UNIT - I

1. Introduction to Computer Graphics

1.1 Introduction-Definition 1.2 Application areas of Computer Graphics.
1.3 Advantages of computer graphics. 1.4 Graphical user interface.
1.5 Random scan displays, Raster scan displays
1.6 Display devices: Cathode Ray Tubes, Color CRT monitors, Direct View Storage Tube.
1.7 Plotter. 1.8 Joystick, light pen.
UNIT - II
2. Raster Scan Graphics and Transformation:
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Line, Line Segment
2.3 Line drawing algorithms – a. Digital Differential Algorithm, b. Bresenham’s line algorithm
2.4 Two dimensional transformation 2.5 Matrix representation. 2.6 Translation.
2.7 Rotation. 2.8 Scaling. 2.9 Reflection 2.10 Shear
UNIT - III
3. Segmented Display Files and Clipping and Windowing:
3.1 Segment table. 3.2 Functions for segmenting display file 3.3 Posting & unposting segments
3.4 Segment naming scheme 3.5 Default error conditions 3.6 Appending to segments
3.7 Viewing transformation 3.8 2-D clipping 3.9 Simple visibility algorithm
3.10 End point codes 3.11 Midpoint subdivision algorithm
3.12 Polygon clipping algorithm (Sutherland-Hodgman algorithm)
UNIT - IV
4. Geometric Models and Simple Graphics Package:
4.1 Simple modeling example 4.2 Geometric modeling
4.3 Symbols & instances 4.4 Implementation of Instance transformation
4.5 Ground rules for graphics s/w design 4.6 Function domains
4.7 Graphics primitives 4.8 Windowing function
4.9 Example-a graph plotting program 4.10 Implementation of the functions
presenting the generated output in visual
UNIT - I form.
1. Introduction to Computer Graphics - Computer and computer like devices may be
1.1 Introduction-Definition - As per the using different types of interfaces like:
universal principal , every computer and computer like o CLI
device works on I-P-O cycle. o GUI
- for any computer software, it is necessary to - In both cases, computer graphics play important
show or display the generated output to user. role to complete the job of displaying output in
- To complete this task of showing generated visual form.
output on any output device, computer graphics - In simple words, Computer graphics can be
technology is useful. defined as “technique of pictorial
- Computer Graphics can be defined as : representation of data on any output device”.
Computer technology to create, store and - Computer graphics, to represent data, uses
manipulate pictures, images on a display device. pictures or images which can be 2-Dimensional
- or 3-Dimensional.
- Computer Graphics is branch of Computer - To complete the job of representing output in
science or one of the computer technology visual forms, computer graphics uses different
which deals with components like:
accessing, o Hardware –
processing  output hardwares like VDU,
transforming & LED, printer, plotters, etc,

1
  storage hardwares – Hard disk and present different documents using text,
drives, flash memory, etc tables, graphs, images, pictures, etc.
o Software – different types of image - For this, many office automation softwares
processing softwares like Auto CAD, (MS-Word, Excel, Lotus Pro, Powerpoint) and
MATLAB, etc DTP softwares (Coral Draw, Page Maker,
o Algorithms – different graphics Photoshop, etc) are commonly used which
processing algorithms like Bresenham requires computer graphics.
Algorith, Sutherland algorithm, etc 4. Computer Aided Drafting and design – This
- Working of Computer graphics can be field of uses Computer graphics to design
classified as; components for different systems like electrical
o One-Way Communication – In old days, mechanical, electro-mechanical, automobile
Computer Graphics was working only in parts, structure of building, airplane, ships,
One-Way communication mode. E.g. VLSI Chips, optical systems, computer
Digital Clock at railway station, digital network, etc
display boards, etc. 5. Simulation and animation- C.G is commonly
- Two- Way communication - due to recent used to design models for mathematic and
advancement in computer and hardware mechanical system in more realistic forms.
technologies, now it is working in Two-Way - It also uses help of interactive animation to
Communicating modes also. produce animated and cartoon movies.
- In this user can provide input in graphical form 6. Art and commerce- C.G in this field, helps to
& also gets output in graphics form. user to crate artistic pictures to express
E.g.ATM Screen, Smart phone screen, messages for more attention.
etc. - Such pictures are needed in commercial market
for better advertising.
1.2 Application areas of Computer Graphics 7. Process control – With the help of computer
- As Computer Graphics is one of the important graphics, it is possible to design process model
field of computer technology, it is widely used/applied of various industrial departments like
in different fields of society like production, manufacturing, logistics, etc.
Industry - With the help of remote access such control can
Business be easily controlled and monitored.
Government organizations 8. Cartography – C.G. also used to present
Education field different types of maps like geographic maps,
Entertainment & weather maps, oceanographic charts, contour
Home & domestic field maps, population density maps, rainfall maps,
- Some very common application areas of crop production maps etc
Computer graphics are 9. Motion Dynamics(user and object both
1. User Interfaces – for any software it is moving) – C.G. can be used to show user and
necessary to provide user friendly interface so object location by collecting movement of both.
that any user can understand it and use it easily. E.g GPS location.
- Hence, now a days graphical interfaces are 10. Update dynamics - C.G. is used to show how
commonly designed with user controls like the different properties of an object like it’s
buttons, menus, icons, scroll bars, etc. shape, size, color, etc can be changed during the
2. Plotting of graphics and chart – for any running process.
organization preparing and presenting different
types of activities is common. 1.3 Advantages of computer graphics.
- Different functions like mathematical, physical - Due to it’s power and efficiency, field of
and economical functions to be presented in computer graphics provides many advantages
histograms, bars, pie-charts, etc. like
- For these operations, Computer graphics is very 1. Communicating with computer – due to
commonly required. graphical interface, for any user it becomes
3. Office automation and desktop publishing – easy to interact with computer software to
for many organizations it is required to create perform different tasks, e.g. ATM
2
 2. Producing pictures – C.G. provides o Less memory.
powerful tools which helps to produce real- - But also it show following disadvantages –
world objects, 4D-synthetic objects, o It is difficult to use, understand
3. Animation and interactive graphics - o Time consuming
C.G. helps to produce moving pictures with o Error prone, etc
background i.e. Animation. - To solve these problems, instead of CLI, it is
- It also can interact with user to make it more more recommended to use GUI.
user friendly. - GUI – it is an graphical interactive interface in
4. Animation control - C.G. tool can also be which user is presented with all the features on
used to control the animation by adjusting screen and user can select the required option.
speed, background, foreground area, color. - It uses many graphical components like
etc o Icons
5. Motion Dynamics(user and object both o Menus
moving) – C.G. can be used to show user o Images
and object location by collecting movement o Buttons, etc
of both. E.g GPS location. - GUI presents all the features of software to user
6. Update dynamics - C.G. is used to show in graphical form.
how the different properties of an object - Due to this, user can select the required option
like it’s shape, size, color, etc can be to complete task e.g.
changed during the running process.
7. DSP – Digital Signal Processing
- Digital signals of audio and video can be
processed to make high-end visual, e.g.
advertisements, VFX (Visual Effects)
8. Environment simulation – virtual
environment can be created to train people -
- In Notepad like application, to create a new file,
(military org) and different chemical user will just click on New option in File menu.
industries where no human can work. - GUI uses following components:
o Mouse Pointer – it is arrow shape moving
1.4 Graphical user interface. symbol in GUI which helps user to move and
- When a software is developed, it must enable user to select the required option.
interact with it. o Selection and pointing device – it is one
- If user interacts with software, then only, the software hardware device like Mouse, Trackball, etc
will be in use. o Icons – it is mall size image show
- In computers field, the technique using which user corresponding action like
and software interacts with each other, is called
interface.
- in simple words, interface can also be defined as an
working environment of that software.
- This interface, based on working environment, can be
classified in following types:- o Desktop – it is the display screen where other
CLI components can be displayed.
GUI Advantages
- In CLI, to complete each and every task, user must - It is easy to understand
type proper command in proper format and in correct - It is easy to learn and use
spelling e.g. DOS - Time saving
- To create a new file, following cmd must by - Less chances of error
typed: - Can generate more interest in user
C:\> copy con f1.txt <Enter> - User friendly software can be created.
- CLI Interface shows following advantages: Dis-Advantages –
o It needs very less or minimum hardware - Requires more advance and costly softwares.
components. - Requires more memory
3
 4. X & Y Deflect – when the electrons are travelling as
1.6 Display devices: Cathode Ray Tubes, beam, there are great chances that these electron beam
Color CRT monitors, Direct View Storage Tube. may get deflected or diverted and may causes poor
- With computer systems, as like input devices, it is display.
also necessary to use output devices also called display - to avoid this X & Y Deflect components are used to
devices. properly guide the electron to travel and hit the
- these devices are responsible for showing or phosphor spot.
displaying output produced by processor. 5. Phosphor coated screen - in CRT monitor, the
- these devices are also called Screen / Monitor or backside of glass is coated with a chemical material i.e.
VDU (Visual Display Unit). phosphor.
- the different types of display devices in use are : - - This Phosphor is one chemical compound which has
1) CRT 2. Color CRT the property to glow and reflect light when electron hit
3) DVST it.
 Cathode Ray Tube – - when appropriate sports of phosphor coats are hit be
- It is one of most commonly used primary output electrons then those spots start glowing and reflects the
devices used with computers or any graphics system. light so that user can see the output.
- since the beginning of the computer systems till date
CRT monitors are commonly used output devices.  Color CRT Monitors
- the working of CRT can be given as:- - Color CRT monitors are mainly used to
show/display output in colors.
- In this also, the screen is coated with phosphor,
but this phosphor is in combination of colors.
- Color CRT working uses one of the following
technique
1. Beam Penetration 2. Shadow Mask
1. Beam Penetration – It uses random scan technique
to display any output on screen
- In this, the monitor uses two layers of colored
phosphor, one is red and other is green.

