanding of the core issues in the chapter. The concepts will be further
elucidated as you read through the chapter. Some of the concepts, such as democracy, might already
be familiar to you.
90
Write down what you think these words mean:
 Democracy
 Citizen
 Citizenship education
 Curriculum
102
Read through the Introduction on page 52 (SoE) and expand on your previous responses above.
Historical context
(a) Ancient and modern concepts of citizenship

Mills C Wright (1959:3) argued that history is essential to an understanding of society. This section
demonstrates that history is not only about “the past”, but can help us understand how the past
has had an impact on educational decisions in the present. For instance, citizenship education in
South Africa has a strong emphasis on equality. This is a direct response to the segregation and to
redressing the inequalities of apartheid.
91
The following activities will assist you to start thinking about the past:
 Our sense of self often is rooted in family history. Many of us live with someone who is older
(perhaps a grandmother or an older sister). Consider how your family history has had an impact
on your identity.
ESC3701/1 103
 History can help us think about ways of rectifying past injustices, such as apartheid. However,
can we use history to aid reconciliation or will revisiting apartheid only create animosity and
conflict? Comment on this dilemma.
(b) History of South African citizenship from 1910 to 1996

Read pages 57 to 60 (SoE) and complete the activities.
92
Draw a timeline and plot the main dates and events described in this section. It does not need
to be depicted as linear (in a line), but you do need to start with the earliest date and then work
forward in time. You also need to be brief – just add the main events and their consequences.
This exercise will help you gain an outline of events and an understanding of what is known as
a “historical trajectory” (a module or a path). The timeline will also provide you with a summary
of events over 86 years.
Start 1910 ............ finish 1996.
Example:
1910 South African Union Government formed…..….next major event and date….. …next
event….
93
Read pages 57 to 60 in SoE. Write a short paragraph on why South Africa could not have been
considered a democracy before 1994.
NB: Follow up this exercise by completing the activity on page 60 of your prescribed textbook.
104
94
What is meant by citizenship education? (See page 61 in SoE).
Read section 3.4.1 on page 62 (SoE) and distinguish between the two types of citizenship education:
active and passive citizen education.
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Which type of citizenship education do you think is the better one for learners? Substantiate your
answer.
In the United Kingdom, citizenship education is taught to children between five and 11 years of
age. Discuss whether you think this is an appropriate intervention. Do you think learners are too
young to grasp the topic?
106
The programme of citizenship education continues into the senior phase in the United Kingdom
and is also encouraged in the United States of America. (See section 3.4.2, pages 63–65 in SoE.)
How do you imagine senior phase learners in South Africa would respond to community involvement
and political literacy?
NB: Complete the discussion section on page 65 in your prescribed textbook (SoE) which
covers the similarities and differences between the two countries.
95
Read section 3.4.3, page 65, on citizenship education in post-apartheid South Africa.
Why is it “unsurprising” that equal citizenship is emphasised in post-apartheid society?
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Also read the general aims of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (2012) (page 65
in SoE). With your knowledge of confl ict theory, do you think that South African learners “…
irrespective of their socio-economic background will develop skills and values necessary for self-
fulfilment and meaningful participation in society …”?
Answer the following questions:

Will some learners be “self-fulfilled” and others not because of inequalities in the school system?
Consider what you have learnt about agency and symbolic interactionism. Do learners in fact have
agency?
Can learners transcend their social disadvantages?
108
96
Explain why history and geography are important supporting subjects in the field of
citizenship education.
The future of citizenship education in South African schools
This section provides an argument for why it is important to think about the future of
citizenship education in South Africa. Note that the authors of this chapter are not being prescriptive
about the future. Instead they are questioning current thinking about citizenship.
97
Unpack the meaning of “to think globally, act locally”.
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What does it mean to use a cosmopolitan approach to citizenship education?
Is a cosmopolitan approach relevant to South African education? Briefly explain your position.
98
Argumentative essay:
Choose one of the following questions and present an argument (pros and cons) of approximately
one to two pages long:
1. With reference to your knowledge of functionalism and confl ict theory, do you think
citizenship education can help us to question the creation of a society of uncritical, compliant
citizens? (See pages 62–66 in SoE.)
OR
2. Can “democracy” be taught and learnt in schools?
OR
3. What makes a “good citizen”? Is it someone who complies with society’s norms or someone
who actively challenges society?
110
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112
To sum up:
In this learning unit, we have focused on why history is important when addressing social issues.
We have discussed the issue that citizenship education is a “good thing”, but it is also debatable
in that there is no one version of citizenship education. We have also addressed active and passive
approaches to citizenship education, such as “Can learners be taught to participate in a democracy
or are they taught to accept their political condition?”
Giddens, A. 2009. Sociology. 6th Edition. Cambridge: Polity Press. (Chapters 22 & 23).
Harper Collins. (Chapter 9).
Wright, MC. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. London: Oxford University Press.
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114
14
LEARNING UNIT
Diversity and culture in education
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After working through this Learning Unit, you will be able to:
 understand the notion of diversity