- The intermediate layer between green and red forms

orange and yellow colors.
- The screen is coated inside, the first layer close to
- following are the different components used with electron gun is red and second is green phosphor coat.
CRT - Output in which color to be shown is dependent on
1. Connector pins – these pins are use to establish how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor
electric power supply connection between CRT and coat.
switch board. - output in which color to be displayed is totally
2. Electron Gun – as soon as electric power supply is dependent on speed of electron beam generated by
on, this part starts emitting electrons. electron gun as:
- These electrons hit the phosphor dots to produce
output. - Electron beam with low speed - such beam can strike
3. Control Grid Voltage – this part is useful to turn only red layer and hence the output will be displayed
ON or OFF the electron beam. only in red color.
- When needed, it turns on the beam and once the task
of display is over, it turns OFF the beam. - Electron beam with medium speed – such beam can
4. Focusing System – this component helps the strike and pass-through red layer but cannot strike
electron beam to hit proper spots of phosphor so that green layer hence gives output in orange and yellow
proper output can be displayed. color.
- it also helps to display and re-display the output on
screen.

4
- Electron beam with high speed – such beam can - Hard copy – When the generated output is
penetrate red layer and also strikes to green layer hence printed on paper or any other printing material, it
can produce output n green color. makes hardcopy.
- for this, different hardware are available like Printer,
Advantages – plotter, etc.
i. As compare to B/w CRT, it gives more colored - computers and computers like systems, uses two
output. types of graphics:
ii. More graphical and user friendly output can be 1. Raster Graphics – It is also known as
displayed. bitmaps.
iii. Relatively in-expensive - In this is made of individual pixel of color
Disadvantages combination.
i. Only four colors can be produced. Eg. JPG, GIF, PNG etc.
ii. Output quality is poor. - As it is purely created using collection of pixels,
2. Shadow Masking- hence quality of picture depends on number of pixels,
- Shadow mask method in Color CRT uses Raster-Scan more the pixels , quality will be high.
Display technique to produce high quality output. - As the number of pixels are fixed, hence when image
- The working of Shadow masking can be given as: is enlarged, there are chances that, it may get distorted.
In this 3 separate Electron Guns are used, one of Red, 2. Vector Graphics - in this, instead of pixels,
second for Green and third for Blue electron beam. the picture data is stored in the form of mathematical
- The screen is coated with phosphor which can emits formula i.e Vector
red, green or blue light as per the electron beam. e.g.
in C Lang program if line or circle to be drawn,
following function with formula can be used:
DVST circle(int x,int y,int radius)
if a line to be drawn following vector/formula can be
used
line(int x1,int y1,int x3,int 2)
- Hence whenever such image is displayed, it executes
such vector/formula to give output.
- As it is not dependent on pixels, it gives high
resolution.
- Whenever such vector graphics to be shown it
executes the formula to draw the image.
e.g. CorelDraw, InkSpace like commercially used
graphics softwares creates such vector graphics.
- Though, plotter is like, printer, but they both shows
following considerable differences:
Printer Plotter
https://www.goeduhub.com/10442/direct-view-storage-
- Uses Toner to print - Uses pen, pencil,
tubes-dvst
marker to print.
- Uses collection of - Uses multiple
1.5 Random scan displays, Raster scan
dots to print continuous lines to
displays print
- Can print on small - Can print on large
size of paper like sheets.
1.7 Plotter. A3, A4, Legal, etc
- Computer graphics deals with displaying output in
both forms either - Plotter in market available in following types:
- Soft copy – digital output on screen. For this 1. Drum Plotter – in this a drum is used on which
different display devices like CRT, LCD, LED, etc can paper is rolled to print.
be used.

5
 - It uses single or multiple pens to print on paper
by moving in left to right as well as top to
bottom directions.
2. Flatbed Plotter – in this, one or more pens are
used to draw any graphics.
- It can be used by keeping on table. It gives flat
surface on which paper is kept to print.
- Plotter can be used to draw
- Cars, ships, airplanes
- Shoe and dress designs
- Road and highway design
- Huge building designs etc
Advantages – can give hardcopy output of large size
on large size sheets with high resolution.
 can print on different flat materials like plywood, - Different types of joysticks are available in
aluminum sheet, cardboard, plastic, flex banner, market like
etc can produce graphics on various size - Digital Joystick
Disadvantages - expensive - Paddle Joystick
- Analog Joystick
1.8 Joystick, - PC Analog Joystick
- C.G deals with high quality output, but to get such - Joypad
output proper input is also necessary. - Due to it’s advantageous features, joystick can be
- With computer different input devices are used, these useful in many applications like
input devices are broadly classified as: Gaming applications
1. Manual Data Entry – Keyboard, Mouse, Cranes, trucks, wheelchairs
Joystic, Light Pen, Touch screen, etc Industrial machines
2. Direct Data Entry – Scanner, Barcode reader,
MICR, OCT, etc 1.9 light pen.
- Joystick is one input device that is commonly for - A light pen is light-sensitive point and selecting inut
manual data entry. device.
- Joystick also called as Control Column - It is mainly used to highlight text, object on screen
- it is specifically used in gaming application, graphics and also to alter data on screen.
applications, etc. - It allows user to interact with user different options
- It was invented at U.S.Naval Research Laboratry by available on screen with more accuracy.
C.B.Mirick. - It is used with any CRT based display with required
It mainly consist of a stick and base. software for light pen installed in it.
Stick – which can be rotated in any direction and - Light pen was originally developed at
can help to move the cursor for pointing and selection. Massachusetts Institute of Tech during 1955 to
Base – consist of two potentiometers, one for X 1960 for Military Airspace Surveillance.
and one for Y axis and different function buttons like - This light pen now in market is available for both
Forward types of terminals / monitors like
Back o Text-only terminals
Side o Graphics terminals
- Apart from these basic functions, joystick also - The light pen works by detecting the change in
have other advance functions also. brightness of nearby pixels, which indicates that
the CRT's electron beam is scanning in that area.
- It then sends the timing of this event to the
computer.
- Due to this, time at when light pen is touched and
time when electron beam hit the screen is
compared to decide the selected pixel.