 understand the notion of identity
 appreciate that identities are not fixed and that they are socially shaped in that they depend
on social contexts and socialisation
 examine the complexities of culture
 view gender, race and social class from the perspectives of functionalism, conflict theory
and symbolic interactionism.
NB: Learning Unit 14 links with Chapter 4: Diversity and culture in education.
SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW
MAIN IDEAS
 Diversity
 Culture
 Identity
 Gender
 Race
 Social class
 Differentiation – stratification–inequalities – social justice
Introduction
Chapter 4 of SoE invites us to extend and apply many of the ideas that already have been covered
in this module. It examines the idea of culture and the issues of race, class and gender through
the perspectives of functionalism, confl ict theory and symbolic interactionism. The chapter also
responds to current changes and challenges in the educational field.
NB: The chapter contains a range of case studies and activities for you to engage with. The activities
need to be completed in conjunction with the exercises in the wrap-around guide.
Overview: Diversity and culture in education
Sociologists are critical of the perspective that we are born with and certain behavioural qualities,
that are innate. They argue that we become social beings by a process of socialisation. This means
that we learn norms and roles from others in society. We shall notice later in Learning Unit 14 that
we can also learn unacceptable negative traits, such as racism and sexism.
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Diversity:
99
As we have seen in Chapter 4, there are differences amongst groups, but there are also differences
in terms of how people are treated in societies. The South African White Paper on Education and
Training sets out the provision of equal opportunities for all, based on non-discrimination. (See
page 77 in SoE.)
Think about the issues addressed in the White Paper in relation to South African schooling. Are
there equal opportunities for all children before they even get to school?
10 0
Read the section: “What is diversity?” on page 77 (SoE).
Explain what is meant by “… enabling every member to perform to his or her potential.” (See page
77 in SoE.)
116
Think about this statement in relation to what you wrote in activity 99. Discuss.
NOTE
Synonyms for pluralism are heterogeneity and diversity. These words are applicable to societies
that are mixed in terms of, for example, language and ethnicity.
Social Identity:
Go back to chapter 2, page 35, in your prescribed text book (SoE) and re-examine
figure 2.1 (the ecological systems). Think about the “you” in that centre of the model. The model
indicates to us that our identity (the “you”) is interrelated with social forces, such as the school and
the political system. So, to put it another way, identity is contingent to society (contingent means
dependent on) and identity is relational, that is, humans exist in relation to other human beings and
in relation to their environments. Identity also contains many parts or dimensions that sometimes
can be held simultaneously even though they might seem contradictory. For example, you could be
a career person and be a mother and a daughter all at the same time. Your identity could change
too if, for example, you move from a rural area to an urban area.
NOTE
See page 79 (SoE) for a definition of socialisation. Primary socialisation takes place in the family
where the child learns language and behaviour acceptable to society. Schools are particularly
important conveyors of what is known as secondary socialisation. However, socialisation
continues throughout one’s life and reflects how an individual is shaped, for example, by
interactions with peers and the media.
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101
How do functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism perceive the socialisation process?
Identity:
In Learning Unit 10, you wrote a narrative paragraph in relation to conflict theory. Re-read your
narrative paragraph. Now write a paragraph using what you now know about the concept of
“identity”.
118
Reflect on your narrative paragraph:
What do I know now about the Explain …

concept “identity” that I did not
know before?
Can I explain my own identity Explain …