6
 - Tell recently, light pen was very commonly used as i) Horizontal Retrace -
stylus with many smart phones and other touch- - After finishing scanning of one line, the electron beam is
sensitive devices. returned to left side to scan next line.
- Light Pen gives many advantages ii) Vertical retrace – once all the lines are scanned,
1. Precision Selection tool – the options on GUI the beam moves back to top left corner.
can be very accurately selected. - Thus, this display technique uses set or collection
2. Light Artistic Application – due to this of pixels to show picture or image hence the image
applications to be used in the field of Arts like formed as Raster image.
drawing, sketching, Cartoon, etc can be - In Raster scanning, two types of scanning is
developed and can be easily used. possible-
3. Minimizes Desk Space – as it takes very less a) Interlaced Scanning b) Non-interlaced scanning
space as oppose to keyboard, it requires a) Interlaced Scanning – In this each horizontal line is
minimum space on desk. scanned from top to bottom.
- It may cause, display fading of output object.
1.5 Random scan displays, Raster scan displays b) Non-interlaced scanning – in this alternate
scanning is done, in first phase only all odd
- C.G deals with operation of giving output or displaying numbered lines are scanned and then even
output on output device. numbered lines are scanned.
- This display technique can be of following types – Advantages :-
1. Raster Scan - Raster scan gives realistic image.
2. Random Scan - Million of different colors can be used to give
1. Raster Scan – In this technique of display, electron output.
beam is swept/moved on whole screen. - Shadow scenes are possible.
- this movement is one row at a time from top to bottom Dis Advantage:-
and left to right. - Image displayed may suffer from Low Resolution
- as the electron beams moves, beam intensity is turned on - It is expensive
or off to create output pattern by glowing the spot. 2) Random Scan
- In this a special type of memory is used i.e. Refresh Buffer - In this technique, the electron beam is moved or allow to
of Frame Buffer. strike only to the part of the screen where the picture is to
- This Refresh Buffer or Frame Buffer is used to store : be displayed.
 output or picture definition which is to be - As in this only selected pointes are scanned, hence it is
displayed. also called Vector display or Stroke Writing Display or
 Set of intensity for screen points. Calligraphic Display.
- It also used “Scanline” technique to read above values - The picture to be displayed, it’s definition is stored as set
and draw output on screen. of line-drawing commands.
- To draw the output on screen the smallest unit used is - These line drawing commands are stored in a special
Pixel which is also called picture-element or pel. memory area called Refresh Display File.
- in cyclic fashion all the display writing commands are
executed to give the output.
- It can display the output by drawing the output 30 to 60
times per second.
- Instead of moving electron beam on whole screen, it is
moved only to selected points using X and Y co-ordinates.
- As in this, to display output, specific calculations are
carried out hence this display is called Vector Display.

Advantages –
- Raster Scan also involves following two supporting - Only selected part of screen can be scanned.
techniques:- - Produce line and other drawing.
7
 - High resolution
Dis Advantage –
- Can not display realistic shades scenes.

8
 UNIT - II
Raster Scan Graphics and Transformation:
2.1 Introduction
- Raster Scan graphics is most common type of
graphics monitor which uses CRT.
- It is based on television technology.
- In raster scan system electron beam sweeps across - the end point of original line and it’s segment can be
the screen, from top to bottom covering one row at a same but the Origin points are different.
time. e.g.
- A pattern of illuminated pattern of spots is created
by turning beam intensity on and off as it moves
across each row.
- A memory area called refresh buffer or frame
buffer stores picture definition.
- This memory area holds intensity values for all
screen points.
-Stored intensity values are restored from frame buffer
and painted on screen taking one row at a time. e.g. of C Prog
- Each screen point is referred to as pixels. #include <graphics.h>
- In raster scan systems refreshing is done at done at a #include <conio.h>
rate of 60-80 frames per second.
- The return to the left of screen after refresh of each main()
scan line is known as horizontal retrace of electron {
beam. At the end of each frame electron beam returns int gd = DETECT, gm;
to top left corner and begins the next frame.
- Transformation is a process of modifying and re- //init graphics
positioning the existing graphics. initgraph(&gd, &gm, "d:/Tc/BGI");
line(100,100,200,100); //will draw a horizontal line
2.2 Line, Line Segment getch();
closegraph();
* Line – C.G deals with showing different types of
return 0;
output such as text, numbers, images, pictures and also
}
drawing shapes like line, circle, rectangle, etc.
- Line, in computer graphics is collection or set of 2.3 Line drawing algorithms –
points. - Line is one of the most basic drawing object to be
- Every line has one origin or start point & one end drawn on output screen.
point. - While drawing a line, every line drawing algorithm
- Between these two points the number of pixels or uses a special process i.e. Rasterization.
points collected is used to determine the length of line. - It means selecting some specific pixels for drawing
- In other words, the distance between origin and end which are best to draw the line.
points is called length of line. - While drawing lines following factors are always
* Line Segment – A piece or part of whole line, it important :-
represents the line segment.  straight line must appear as straight line.
- A line segment also have it’s own origin and end  line must start and end accurately.
points.  displayed line must use constant brightness
- These points of line segment shows following  line must be drawn rapidly
characteristics
- the origin point of original line and it’s a) Digital Differential Algorithm
segment can be same but the end points are different. - This algorithm follows incremental method to draw
e.g. the given line.
- It increments number of points on co-ordinates step-
by-step.

9
- It calculates and considers the difference between X 5 1 4
& Y co-ordinate.
- Based on this difference slope of line can be decided. -Based on above points, if the line is drawn it will be:
- The difference is calculated using following formula
as:
Δx=x2-x1
Δy=y2-y1
- This algorithm will calculate the above difference
using:

Source End Δx Δy
0,0 1,1 0 0
1,1 1,1 0 0 - Thus in above set, the difference is greater than zero
1,2 2,1 1 -1 (>0), hence it will draw vertical straight line.

- DDA algorithm considers following different Set :3 

possibilities with different sets to draw the line: X Y Diff
(x-y)
Set :1  1 1 0
x Y Diff 2 2 0
(x-y) 3 3 0
1 1 0 4 4 0
1 2 -1 5 5 0
1 3 -2
1 4 -3 -Based on above points, if the line is drawn it will be:
1 5 -4

-Based on above points, if the line is drawn it will be:

- Thus in above set, the difference is equal to zero

(=0), hence it will draw a slanted line.
- The DDA Algorithm can be given as:
DDA_ALGO
1. Start
2. Initialize set for x and y points
3. Lot the graph for given points
4. Calculate Δd=x-y
5. Confirm the shape of line based on difference
- Thus in above set, the difference is less than zero 6. If Δd <0 then:
(<0), hence it will draw horizontal straight line. Draw Horizontal straight line
Else if Δd>0 then:
Set :2  Draw Vertical straight line
X Y Diff Else if Δd=0 then:
(x-y) Draw slanted line.
1 1 0 7. stop
2 1 1
3 1 2 b) Bresenham’s line algorithm
4 1 3
10
- The DDA algorithm for drawing line is having it’s - While selecting the next pixel, this algorithm also
own advantages and also some limitations. considers “error factor” if there are multiple candidate
- The biggest limitation of DDA is it may generate pixels.
fractional numbers during calculations which will be - Only such optimum pixel will be selected based on
ignored. error factor to draw the line.
- To overcome these limitations, “Jack Elton - The above process is repeated till all the points are
Bresenham” in 1962 introduced this new Algorithm plotted between two end points i.e. P & Q.
for line drawing. - The Bresenham algorithm can be given as
- This algo is developed to work for both digital plotter Step 1- initialize the end points P & Q
and CRT devices. Step 2- calculate the line slope using m=dy/dx
Main Goal - Step 3- select the current pixel Xk,Yk
- The main goal of this algorithm to select the optimum Step 4- calculate error factor to find distance for grid
raster locations that represent a straight line. line.
Working Principle – Step 5- select the next pixel Xk+1,Yk+1.
i) It uses integer calculations including Addition, Step 6- Repeat the steps 3,4,5 till the end point is
Subtraction and Multiplication. reached.
ii) To draw a straight line, increment one unit of point
either in x or y direction depending on the slope of line.
- This algorithm also considers – concept of error –
i.e. distance between actual line and the nearest grid
location. 2.4 Two dimensional transformation
 Working of the Bresenham's Algorithm - Computer graphics, this technique is to:
Suppose we have to draw a line PQ with coordinates P - showing the output on display devices
(x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2). - provide the facility of viewing object from
- To draw the line using Breshenam's line drawing different angles.
algorithm, first of all, calculate the slope of the line - For this purpose, CG provides many operations and
from the given coordinates as: one such operations is 2-D Transformation.
m = dy/dx - Transformation is to convert the given graphics into
Where,
dx = x2 - x1 some other graphics.
dy = y2 - y1 - This process is applied on 2 D image or output.
- 2D image or output one such output in which each
pixel is identified by it’s two dimensions like x,y co-
ordinates.
- 2D transformation can be defined as-

- 2D Transformation can be of following types

i) Geometric Transformation: In this, only the
display object is moving while the background is
static. E.g.
Moving the automobile while keeping the
background fixed.

ii) Coordinate Transformation: In this, only

the background is moving while the display object is
fixed. E.g.
the car fixed while moving the background
- Thus, as per above algorithm, the first selected pixel scenery.
is
P1 with co-ordinates P1(Xk,Yk) -The different types of transformations supported are
the next possible pixel will be P2(Xk+1,Yk+1) 1. Translation
2. Scaling
3. Rotating
11
 4. Reflection horizontal X coordinate with distance r from the
5. Shearing origin.

2.6 Translation .

- It is one type of 2D transformation applied on any

display object.
- Translation is process by which display object is
moved from one position to another in straight line.
- Due to this, the display object is repositioned from
one coordinate location to other location.
- In translation, following factors are considered-
Current coordinate position – x,y
The new coordinate position – x1,y1
- The distance from current location to new location is
called Translation distance. - Let us suppose, if we want to rotate it at the
- This translation distances for x and y points can be angle θ. After rotating it to a new location, we
given as Tx and Ty will get a new point P’ X′,Y′
- For translation from current position to another, this
translation distance can represented as 2.8 Scaling.
x1=x+Tx - Scaling is one type of 2D transformation
y1=y+Ty process by which the size of display object is
- When the translation pair Tx,Ty is calculated shift changed.
vector. - In the scaling process, dimensions of object
- Let P is a point with coordinates (x, y). It will be either can be expanded/increased or decreased.
translated as (x1 y1). - Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the
original coordinates of the object with the
scaling factor to get the desired result.
- Let us assume that the original coordinates
are X,Y the scaling factors are (SX, SY), and the
produced coordinates are X′,Y'.
- This can be mathematically represented as
shown below −
- X' = X . SX and Y' = Y . SY
- The scaling factor SX, Sy scales the object in X
and Y direction respectively.
- The above equations can also be represented in
matrix form as below –

- OR
2.7 Rotation .
o P’ = P . S
- Rotation is one type of 2D transformation - Where S is the scaling matrix. The scaling
process by which the display object can be process is shown in the following figure.
viewed in different angle.
- In rotation, the object is rotated at particular
angle θ theta from its origin.
- From the following figure, we can see that the
point PX,Y located at angle φ from the

12
 - The points of original object on X and Y axis
can be given as

a  3,3
b 7,3
c 5,8
- The points of reflected image on X and Y axis
can be given as

a'  3,-3
b’ 7,-7
c’ 5,-8
-
2. Reflection about the y-axis - in this, value of y
remains same, but the value of x becomes
- From above following can be concluded:-
negative.
i) If scaling factor S is less than 1, then size of the
object is reduced.
ii) If scaling factor S is greater than 1, then the size
of the object is increased/expanded.

2.9 Reflection
- Reflection is one type of 2D transformation
process by which mirror image of object can be
produced.
- To produce such mirror image, it also performs
rotation in 1800, but the size of object remains
same.

Types of Reflection:
1. Reflection about the x-axis – in this, value of
x remains same, but the value of y becomes
- The points of original object on X and Y axis
negative. can be given as:
- a  3,3
b 3,7
c 7,5
13
- The points of reflected image on X and Y axis
can be given as Original triangle coordinates of A, B, C are given as
a (3 4)
a'  -3,3 b (6 4)
b’ -3,7 c (4 8)
c’ -7,5
Reflected triangle coordinates of A, B, C are given as
a' (7 3)
3. Reflection about an axis perpendicular to xy b’ (8 5)
plane and passing through the origin - in this, c’ (15 4)
value of both x and y becomes negative.

2.10 Shear
- Shearing is one type of 2D transformation process by
which shape of output object can be changed.
- To complete the shearing process, sliding of layers is
carried out.
- A transformation that slants the shape of an object is
called the shear transformation.
- Shearing is also termed as Skewing.
- Shearing can be performed in following ways:
i) Shearing in the X-direction ( X-Shear)
ii) Shearing in the Y-direction (Y-Shear)
- The points of original object on X and Y axis
can be given as:
- a  5,3 i) Shearing in the X-direction: In
this horizontal shearing,
b 3,7 sliding of layers occurs at X axis.
c 7,5 - The X-Shear preserves the Y coordinate and changes
- The points of reflected image on X and Y axis are made to only X coordinates
can be given as - Due to this, it causes the vertical lines to tilt right or
left as shown in below figure.
a'  -5,-3
b’ -7,-7
c’ -3,-7

4. Reflection about line y=x - The object may be

reflected about line y = x, hence value of both x
and y axis remains positive. ii) Shearing in the Y-direction (Y-Shear)
- The Y-Shear preserves the X coordinates and changes
only the Y coordinates
- It causes the horizontal lines to transform into lines
which slopes up or down as shown in the following
figure.

14
 2.5 Matrix representation.

- Matrix representation is a method used by a computer

language to store matrices of more than one dimension.
- Matrix, in computer programming is one kind of 2 D
array to store the required data elements or dimensions
in memory.
- The different 2D transformation can be represented in
matrix form as:

15
 UNIT - III  Visualization of particular part of picture.
3. Segmented Display Files and Clipping and  Scaling, rotation and translation of picture.
Windowing:
3.1 Segment table – Computer graphics deals with
displaying pictures on display devices.
- This display can be of:
Static display – in this, once the output is
shown, it is not changed till the output is closed.
Dynamic display – in this, as long as output is
visible on screen, there can be changes in it.
- The current computing environment demands
dynamic display of pictures instead of static display.
- This dynamic display involves speed of regeneration
of successive pictures.
- This dynamic display involves-
- sometimes, either the whole picture is
changed and need to display whole picture again and
again. 3.2 Functions for segmenting display file
- in some cases, only a part of picture is - Computer graphics to display & maintain the output
changed and to be displayed but the whole picture to be uses a special file called as display file.
displayed repeatedly. - This display file contains all the required instructions
- To draw the output or picture on output device, a to display the picture and functions to manipulate it.
special memory is used to store all the required - This display file is divided into smaller logical unit
instructions called as Display file or Display list. called as segment.
- For dynamic output, this display file is regularly used - Each segment associated with instructions and
and also to be manipulated. segment name.
- To view the image or part of image with various - As like a disk file which supports different functions
attributes, the contents of display file must be like Open file, read,Write,Edit/update, Rename, delete,
organized & loaded in memory. etc, display file also supports different functions for
- To complete this process successfully, C.G uses segmenting.
concept of segment. - The basic functions supported by segment are
- Segment is logical unit of display file used to display 1) Creating/opening segment
the given object on display device. 2) renaming segment
- The process of creating such logical units of display 3)Closing segment
file is called as Segmentation. 4) Deleting segment
- In memory the contents of segment may be allocated 1) Creating/opening segment –
contiguously or non-contiguously. - This is the very first function to be performed
- For dynamic display, along with display file, whenever output to be drawn on display device.
following also needed: - New segment is necessary to load the required
i) Functions to manipulate instruction in display instructions in memory.
file. - while creating new segment following algorithm is
ii) naming scheme – to name each segment followed-
unambiguously. 1) If any segment is open, give error message
: “Segment is still open” and go to step 8.
- Each segment corresponds to: 2) Read the name of the new segment.
3) If the segment name is not valid, give error message
 a part of image and is : “Segment name not a valid name” and go to step 8.
 associated set of attributes and 4) If given segment name already exists, give error
 image transformation parameters like message : “Segment name already exists in name
scaling, rotation, etc list” and go to step 8.
Benefits of segment - 5) Make next free storage area in display file as start of
 Subdivision of picture. new segment.
16
6) Initialize size of new segment to 0 and all its - But if, any in between segment is to be deleted, then
attributes to their default values. the next segment must be shifted to the deleted
7) Inform that the new segment is now open. segment position.
8) Stop.
2) Renaming segment
- When C.G needs to display same output for long
duration, it required the instructions to be repeatedly
called.
- for this it uses technique of Double Buffering.
- Double Buffering is tech by which two images are
stored, one to show and other is for manipulation.
- After successful changes, the first image is replaced
by second one.
- Hence it needs two segments with proper name.
- For renaming following algorithm is used.
1. If both old and new segment names are not valid,
give error message : “Segment names are not valid
names” and go to step 6.
2. If any of two segments is open, give error message Algorithm :
: “Segments are still open” and go to step 6. 1. Read the name of the segment to be deleted.
3. If new segment name given already exists in the 2. If segment name is not valid, give error message
display list, give error message : “Segment name : “Segment name is not a valid name” and go to step
already exists” and go to step 6. 8.
4. The old segment table entry are copied into new 3. If the segment is open, give error message
position. : “Can’t delete an open segment” and go to step 8.
5. Delete the old segment. 4. If size of segment is less than 0, no processing is
6. Stop. required and go to step 8.
5. The segments which follow the deleted segment
3)Closing segment are shifted by its size.
6. Recover deleted space by resetting index of next
- After completing entry of all display file instructions, free instruction.
the segment needs to be closed. 7. Stop.
- But before closing it has to be renamed, which is
done by changing the name of currently open segment
as 0.
- Now the segment with name 0 is open i.e. unnamed
segment is open and if two unnamed segments are
present in display file one needs to be deleted.
Algorithm :
1. If any segment is not open, give error message
: “No segment is open now” and go to step 6.
2. Change the name of currently opened segment to
any unnamed segment, lets say 0.
3. Delete any other unnamed segment instruction
which may have been saved and initialize above
unnamed segment with no instructions.
4. Make the next free storage area available in
display file as start of the unnamed segment.
5. Initialize size of unnamed segment to 0.
6. Stop.

4) Deleting segment – if any of the segment is not

useful, it is better to delete to avoid wastage of space.
- The segment to be deleted may first, last or any
middle segment.
- If the segment to be deleted is first or last only pointer
and index to be updated without shifting.
17
 ii) naming scheme – to name each segment
3.3 Posting & unposting segments unambiguously.
- Every segment must be uniquely identified to
- Computer graphics to display & maintain the output complete the task of display successfully.
uses a special file called as display file. - The common scheme or pattern for naming
- To display and maintain the display it uses refresh file segment is to assign a unique integer name to each
containing all the required instructions. segment.
- for maintaining the display on output device, C.G - This is opposite to file system naming rules which
uses refresh cycle. uses string or text names.
- In some cases, it is necessary that, some part of the - Segment names are used only with the program and
output to be hidden and in some other case it is to be hence also called internal names.
displayed. - The reasons for using integer names for segment are:-
- Thus, for this segment is important to control this More compact than string
displaying and hiding operation. Easy to manipulate
- The part to be displayed is included in refresh cycle Easy to relate with display file
and the part to be hidden is excluded from cycle. - e.g: In Air-Traffic control center graphical display is
- For this, concept of Posting and Unposting segment is used to show following:
used.
Posting Segment – When the segment of a specific
part of display file is kept visible, it is called posting
segment.
- To post the segment, visible attribute of segment is
used and it’s value is 1
- the function which is called to post any segment is:
PostSegment(n) – here n represent segment
name.

Unposting Segment – When the segment of a specific

part of display file is made invisible, it is called
unposting segment.
- Due to unposting, only for temporary purpose a
segment is invisible but not destroyed from display file.
- To unpost the segment, visible attribute of segment is  small symbols represent individual aircraft
used and it’s value set is 0.  a computer program is used which maintains a data
- the function which is called to unpost any segment is: structure containing
UnpostSegment(n) – here n represent segment Identity of flight
name. Airspeed
- Whenever a new segment is created, by default it is Heading in degrees
invisible , by calling PostSegment(n) function it is Position and altitude
made visible.  following diagram shows above data.
 in display file, each segment is reserved to store
3.4 Segment naming scheme above data for each aircraft.
- Computer graphics to display & maintain the output  to each segment a unique name in integer is
uses a special file called as display file. assigned and also a pointer to used which points the
- This display file contains all the required instructions details as:
to display the picture and functions to manipulate it.
- This display file is divided into smaller logical unit
called as segment.
- Segments of display file maintained in segment table
and each segment associated with:-
i) Functions to manipulate instruction in display file.

18
 DeleteSegment() – if the segment is currently
open, close it and then delete it, if no existing segment,
no effect.
PostSegment() – if the segment to be posted is
closed, open such segment then post, if segment
already posted or not-existing, no effect.
UnpostSegment() - if the segment to be
unposted is closed, open such segment then unpost, if
segment already unposted or not-existing, no effect.
- When for default error conditions, above default
execution flow is considered, the error condition can be
avoided.
- More error free execution can be considered as
OpenSegment(1)
3.5 Default error conditions drawLine(10,20,10,100)
- Display file is used to display the given output and PostSegment(1)
also to maintain the output on screen.
- Display file in memory is loaded into smaller pieces 3.6 Appending to segments
i.e Segment. - In Dynamic graphics, C.G deals to show such data
- To complete all the jobs of segments, different which is subjected to change frequently.
segmenting functions are used like: - In such case, the display file used for such
OpenSegment(n) dynamic/changeable output also to be frequently
CloseSegment(n) changed and hence the corresponding segment also to
DeleteSegment(n) be updated.
PostSegment(n) - For this, following are possible ways to show the
UnpostSegment(n) dynamic display
- But while calling such functions, the output showing - as per current data, create display file and
software or program may generate errors like segment and complete the output
 already segment is open - when new data arrives, re-construct the
 invalid segment name display file and re-built the new segment.
 duplicate segment name - Above process is good if very few changes are to be
 no segment is opened done.
 non-existing segment - But when, data to be collected more frequently, then
 the segment which already visible, again above process is not efficient.
tried for posting e.g.
 Trying to unpost such segment which is not a chart showing data of sale of different
yet posted. products in Shopping mall.
- Above all errors are considered as default errors while - To solve this problem, C.G. suggest the solution of
showing output. appending segment.
- the situation or condition when such errors occurs is - By this, in an existing segment the new collected data
called as Default Error Condition. & it’s display file instructions can be added.
- To handle these situations, the standard practice is to - To achieve this, consider there is an existing segment
how error messages. 2, and in this contents to be appended, following code
- the above functions to be defined in such a way that can be used:
they can implicitly handle the default error conditions AppendToSegment(2)
like MoveTo(lastx, lasty)
OpenSegment() – if any of the segment is drawLine(newx,newy)
currently opened, close it. PostSegment(2)
CloseSegment() – if no segment is currently
opened, no effect

19
3.7 Viewing transformation - During clipping, for above possibilities, following
actions are taken:
3.8 2-D clipping the portion which is completely inside is
- Any output displayed on output screen is using two selected to display
dimensions. - the portion which is completely outside of the
- On any output screen, when output is shown using region, is discarded to display.
pixel, every pixel associated with two co-ordinates i.e. - the portion which is on boundary, then the
x and y. intersection area to be calculated, and from this, area
- This output is subjected to various types of which is coming in region is displayed and the portion
operations, one such common operation is clipping. which remains outside is discarded as:
- Whenever an output is viewed, it uses a specific
region i.e. clip window or clipping window, which is
generally a rectangle in shape.

3.9 Simple visibility algorithm

- C.G to display and maintain output, needs to perform
many processing.
-Thus, the process to identify part of picture which is - One important part is to decide which part to be made
either inside or outside f clip window i.e. Clipping. visible, which is to be hidden.
- In simple words, cutting of lines which are outside the - For this it follows the rules like:
region is called clipping, - output portion is completely visible
- Clipping process also uses one more supporting - output portion is completely invisible
process called as clipping region. - output portion is partial.
- During clipping following possibilities are to be - For above operations, different algorithms are
considered: available used with C.G software.
i) some portion will be completely inside of - Simple visibility algorithm considers line is the most
clipping window. fundamental part of any type of output.
ii) some portion will be completely outside of - This algo helps C.G to take answer following
clipping window. questions:
iii) some portion may be on boundary of i) whether line is completely visible?
clipping window as: ii) whether line is completely invisible?
iii) whether line is partially visible?
- To display as well as to see any output in real world
& in C.G a viewing window is used.
- This windows is a rectangular shaped area helps to
answer above questions.
- The decision for visibility is based on different factors
like:

20
 i) If both end points are outside window, then the i) If the line is completely visible, accept it.
line is completely invisible e.g. line ij,kl ii) If the line is completely invisible, reject it.
ii) If both end-points are inside the window the, iii) If the line is partial, follow some other steps to
line is completely visible e.g line ab reject invisible part and accept only the visible part.
- But, the factor no.1 is always not working, - To complete the steps, this algo considers a viewing
some times, end points of line might be outside windows that is region window.
the window, but still some part of line is inside Based on this region window, for each end point of line
the window e.g. ling gh 4 bit region code is assigned in sequence of TBRL
- In such case, line is considered as partially (Top-Bottom-Right-Left)
visible.
- Hence, instead of above basic factors, modified
factors to be considered for complete
invisibility like:
i) Both end points completely out of left
ii) Both end points completely out of right
e.g. line ij
iii) Both end points completely out of
bottom e.g. line pq
iv) Both end points completely out of top
- This algo considers following different conditions
using x & y co-ordinates of given by considering
following boundaries
ab = Above|Top
bl = Below|Bottom
l=Left
r=right - This algo follows following steps to complete the
1) if(xa> xl and xa> xr) and (xb> xr and xb< xr) – task:
when this condition is true, line is completely 1) Assign the region code TBRL for each end point
inside hence visible (line ab). of line
a. Line ab fulfills above condition hence 2) if region code of both points is 0000, accept the
visible, but line and line is completely visible.
b. But line ij, don’t, hence invisible. 3) else: perform logical and operation on both end
points,
2) if(xa< xab and xa> xbl) and (xb< xab and xb> xbl) a) if result is non-zero, reject the line and line is
– when this condition is true, line is completely completely invisible.
inside hence visible. b) else
a. Line ab fulfills above condition hence i) choose end point of the line that is
visible, but outside given region.
b. Line pq don’t , hence invisible. ii) find intersection
iii) replace end-point with intersection
3.10 End point codes / Cohen-Sutherland line iv) repeat step 2
clipping Algorithm) e.g.
- On display device, any output is considered as
collection of lines.
- hence whenever visible or invisible part to be
considered, the line or portion of line to be decided
whether it is visible or invisible.
- to solve this problem, two renowned computer
engineers Danny Cohen and Ivan Sutherland
developed an algorithm based on the end-points of
any given line.
- This algorithm helps to decide:
21
 - End Point Algorithm or Cohen-Sutherland algorithm
is very useful to decide about the visible and invisible
part of partial lines.
- But, Cohen-Sutherland algorithm considers only the
intersection point of such partial line.
- Instead, this, Mid-point sub division algorithm is
special of case of Cohen-Sutherland algorithm.
- The initial working part of this algorithm is as same
as Cohen-Sutharland algorithm i.e.
-This algo considers a viewing windows that is region
window.
Based on this region window, for each end point of line
4 bit region code is assigned in sequence of TBRL
(Top-Bottom-Right-Left)
- This algo follows following steps to complete the
task:
1) Assign the region code TBRL for each end point
- in above e.g. 3 lines are considered
of line
Line ab
2) if region codes of both points is 0000, accept the
Line cd
line and line is completely visible.
Line jk
3) else: perform logical and operation on both end
 For line ab
points,
Find the region codes for both end-points i.e.
a) if the result is non-zero, then line is
a=0000, b=0000
completely invisible.
as the final result of both end-points is zero,
c) if the result is non-zero but the line is partial,
hence this line is accepted and hence it is completely
then consider following steps:
visible.
i) divide such line in two equal parts
For line cd
ii) check the visibility of each part based on
Find the region codes for both end-points i.e.
region codes. If region codes zero then accept else
c=0101, b=0100
repeat step i and ii till whole line is processed.
after logical and operation, the result is non-
e.g.
zero, hence this line is rejected and hence it is
completely invisible.
For line jk
Find the region codes for both end-points i.e.
j=0000, k=0000
after logical and operation, the result is non-
zero, hence this line is rejected but it is not possible, as
this line shows partial visibility. -Above line pr is a partial line, hence it can not be
- In such case, this algorithm suggest to find the either completely rejected or accepted.
intersection point where the line is crossing to - for such line, mid-point subdivision algorithm can be
the boundary e.g. applied as:
- the intersection point found is suppose j’, now the i) divide the line in two equal parts with mid-
updated line is j to j’ and j’ to k point Pm1 as:
- as the region codes of j and j’ belongs to 0000 codes,
hence this portion of line is accepted and declared as
visible.
- Line portion j’ to k belongs the non-zero region code,
hence it is rejected and declared as invisible.

3.11 Midpoint subdivision algorithm

22
- Now the updated line considered as P to Pm1.
- Check the region codes of both end-points i.e.
P=0000, Pm1=0000
- As the final result is zero hence this portion of line is
accepted and declared as visible.
- The second half of line is Pm1 to q which is still
partial, hence above steps to be repeated as:
Divide line in two equal parts with Pm2 as mid
point as:

- Now the updated line is Pm2 to Q.

- Check the region codes of both end-points as
Pm2=0010, q=0010
- After performing logical and operation, the result is
non-zero, hence this part of line is completely
discarded.
- As the whole line is processed, hence, it can be
declared that, successfully partial line is clipped using
mid-point sub-division algorithm & the final result will
be:

23
 Case Output
3.12 Polygon clipping algorithm (Sutherland-
Hodgman algorithm)
- A polygon is viewed as object of connected lines i.e. Out → A’ B [2 Vertices, Point of intersect
edges and vertices. In with window and ending edge]
- Alternatively it is also called as 2-D architecture
made up of number of lines. In →
- As C.G uses line clipping algorithms, to decide the In C [1 ending vertex ]
visible and invisible parts, similarly for polygon also it
is necessary to decide the visible and invisible parts. In →
- For this, Sutharland and Hodgman suggested this Out D’ [Point of intersect with window]
polygon clipping algorithm which efficiently decides
the visible and invisible parts of polygon after clipping. Out →
- This algorithm is based on following working rules Out N/A [Nothing is included]
i) it considers a viewing or clipping window
against which clipping is to be done.
ii) the clipping window having four boundaries - To complete the clipping, this algorithm
i.e. Left, Right, Top and bottom performs clipping from all four boundaries if
iii) Each line processed as edge and vertex. required i.e. Left, Top, Right & Bottom
- This algorithm considers following different cases:- e.g.
Case 1: out → in :
If the starting vertex is outside the window boundary
and ending vertex is inside then we preserve or save
both point of intersection of polygon edge with
window boundary and ending vertex in the output
vertex list.
Case 2 : in → in :
If both the starting and ending vertices are inside the
window boundary then only the ending vertex is
preserved or saved in output vertex list.

1) Left Clipping

Case 3: in → out :
If the starting vertex is inside the window and ending
vertex is outside then only the point of intersection of
2) Right Clipper
polygon edge with window boundary is saved in output
list.
Case 4: out → out :
If both the starting and ending vertices are outside the
window boundary then nothing is added or saved in the
output vertex list.

24
3) Bottom Clipping

4) Top Clipping

25
 UNIT - IV - Geometric modeling is the process of defining the
4. Geometric Models and Simple Graphics Package: properties of an object or a system using mathematical
4.1 Simple modeling example formulae.
- C.G tech helps to show different output on any - Computer geometric modeling is the field that
display device. discusses the mathematical methods behind the
- Many times, to show complex output modeling tech modeling of realistic objects for computer graphics and
is used which is a process that describes the use computer aided design.
of computers to simulate objects or events. - Computerized model can be prepared for both:
- There are different areas of field where this modeling 1) Physical Object 2) Process
tech is commonly used. - Physical object always represents physical or
- Many computer models consist of a mixture of data geometric properties like length, width, height, weight,
structure and procedures. etc.
- In models of solid objects, lot of data is used and very e.g. any solid object like Mobile Phone, Car, Airplane,
less procedure part is involved. etc.
- In some models like Weather systems, Economics, - The model of process is considered as Non-geometric
along with data, more procedure part is also involved. model as it doesn’t involves any physical properties.
- Digital electronic circuit, is one example of computer e.g. Admission Process, Security Checking, Tourism
model which is created for following important model, etc
reasons: - Geometric modeling stores all the required geometric
- to produce documentary diagrams. parameters in Data Structure.
- To teach students about documentary - In this modeling, Output of one component is treated
diagrams in more easy way. as input of other object.
- circuit model consists of a data structure as well as e.g. SMPS in Computer CPU
some procedures. - The output or display of geometric modeling is
- Data structure defines each of the components and dependent on 3 factors:
connecting wires in circuit diagram like diode, 1) Purpose of Display - it defines how &
capacitor, inductor, resistor, etc. what output should be displayed, either in 2 D form,
- Data in data structure show identification of the each 3D Form, whether whole object to be presented or
type of component and it’s co-ordinate position in partial object to be shown?
model. 2) Hardware used for display – simple models
- This helps to decide whether the wire and component to be displayed needs regular hardware components,
are connected with each other or not? but some specialized 3D models with high-end
- also it is necessary to test whether two wires are graphics needs extra hardware components like
connected or not? graphics card, etc.
- This model also uses a process fan-out to test 3) Software used for display –Software’s are
multiple input components connected to the output of necessary to create as well as display model. For
single component. simple objects regularly & license free software can be
- In this test, following will be checked? used like Ms-Paint, Picture Manager, Picasa, etc
- how many wires leading from given But for models with high-end graphics,
component’s output connector? specialized licensed softwares are needed like Coral
- how many are input to other components? Draw, Maya, Flash etc
- This representation makes easy to construct the - Geometric modeling also considers another fact that,
diagram on display screen. in many cases different objects shares common
properties.
- For this reason, geometric modeling uses common
4.2 Geometric modeling methods like:
1) Basic Data Element
- A computerized model is a virtual object or simulated
2) Structure Imposing
object that represents the real-world object.
- The computer tech by which such object is created is 3) Transformation
1) Basic Data Element – In this method, data
called modeling.
elements of different models are collected to compare
for common parts like lines, angle, shape, color, etc.
26
2) Structure Imposing – In many cases there exist - in above example 4 symbols are defined which are
relationship between data elements of different objects, repeatedly used in difft forms.
e.g. based on CPU/Mobile handset cabinet size, size of - Thus, to use symbols, it is necessary that it has to be
internal parts are decided like SIM Card. transformed from master coordinate system to world
3) Transformations – Many times a model to be coordinate system.
presented by applying transformation like translation, - For this transformation, following functions are used:
reflections, shearing, scaling and rotation. i) Scale(sx,sy) – by this, suze of symbols can be
increased or decreased to be used in map with scaling
4.3 Symbols & instances. factor sx and sy.
- Graphical output uses different components like ii) Rotate() – by this, as per requirement, symbol can
images, icons, pictures, animation, etc. be rotated in given angle.
- Similarly, Symbol is one such graphical output iii) Translate(tx,ty) – by this symbol relocated on
component also called as small sized pictorial data. given line from old points to new points.
e.g toilet symbols, road symbols, etc
- For complete and successful transformation, the
calling sequence of above functions should be
Scale  Rotate  Translate

4.4 Implementation of Instance transformation

-Use of symbols in CG based application softwares is
- Such graphical symbols are common in charts and one of the very common factor.
graphs. - Symbols represents a small size image showing
- As C.G is applied in different fields like Cartography, pictorial data like road crossing symbol etc.
which deals with study and development of graphs and - To use symbol, symbol is defined with its proper
charts. meaning in Master Coordinate System.
- For easy understanding of graphs and charts, it uses - Once symbol is defined, it can be used many times in
graphical symbols. required map or chart.
- The small size pictorial image to show a specific - The replicated use of symbol is called instance which
value defined once i.e. Symbol. is used in World Coordinate system.
- When such symbol is repeatedly used at different - But, before using any symbol in world coordinate
location in a chart or graphs it makes it’s instance. system, it must be transformed from master coordinate
-Hence while drawing a chart, symbols must be defined system.
to be used in multiple instances form. - The process of symbol transformation from master
- The symbol which is originally defined once is called to world coordinate system is called Instance
master coordinate system. transformation.
- Thus instance is replicated form of symbols used - On a single symbol multiple transformations can
in world coordinate system. applied like scaling, rotations, translation.
- Symbols, as like other images are defined in same - each transformation produces it’s own data & when
way i.e. by using x,y coordinates, number of pixels, final result is generated, the combined data must be
color code, etc. used.
- e.g. Population map - For this, 3X3 matrices are used to store such
combined data of all transformations.
- when transformations are combined and the result is
concatenated, it gives benefit of saving time when
more complex operations to be performed.
- The different steps involved in instance
transformation are:
i) Concatenating the instance and viewing
transformation – If linear transformations applied,
then CG uses 3x3 matrix, so that information can be
concatenated by using matrix multiplication tech.

27
ii) Forming the instance transformation matrix – - The specialized software used in any graphics system
When two or more transformation applied they is called Graphics software.
executed sequentially. - Every graphics software is sub-routine or functions
- Hence result of each transformation to be used by an application program to generate pictures for
maintained separately. any display device, plotter and also to handle graphics
- E.g. if 3 transformation applied Scaling, interaction.
Rotation & Translation, then the corresponding - While designing any graphics software following
matrices will be fundamental rules are to be considered:
o Scaling S 1) Simplicity – Graphics software uses many complex
o Rotation R features/algorithm like face recognition system, but
o Translation T these features must be presented in simple and easy to
- Using these 3 matrices, the resultant matrix use way to user.
formed is Q as - For this, all features/functionalities of graphics
Q=S R T software must be explained in user’s manual.
- In some cases, the symbol is multi-level i.e. one
symbol using multiple components. 2) Consistency – This rule defines that, the working of
- Then, such symbol is sub-pictured and graphics software must in normal and predictable
transformation is applied to each part and result fashion.
of each part transformation is concatenated. - There must not be any unhandled exception which
e.g. causes abnormal termination of application.
- Also it defines that, proper function names are used,
function calling sequence, error handling, etc.
- For this, first a conceptual model is created and then
implemented.

3) Completeness – this rule defines, the graphics

software must provide all those features/functionalities
which are agreed by developer as per user’s
requirements.
In above e.g. , in sub-level symbol, two components - If any of such function is missing, graphics software
are used, hence transformation result of each may not generate the expected result.
component is generated and finally concatenated. 4) Robustness – this rule defines that, the graphics
iii) Clipping before and after transformation – software to be designed with full and proper
Many times symbol may be having unwanted parted understanding of users’ requirements.
that to be discarded. - Also if system generating error, it must be properly
- hence clipping applied to remove such part. Clipping reported and only in rare case abnormal termination to
can be either be allowed only to save the valuable data.
- after transformation – but in this 5) Performance – this rule defines that, performance
transformation applied to unwanted part also hence of graphics system is mainly dependent on
time wasting.  hardware platform
- before transformation – it ensures invisible  software platform i.e. operating system.
part is removed and only on required part - Hence the graphics system designer should take care
transformation is applied. of that, the performance of software either should not
- But in this case, care should be taken for partially demand any extra resources and waste existing
visible category. resources.
- By ensuring full utilization of existing resources
4.5 Ground rules for graphics s/w design graphics software must give the result.
- CG for it successful working uses a graphics system 6) Economy – This rule defines that, the cost of
which is collection of hardware and software. graphics software development and maintenance must
- Such graphics system helps in easy and accurate not be too high, so that users avoid to use it, also the
graphics input and output. software must no be very bulky or resource hungry
which demands costly hardware.
28
 - Thus once the functional domain is decided & if all
4.6 Function domains these functions included in graphics software, then , the
- Specialized software used in graphics system is called graphics software can be said to be complete.
Graphics software. 4.7 Graphics primitives
- While developing any such graphics software, - While designing any graphics software it is necessary
different fundamental rules are considered and one to define it’s functional domain.
such important rule is completeness. - In functional domain all the basic set of functions are
- This rule defines that, graphics software must include defined.
all those features which are agreed with the client. - One such set of functions is graphics primitive.
- But in reality, many times it is observed that, the - Graphics primitives are the functions that we use to
developer facing following different problems: specify the actual lines and characters that make up the
-- conflicting requirements : that means one picture.
requirement interferes the other to fulfill .e.g customer - These functions are selected for two important
demanding multi-colored high quality output but using reasons:
basic hardware. i) to provide required method to draw and
-- change in the specification : it means, at describe pictures.
initial level, customer requirements are different and in ii) take maximum advantage of hardware to
later stage, requirements are changed. E.g. customer in give output.
school attendance system, not demanded to show the - In this primitive category, the three most important
photo of each student, but later demanding for the functions used are:
same. i) MoveTo(x,y) – this function is used to set the
-- Ignoring features – some features ignored in position for new text or line from current position.
initial stage, but later on became important e.g. unique ii) LineTo(x,y) – this function is used to draw a straight
id for each student is ignored in initial stage, but later it line from the current position to point x,y.
becomes compulsory. iii) DrawText(s) – this function is used to display the
- While designing graphics software, following two string s.
factors must be considered: - It is recommend that, only few and most required
i) the design of graphics software must not be primitive functions to be added else it will add
influenced by hardware features or highly specialized unnecessary complexity to the graphics software.
application requirements.
ii) Functions in graphics software must be separated 4.8 Windowing function
into sets and each set for a fixed task. – while displaying any output on display device two
- The most common function sets required in any types of fixed boundaries are used:
graphics software are: i) Window – is rectangular area to enclosing
i) Graphics primitives – these are those functions the output.
which can deal to draw basic drawings like straight ii) viewport – is fixed selected area on output
lines, text, circular arcs, etc. which helps in deciding visible and invisible part by
ii) Windowing functions – These are the functions to using clipping.
define coordinate system and the boundary of window - For this, following two functions are used:
to decide visible and invisible portions. i) SetWindow(wxmin,wymin,wxmax,wymax) – by
iii) Segmenting functions – by this the display picture this function window area can be decided between
can be divided into smaller parts for easy modification. minimum and maximum xy boundaries.
iv) 2-D transformation – this include modifying ii) SetViewPort(wxmin,wymin,wxmax,wymax) – by
pictures using rotation, translation, scaling etc. this function view port are can be decided between
v) input function – these functions allows user to give minimum and maximum xy boundaries.
input as per requirements either by keyboard or
graphical input device like mouse, trackball, joystick, 4.9 Example-a graph plotting program
etc.
- In the starting phase of software design some fixed
4.10 Implementation of the functions
sets of above functions are decide to form functional
domain.

29
– While designing any graphics software it is necessary
to study the internal design of each function to be
included in graphics software.
- Graphics package consists of mainly 2 components:
i) Display Code Generator
ii) Transformation Processor
i) Display Code Generator – this function helps the
output device to show the output generated after
execution of given commands ( e.g. line draw
command)
- It is recommended to use separate display code
generator for each output so that output drawing will be
fast.
- With this function it is also necessary to include the
feature of Device Independence i.e. the output must
not be dependent on specific type of hardware, instead
it must be supporting all types of hardware.
ii) Transformation processor – this function helps to
perform different transformation operations on output
like
translation – moving the object from old to new
point
rotation – changing the viewing angle
scaling – increasing or decreasing the output
size.
Reflection – creating mirror images of output.
Shearing – sliding the layer of output either on
x or y axis.

30