better than I could before?
Have any of my ideas about my Explain …

identity changed since I started
this module?
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102
Read the paragraph on identity and socialisation seen from the perspective of the three sociological
theories you have covered (page 81 in SoE). Also refer to the recommended readings.
All three theories would argue that our identities are socially constructed. However, can you detect
any differences in their arguments? Discuss.
Culture:
Read the section on pages 82 to 83 in SoE. Answer the questions following the case study on page
29. Then do the activity below.
103
“To a large degree, culture determines how members of society think and feel: it directs their actions
and defines their outlook on life. Culture defines acceptable ways of behaving for members of a
particular society” (Haralambos & Holborn 2013:5).
From the above quote, do you think “culture” is a good or a bad thing for society? Sketch a scenario
from your own life depicting how culture can either a) enable you or b) control you.
120
What role do schools play in the conveyance of culture?
Social stratification:
Sociologists use the concept of social stratification to describe inequalities that exist between
individuals and groups within human societies. We often think of “stratification” in terms of the
amount of money and property we own: Some people are better off than others and are in a different
social “class”. However, stratification can also occur because of other factors such as gender, age,
religion, et cetera. Social stratification is often linked to life chances (or the lack of life chances)
and to inequalities found in society.
104
Read through section 4.5.3 on page 85 in SoE.
Draw out the differences between the closed and the open system of ranking in society. Describe
how these two systems work in the South African context.
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105
“All societies in the world have a way of categorising their own people and ranking them accordingly.”
(See page 84 in SoE.)
Think about how categorisation and ranking systems work in your own community and in broader
society. What ranking systems do you find in the following areas:
Family:
School:
Workplace:
Now think about how ranking can create inequalities in the above three social structures. Discuss.
122
Gender:
There is an argument that differences between men and women are innate (we are born with them).
Hence, the size of our brains, our hormones and so on all contribute to differences between men
and women. Sociologists take a different route to understanding gender differences. They argue that
gender roles are learnt through a process of socialisation and gender identities are shaped by the
family, by schools and by the media in society. Central to the sociological position is the argument
that gender differences are not “natural” – rather they are socially formed.
106
Find definitions for the following on page 86 (SoE):
Biological:
Gender:
Gender differentiation:
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Gender stratification:
Construction of gender:
107
We have seen that gender is a socially created concept which assigns different roles and identities
to men and women. Discuss why gender differences are not neutral and how gender can have a
significant impact on who gets what in society.
108
Answer the following questions. Write one paragraph per response.
Is the structure of schooling in South Africa gendered? If so, how?
124
Do girls and boys have equal opportunities in schools?
Do girls form subcultures in schools? If so, do you think these subcultures perpetuate or challenge
gender discrimination?
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109
Read through the guidelines for gender-fair teaching on page 87 (SoE).
How would you draw on these guidelines if you were a teacher in a school?
Explain why there might be problems with the implementation of some of the guidelines.
Imagine that you have the power to change gender discrimination in schools. From a gender
perspective, what solutions would you have to improve the life chances of learners?
126
110
Argument: In a well-constructed argument of not more than two pages, respond to the following
question (see argument structure in Activity 74, Learning Unit 11 in wrap-around guide).
Is the South African school curriculum biased in terms of gender? Discuss.
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128
Race:
Is race socially constructed or is it innate? The section on pages 88 to 89 of your prescribed textbook
(SoE) covers the sociological perspective on race and argues that although we are born with
biological features (bodies and brains), the notion of “race” is socially constructed. The argument
follows that racism (prejudice against races) is also socially constructed. Sociologists argue that
people are not born racist, but are socially shaped to hold beliefs and ideologies based on racial
prejudice. Racism can also be historically traced and because of our segregated past, racism is a
crucial human rights and social justice concern in South Africa.
111
Read the following quote:
“In fact, a recent work on the Human Genome Project has shown there is more reason now
than ever before to argue that there is only one “race” and that is the “human race”. All human
beings share the same basic genetic makeup and are different only in a fraction of a percentage.
The Genome Project shows that there is no gene for “race” and that all we have is a gene for skin
pigmentation” (Carrim 2006:60).
What are your thoughts on the above statement? Can the idea of “race” be questioned?
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112
Assimilation: This process can be seen in schools to this day. Are learners obliged to fit into an
existing school system, which does not always consider race, class and gender concerns? What are
your thoughts on this topic?
Social class:
113
We have covered social class in previous learning units when we addressed conflict theory. Try to
recall what Karl Marx and Max Weber proposed about social class in capitalist societies. Jot down
the main points.
130
Once you have done this, read pages 90 to 91 in SoE.
Conflict theory
114
Answer the following questions in paragraph form:
Functionalists propose that society is homogenous. What criticisms could be directed towards this
account of society?
According to Bowles and Gintis, which class group is privileged in the schooling system?
ESC3701/1 131
4. Do schools sustain the interests of ruling, financially secure groups in society?
5. Social class and access to housing and schooling often go hand in hand. If you have a privileged
position in society, the chances are you will have access to good housing and schools. If you come
from an underprivileged position in society, your access to material benefits such as education
might be severely curtailed. Argue your position.
132
115
Study the diagram below. In one page, sum up this Learning Unit by explaining why gender, social
class and race are considered as interrelated by sociologists as indicated.
ESC3701/1 133
116
Argument: “Access to schooling is largely dependent on race, class and gender.” See page 92 in
SoE. What are your thoughts on this statement? Do you agree or disagree with it? Write a paragraph
or two briefly outlining your position and substantiating your points of view.
134
Recommended readings: Learning unit 14
Ballantine, J., Hammock, FM. & Stuber, J. 2017. A Sociology of Education. A Systematic Analysis. London/
New York: Routledge
Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. 1976, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions
of Economic Life. New York: Basic Books.
Carrim, N. 2006. Exploring Human Rights Education. British Council. Cape Town.
Giddens, A. 2009. Sociology, 6th Edition. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Harper Collins.
CONCLUSION
As you worked through the sociology of education module, you will have noticed that mass schooling
is a vital component of modern, industrialised societies, and that schools and broader society are
interdependent. The sociological perspectives that were introduced to you in the module have
enhanced your understanding of education and have assisted you to gain insight into your own
practice as future teachers. Therefore, the discipline, sociology of education, comprises a range of
theoretical perspectives, while the application of sociological concepts to schooling encouraged you to
analyse educational systems, and led you to identify the merits and demerits of the various theories
from an informed position. In addition, the module introduced you to the ecological systems model
of the school, which demonstrated the interrelationships between components of society, starting
with the individual and expanding into the dimension of time. The module provided an overview
of citizenship education, which included historical perspectives on schooling and emphasised the
importance of citizenship education to assist learners to grasp democratic principles. Finally, the
last chapter and its allied exercises on diversity included the issues of race, class and gender, all of
which are central to current debates in education.
ESC3701/1 135

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SECTION B: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION 39

Prof Philip Higgs

 discuss the relationship between philosophy and education

PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

 What is philosophy for? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlYdx6lDDhg)

 What is education? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSqrPsgCuOw)

 What is philosophy of education? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ml95d6kJ4kc)

 discuss the relationship between philosophy and education

Are you able to do this?

African philosophy and education

 in African philosophy, and

 What is African philosophy? (pages 14–15).

 African Philosophy: Dr. Reginald Oduor, Part 1 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQQPurqxAIc)

 African philosophy and education (pages 17–21).

Read the following article:

 Read the following section in PET: Communality in education (pages 19–21).

Read the following article:

 the main ideas of African Philosophy

Are you able to do this?

Empiricism and education

 the main ideas of empiricism

Empiricism focuses on two issues, namely:

By way of clarification when reflecting on empiricism, consider the following:

 Education and empiricism (pages 35–36).

Interesting article and YouTube links for noting:

 Empiricism and education (pages 38–40).

 the main ideas of empiricism

Are you able to do so?

Phenomenology and education

 main ideas of phenomenology

 What is phenomenology? (pages 54–56).

 Phenomenology and education (page 57).

 Phenomenology and education (page 57).

 Phenomenology and FAQ’s (pages 60–61).

 the main ideas of phenomenology

Are you able to do this?

Hermeneutics and education

 the main ideas of hermeneutics

What are the four key words in these descriptions of hermeneutics?

Read the following section in PET:

 What is hermeneutics (pages 64–65).

Watch the following YouTube links for noting:

 What is Hermeneutics? (https://youtu.be/R4XWlgX7HLE)

 Ken Wilber’s work in hermeneutics (pages 65–67).

 Hans-Georg Gadamer (pages 68–69)

 Gadamer, H-G. 2001. Education as self-education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 35(4):529–538.

 Hermeneutics and education (page 68).

Read the following articles for noting:

 Hermeneutics and education (page 68).

 the main ideas of hermeneutics

Are you able to do this?

Critical theory and education

 the main ideas of critical theory

Read the following section in PET:

 What is critical theory? (pages 87–88).

Watch the following YouTube links for noting: