Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Tectono-magmatic implications of the Jurassic volcanic and volcanoclastic

record of the Santa Marta Massif (Colombia)
Diego A. Ramírez *, Ana María Correa-Martínez, Juan Pablo Zapata-Villada, Gabriel Rodríguez
Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Grupo de Estudios Geológicos Especiales, Calle 75 # 79A – 51, Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Lower-Middle Jurassic volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks of the Santa Marta Massif (SMM) record the
U-Pb Geochronology magmatic evolution of a continental arc developed on the NW margin of Gondwana. However, the lack of a
Whole-rock geochemistry comprehensive description of these successions has made it difficult to understand the geologic processes that
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
occurred during the onset, development, and termination of the volcanic activity. Our new U–Pb zircon ages,
Northern Andes
Jurassic arc
whole-rock geochemistry, and petrographic analyses suggest that volcanism started at ca. 191 Ma, similar to
Caribbean margin plutonic activity, likely after the slab rolled-back from a previous flat-slab subduction zone. During this initial
stage, the volcanic deposits consisted of andesite-basaltic andesite and trachy-andesite rocks, of calc-alkaline to
high-K calc-alkaline character and dominantly metaluminous affinity. At ca. 177–168 Ma, the geologic record
included andesite-basaltic andesites, dacites and, rhyolites of high-K calc-alkaline to calc-alkaline character, and
peraluminous to metaluminous affinity. Finally, before cessation, at ca. 167–163 Ma, the volcanism presented
andesite-basaltic andesite, trachy-andesite, trachyte and rhyolite compositions, with dominantly high-K calc-
alkaline character, and peraluminous to metaluminous affinity. The geochemical comparison with coeval vol­
canic units deposited in La Guajira, Middle Magdalena Valley, Perijá, and San Lucas ranges indicate a similar
magmatic evolution in the north of Colombia. The causes of the cessation of magmatic activity are still unknown,
however, these may be associated with the generalized extensional event that was triggered by the breakup of
Pangea.

1. Introduction Dibulla, in the south, east, north-east and north foothills of the SNSM,
vast outcrops of the volcanic rocks deposited from this magmatic ac­
During the middle Mesozoic, the northwestern part of the Maracaibo tivity are exposed (Fig. 1B). These successions present variable thick­
block where the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM) and Perijá Range ness, modeling the landscape with steep and rounded hills of a purple,
(PR) are located (Fig. 1A), was subjected to several compressional and green, and gray color. Tschanz et al. (1974, 1969) described their lith­
extensional tectonic episodes. Previous studies have explained these ological characteristics and organized them stratigraphically into thir­
events through three different tectonic models: 1) intracontinental rift­ teen informal units according to their local field relations and scarce
ing caused by the rupture of Pangea (Cediel et al., 2003; Duncan and K–Ar ages (in plagioclase, hornblende, and whole-rock). Then, Colme­
Hargraves, 1984; Pindell and Kennan, 2001); 2) subduction of the Far­ nares et al. (2007) regrouped the units only in ten, based on their new
allon plate under Gondwana (assuming minimum strike-slip displace­ field observations. These informal units chiefly correspond to succes­
ment) (Quandt et al., 2018; Spikings et al., 2015, 2019; Toussaint, 1995; sions of interstratified effusive, extrusive, and epiclastic rocks that do
Zuluaga et al., 2015); and 3) oblique subduction and south-north not count with a clear and complete stratigraphic description or a
migration of tectonic blocks along the continental margin (Bayona reference type locality.
et al., 2010, 2006; Pindell and Kennan, 2009). This deformation resulted Time correlative geologic units with similar lithological composi­
in the unleashing of an extensive magmatic period coeval with the tions to the Santa Marta Massif (SMM) Jurassic volcanism are exposed in
deposition of continental and marine sedimentary rocks throughout the the Perijá Range and Merida Andes (La Quinta Formation) (Rodríguez
Jurassic. and Obando, 2020; van der Lelij et al., 2019), San Lucas Range and
Proximal to the municipalities of Bosconia, Valledupar, Fonseca and Middle Magdalena Valley (Noreán Formation) (Correa-Martínez et al.,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.A. Ramírez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102866
Received 5 November 2019; Received in revised form 24 August 2020; Accepted 31 August 2020
Available online 6 September 2020
0895-9811/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

2019), and La Guajira Peninsula (Ipapure – Cerro La Teta rhyodacites) Nevada, Sevilla, and Santa Marta. Each province is characterized by an
(Zuluaga et al., 2015). High-quality isotopic and geochemical data association of metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks, formed in
recently published in these localities indicate a subduction-related different environments and times. The provinces of Sierra Nevada and
origin for their magmatic products. Sevilla are constituted at its base by Precambrian rocks (i.e. Los Mangos
In this study, we complement the geologic knowledge of the Jurassic Granulite, Dibulla Gneiss, Buritaca Gneiss, and Los Muchachitos Gneiss)
record from the north of Colombia presenting new LA-ICP-MS U–Pb and Paleozoic metamorphic and sedimentary units (i.e. Devonian and
zircon ages, petrographic, and whole-rock geochemical analyzes of the Carboniferous sedimentary rocks of the Cuchilla del Carbonal and El
volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks cropping out on the foothills of the Encanto Orthogneiss).
SNSM. These new datasets, combined with previously published data, The Los Mangos Granulite and Dibulla Gneiss consist of felsic to in­
were employed to 1) determine the onset and duration of the Jurassic termediate banded gneisses, pelitic paragneisses, and hornblende and
volcanic activity in the area of study 2) document the geochemical pyroxene gneisses metamorphosed into amphibolite and granulite
evolution of the volcanic processes occurring during this period, and 3) facies. These units yielded zircon U–Pb dates between ca. 1540 and 990
propose a model of the relationship among volcanism and the tectonic Ma (Cardona et al., 2010a; Cordani et al., 2005; Restrepo-Pace et al.,
evolution of the NW margin of Gondwana. 1997). Anorthositic stocks and dykes (Anorthositic Gneisses unit),
originally formed in a back-arc environment, intrude the latter rocks
2. Geological background (Cardona et al., 2010a; Cordani et al., 2005; Tschanz et al., 1974, 1969).
The Buritaca Gneiss unit encompasses hornblende quartz feldspathic
2.1. The Santa Marta Massif basement and the plutonic Jurassic rocks gneisses, amphibolites, schistose gneisses, micaceous schists, and mig­
matites, with similar petrographic characteristics to the Los Muchachi­
The Santa Marta Massif (SMM) is located on the northwestern edge tos Gneiss. Based on these features, Tschanz et al. (1969) grouped them
of the Maracaibo Block and it is bounded by the Santa Marta - Bucar­ into the Sevilla Metamorphic Complex, since both were likely derived
amanga fault system to the west and southwest, the Cesar - Ranchería from sedimentary or volcano-sedimentary protoliths affected by
basin and the Perijá Range to the east and southeast, and the Oca fault to contemporary intrusive and volcanic processes prior to their meta­
the north. This last structure is the southern limit of the Baja Guajira sub- morphism. Using one K–Ar age and field correlations, these authors
basin, and this basin separates the SNSM from the Simarua and Cosinas assigned the units a Late Paleozoic age. Piraquive (2017), on the other
mountain ranges, located in the La Guajira Peninsula (GP) (Fig. 1A). hand, reported zircon U–Pb dates between ca. 1480 and 535 Ma and
The igneous and metamorphic rocks exposed in the SMM have been argues a Precambrian age (younger than Los Mangos Granulite) for the
grouped into three geotectonic provinces (Tschanz et al., 1974): Sierra Sevilla Metamorphic Complex.

Fig. 1. A) Location of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNM) and Perijá Range (PR) in the Maracaibo Block (GP = La Guajira Peninsula, SM = Santander Massif, FM
= Floresta Massif, EC = Eastern Cordillera, CC = Central Cordillera, WC = Western Cordillera, LN = Lara Nappes) (Ayala et al., 2012). B) Geological map of the
Jurassic volcanic and volcanoclastic informal units of the SMM and basement rocks (modified from Tschanz et al. (1969, 1974) and Colmenares et al. (2007)).

2
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

The Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentary rocks of the Cuchilla mafic, rocks of medium to high-k calc-alkaline character and metal­
de Carbonal consist of fining-upward successions of mature medium to uminous affinity, typical of continental arc magmas (Quandt et al.,
fine quartz-arenites at the base and greenish-colored mudstones towards 2018). Recent U–Pb zircon studies report ages between ca. 192 and 176
the top deposited in a high-energy environment (channel or coastal Ma for these rocks (Quandt et al., 2018) indicating an Early Jurassic
planes). These rocks underlie associations of fossiliferous limestones and crystallization age.
dark-colored mudstones with Pennsylvanian microfossils that suggest a
low-energy, restricted, and shallow marine environment (Colmenares
et al., 2007). 2.2. Jurassic volcanic units of the Santa Marta Massif
Finally, the El Encanto Orthogneiss is a coarse-grained mylonitic
granitoid with amphibole and plagioclase bands formed in a magmatic Extensive rock successions of volcanic and volcanoclastic origin
arc during the Permian (Cardona et al., 2010b; Piraquive, 2017). intruded by mafic dykes crop out at the foothills of the SNSM. These
The U–Pb zircon dates obtained in previous studies on these units are units mainly rest on the SMM basement, and the coeval plutonic rocks
reported in the Kernel density estimation (KDE) diagram in Fig. 2, except (Fig. 1B).
the Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentary rocks of the Cuchilla del Tschanz et al. (1969) were of the firsts geologists on studying this
Carbonal, in which no radiometric studies have been performed. volcanic record, having the opportunity to give a name to multiple units
The Mesozoic sedimentary record began with the deposition of the based on their local-scale lithological, petrographic, and radiometric
Los Indios Formation during the Late Triassic (Carnian - Norian) - Early characteristics. They grouped these successions into thirteen informal
Jurassic (?) (Geyer, 1973; Gómez, 2017; Trumpy, 1943). This formation units: Corual Formation, Guatapurí Formation, Triassic keratophyre
was subdivided into three informal segments: 1) Lower, composed of porphyries, Triassic spilites, and other volcanic rocks, Caja de Ahorros
conglomerates and sandstones, 2) Intermediate, composed of mudstones ignimbrite, La Paila ignimbrite, Los Clavos ignimbrite, La Piña ignim­
and calcareous rocks and 3) Upper, composed of conglomerates and brite, Rhyolite vitrophyre, Los Tábanos rhyodacite, Granite porphyry
sandstones. Gómez (2017) interprets the Los Indios depositional system (associated volcanic rocks), Undifferentiated volcanic rocks and the
as a succession of delta fans and mixed platform environments. Detrital Golero rhyolite (Table 1).
zircon provenance analyses in a single sample located towards the base They also pointed out that the area has multiple obstacles to estab­
of this unit present a population with dates between 1114 and 930 Ma, lishing a stratigraphic framework due to insufficient field control given
indicating that its possible sediment sources could be the Los Mangos the lack of trails and highly forested areas. Moreover, the stratigraphy
Granulite, Dibulla Gneiss or Sevilla Metamorphic Complex (Gómez, has an additional difficulty which is the structural complexity generated
2017). by tectonic events subsequent to their deposition (likely related to the
On the other hand, the Jurassic plutonic units in the SMM (Central collision of the Great Arc of the Caribbean and the arc of Panama
Belt of Batholiths, Southeastern Belt of Batholiths and Atanquez Bath­ throughout the Late Cretaceous to Pliocene). These have produced an E-
olith (Tschanz et al., 1974)) include intermediate to felsic, and locally W structural shortening of the rocks along inverse and transcurrent
faults (with NE and EW strike involving the basement) (Montes et al.,

Fig. 2. A) KDE plot of U–Pb depositional ages obtained in this study by the YC2σ(3+) method. Numbers indicate the defined groups related to 1. Onset, 2.
Development and 3. Termination of the volcanic activity. B) KDE plots of the inherited zircons from the samples in this study and Perijá Range (Rodríguez and
Obando, 2020) compared to the compiled dates published from the El Encanto Orthogneiss (OE, Green) (Cardona et al., 2010b; Piraquive, 2017), Sevilla Meta­
morphic Complex (SMC light brown) (Cardona et al., 2006; Piraquive, 2017) and Los Mangos Granulite/Dibulla Gneiss (LMG/DG, dark brown) (Cardona et al.,
2010a; Cordani et al., 2005; Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). In light yellow, the possible range of ages of the Anorthositic gneisses unit (KDE bandwidth: 5, not
normalized). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

3
 Table 1

D.A. Ramírez et al.

Jurassic volcanic units of the Santa Marta Massif.
Unit Best outcrops Lithology Contacts Interpreted age and K–Ar ages (Ma) Zircon U–Pb ages Interpreted origin
(Ma)

Golero rhyolite (1) El Golero, (1) Ignimbritic breccia. Unlike older (1) Upper contact uncertain. (1) 129 ± 4 (K–Ar, Whole rock) from a NA (1) Produced by vessiculation of the
Ajigible and ignimbrites, quartz is conspicuous. (2) Covers discordantly the Guatapuri rhyolite ignimbrite granite porphyry magma
Pesqueria hills Rock fragments are chiefly volcanic Fm, Los Clavos ignimbrite, Pueblo Bello, (5) 152.9 ± 4.0 (K–Ar, Whole rock),
rocks, but red siltstones are locally Patillal and Atanquez batholiths 151.3 ± 3.9 (K–Ar, Whole rock), 133.0
abundant. Local rhyolite vitrophyres. ± 3.2 (K–Ar, Whole rock, reset age),
(2) Includes the “Undivided volcanic 128.2 ± 2.7 (K–Ar, Whole rock, reset
rocks”, “Rhyolite Vitrophyre” and age)
“Porphyritic Granite”. Constituted by
volcanic (rhyolite, rhyodacite) and
volcanoclastic (ignimbrites, tuffs)
successions
Undivided (1) Rocks that could not be assigned to (1) Overlain by the Golero rhyolite NA NA NA
volcanic other volcanic units. Aphanitic and
rocks porphyritic lavas, ignimbritic breccias,
fine grained quartz-bearing felsites of
latitic or dacitic composition, volcanic
breccias of latitic or rhyolitic
composition
Los Tábanos (1) Los Tabanos hill (1) Two members: a) Aphanitic platy (1) Unconformably overlies the (1) Might vary considerably in age and (7) 176.0 ± 0.9 (1) Auto-brecciated flows extruded
rhyodacite flow-banded rhyodacites. May range in Guatapuri Fm and is overlain by the composition. Appear to overlie the (trachyte) 184.5 ± from the vent, domes and laccoliths
composition from latite to rhyolite or Golero rhyolite or by Cretaceous Pueblo Bello Batholith, this indicates a 1.4 (rhyodacite)
from trachyte to rhyolite. Local breccias limestones. An unconformity separates Middle Jurassic or younger age for the
(b) Intrusive and extrusive domes, flows the lower from the upper member (2) lower member.
and dikes. Fine-grained micro granitic Contact with the Guatapuri Fm was (2) Upper member: 142 ± 5 (K–Ar,
rock, aphanitic flow-banded felsites and interpreted faulted or discordant, sanidine from an obsidian)
breccias depending on the place
4

(2) Tuffs (andesitic, dacitic, trachytic),

lithic tuffs, and trachytes
Rhyolite (1) Scattered (1) Black vitreous rocks (rhyolites) (1) May be partly Early (?) Jurassic NA
vitrophyre discontinuous areas
La Piña (1) La Piña hill (1) Ignimbrite with abundant small (1) Overlies (?) the Los Clavos (1) Probably Middle or Upper Jurassic, NA
ignimbrite fragments ignimbrite and the Corual Fm (?) but it is not known precisely
(2) Vitric and crystal tuffs (2) Golero rhyolite overlies in
discordant contact
Los Clavos (1) Los Clavos river (1) Ignimbritic breccias and porphyries (1) Unconformably on top of the Pueblo (4) 133 ± 5 (K–Ar, plg), 175 ± 13 (K–Ar, (7) 187.2 ± 1.0 (1) Formed by vesiculation of the
ignimbrite (2) Volcanic breccias, ignimbrites and Bello and Patillal batholiths hbl), 180 ± 12 (K–Ar, hbl + epidote) (ignimbrite) batholiths
tuffs from a rhyodacite igmbrite

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

(5) 120.5 ± 3.1 (K–Ar, Whole rock),
126.7 ± 2.7 (K–Ar, Whole rock), 156.6
± 8.9 (K–Ar, Whole rock)
La Paila (1) La Paila hill (1) Ignimbrite with angular rocks (1) Apparently above the Guatapuri Fm (1) The absolute age is unknown, but its NA (1) Subaerial ash flow formed by the
ignimbrite fragments in a glassy groundmass (2) (2) Discordant above Guatapuri Fm inferred composition and apparent vessiculation of a quartz keratophyre
Breccia Volcanic breccias, ignimbrites and tuffs stratigraphic position above the (?) magma
Guatapuri Fm led us to suggest on Early
Jurassic age
Caja de Ahorros (1) The biggest (1) Grayish or greenish brown (1) It is overlain by the Los Clavos (1) It is apparently older than the Los NA (1) Last products of the spilite-
ignimbrite outcrops are ignimbrite ignimbrite and overlies the Guatapuri Clavos ignimbrite. They may be the kerathopyre magma series
between Caracoli (2) Lithic ignimbrites (trachytic to Fm (2) Contact with Los Clavos same age as the Triassic spilites
and Diluvio river andesitic), porphyritic, composed by: ignimbrite is interpreted as faulted
quartz, k-feldespar, plagioclase,
(continued on next page)
 Table 1 (continued )

D.A. Ramírez et al.

Unit Best outcrops Lithology Contacts Interpreted age and K–Ar ages (Ma) Zircon U–Pb ages Interpreted origin
(Ma)

amphibole and lithic fragments. Also,

volcanic breccias
Triassic spilites (1) Small outcrops (1) Spilitic and basaltic rocks (1) Unconformably overlie the (1) Probably very Late Triassic or Early NA (1) Represent the last products of a
and other between Las Guatapuri Fm Jurassic spilite-keratophyre magma series that
volcanic Mercedes and was repeatedly extruded from Late
rocks Aguas Blancas Permian (?) or Early Triassic time until
de Early Jurassic when normal calc-
alkaline magmas were first intruded
Triassic (?) (1) Diluvio River (1) Green keratophyre porphyry (1) Do not intrude rocks younger than (1) No radiometric ages. Post-Guatapuri NA (1) Perhaps they are the source of the
Keratophyre (stocks, dikes and sills) the Guatapuri Fm and are covered by the and pre-Los Clavos spilite and keratophyre that overlie the
porphyries Los Clavos ignimbrite. Guatapuri Formation
Guatapuri (1) Guatapuri River (1) A detailed description of the (1) Unconformably (?) overlay Corual (1) No fossils. The limestones contain (6) 183.3 ± 3.0 (rock (1) Mudflows, rock slides, turbidity
Formation Guatapuri Fm is difficult to establish Fm and Los Indios Fm. (2) Lies in unidentified fossils (tentatively type is not currents, lahars or explosive submarine
because the occurrence of very similar discordant and in faulted contact with interpreted to be fresh water algal mentioned) (?) eruptions from rift volcanoes or an
volcanic and sedimentary rocks, the Los Mangos Granulite and conformably fossils). Tuffs present silicified wood. offshore volcanic arc giving spilitic
complex structure and because of large upon Corual Fm Age not firmly fixed, but ostracods and rocks. The end of sedimentation was
areas covered by younger volcanic Estherias indicate an Early Triassic or marked by the influx of sand, the
rocks. In general, consists of alternating Late Permian age eruption of subaerial ignimbrite and
layers of sedimentary and volcanic (4) 138 ± 9 (K–Ar, impure plagioclase), fresh-water limestones.
rocks 165 ± 6 (K–Ar, Whole rock), 181 ± 10
(2) Red to violet series of volcanic (K–Ar, Whole rock) from basalts (5)
(spilitic and keratophyre flows), 196.5 ± 4.9 (K–Ar, Whole rock), 281.8
volcanoclastic (ignimbrites and tuffs) ± 6.3 (K–Ar, Whole rock), 293.5 ± 6.8
and sedimentary rocks (siltstones, (K–Ar, Whole rock)
sandstones)
Corual (1) Corual River (1) Varies from area to area. In general, (1) Unconformably overlie the (1) No fossils. No radiometric ages. By NA (1) Volcanogenic succession deposited
Formation it consists of basaltic and spilitic flows Precambrian basement (These are not in correlation with rocks in Perija: late in a taphrogenic marine through or
5

(?), porphyritic diabases or contact with Paleozoic basement). Permian (?) - early Triassic. (3) Assume a graben (disruption of an old shield area
keratophyres, and black siltstones, (3) This unit rests conformably upon on Norian - Rhaetian (Late Triassic) age by continental drift)
greywackes or tuffs. the Los Indios Formation (western flank (3) Rift volcanism in underwater
(3) Massive basalts, interlayered of the SNSM) and non-conformably on conditions
basalts and ash tuffs, and lapilli tuffs upon the Los Mangos Granulite (eastern
and northeastern flank of the SNSM).
Los Indios (1) Los Indios (1) Two members: A) Lower: Basal (1) Angular unconformity with (1) By fossils: Burgl et al. considered (3) Detrital zircon (1) Marine (3) Shallow-marine mixed
Formation creek, SE of conglomerate with cobbles of igneous Precambrian basement there are Triassic fossils, but Tschanz spectrum: 1114 - 930 platform and gravity flows (Segment:
Fundación and metamorphic rocks, gray coarse to (2) Rest conformably on Los Mangos suggests the formation is older. Lower Ma (collected below (1) fan delta to offshore deposits,
medium quartzite and alternating Granulite and is covered by Los Clavos member contains marine fossils the tuffs close to base (2) lower shoreface to offshore,
layers of gray to black, laminated, ignimbrite (ostracods and Estheria) and plant of segment 1) (3) fan delta)

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

micaceous, siliceous and partly (3) Conformably deposited on Los remains. Late Permian or Early Triassic?
calcareous shales. B) Upper: alternating Mangos Granulite. Overlain (3) By reinterpretation of previous
succession of quarzitic sandstones, conformably by Corual Formation and biostratigraphic data from Geyer (1973)
claystones and green porphyry Guatapuri Formation and Trumpy (1943): Late Triassic
(2) Fining-upward succession (Carnian - Norian) - Early Jurassic (?)
constituted by conglomerates grading
to sublitharenites and siltstones.
(3) Divided in 3 segments, from base to
top:
(1) Conglomerates and sandstones
(locally capped by basalts and tuffs)
(2) biomicrites and mudstones
(3) Conglomerates and sandstones

Note: (1) Tschanz et al. (1969), (2) Colmenares et al. (2007), (3) Gómez (2017), (4) Tschanz et al. (1974), (5) Bayona et al. (2010), (6) Leal-Mejía (2011), (7) Quandt et al. (2018).
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

2010; Sanchez and Mann, 2015), giving as a result a complicated For U–Pb zircon analyzes, the rock samples were crushed, pulverized
structural pattern due to the synchronous superimposition of two and sieved following the separation procedures of Castaño et al. (2018),
different styles (Colmenares et al., 2007). and analyzed in the LA-ICP-MS according to the procedures described in
Peña et al. (2018) at the Geochronology Laboratory of the Colombian
2.3. Proposed tectonic scenarios for the Early-Middle Jurassic units Geological Survey. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images were performed
using a Zeiss scanning electron microscope (SEM) with a GatCL miniCL
Cediel et al. (2003) based on the Jurassic sedimentary record in the detector to decipher the internal structure of the selected grains. The
Magdalena River valley and limited geochemistry from some plutonic mounted zircon crystals were analyzed in cores and rims in a Photon
bodies in the Santander region indicate that the NW edge of the South Machines ablation equipment with a 193 nm Excimer laser connected to
American continental plate was exposed to a prolonged period of con­ an Element 2 mass spectrometer, using a laser spot size of 30 μm. As
tinental taphrogenesis (from the late Paleozoic to the middle Creta­ reference standards were used: Plešovice (Sláma et al., 2008), FC-1
ceous), leading to the formation of the Bolivar’s aulacogen. Within this (Woodhead and Hergt, 2007), 91,500 (Wiedenbeck et al., 2004) and
broadly extensional environment, geographically limited arcs, of un­ Mount Dromedary (Renne et al., 1998). The data reduction was per­
known subduction vergence, and temporal extensional basins (fore-arc formed in Iolite v2.5® program in IGORPro6.3.6.4® (Paton et al., 2011).
and back-arc?) would have been formed during the Triassic – Jurassic The common lead correction was executed using the evolution model of
(Cediel et al., 2003). Stacey and Kramers (1975). Dates younger than 1000 Ma were preferred
Recent geochemical, geochronological, and structural studies, from the 206Pb/238U ratio, while dates older than this age were preferred
mostly conducted on the crystalline rocks of the Central Cordillera of from the 207Pb/206Pb ratio (because the effect caused by lead loss is less
Colombia, SMM, and Guajira Peninsula, however, support a different noticeable) (Gehrels, 2014). Discordance was calculated using the for­
tectonic setting. During the Permian (Cardona et al., 2010b; Cochrane mulas: Disc% =((207Pb/235U – 206Pb/238U)/206Pb/238U)*100 and
et al., 2014; Rodríguez et al., 2019; Spikings et al., 2015), Triassic ((207Pb/206Pb – 206Pb/238U)/206Pb/238U)*100, for the younger and
(Cardona et al., 2010b; Rodriguez-Jimenez et al., 2018) and Jurassic older than 1000 Ma data, respectively (Chew et al., 2020). Only data
(Bayona et al., 2006; Bustamante et al., 2016; Quandt et al., 2018; with a maximum of 10% discordance were selected to calculate the ages.
Spikings et al., 2015; Zuluaga et al., 2015) the principal tectonic regimes Dates obtained from fractures and mixed rims were discarded from the
along the Gondwana margin were mainly product of a compressiona­ age calculation after discordance filtering. The results were plotted in
l/extensional complex deformation process caused by oblique or Isoplot (Ludwig, 2012), Density Plotter 4.1 (Vermeesch, 2012) and
perpendicular subduction. In the Central Cordillera of Colombia, Provenance (Vermeesch et al., 2016).
though, the Middle-Upper Triassic rocks also show geochemical evi­ The thin sections were analyzed in the Petrography Laboratory of the
dence of extensional tectonics (Cochrane et al., 2014; Spikings and Paul, Colombian Geological Survey in Medellin using a Leitz polarizing mi­
2020). croscope. To classify the samples, the mineralogical counting was made
On the other hand, the paleomagnetic, geophysical, stratigraphic, on 200 points identifying the crystals and matrix of the rocks following
and provenance data from the Jurassic sedimentary and volcanic for­ the methodology of Streckeisen (1980) and Schmid (1981).
mations suggest a more complex tectonic scenario. Maze (1984) and The whole-rock geochemical analyzes were performed in the
Bayona et al. (2010) using paleomagnetic data from Perijá Range and Analytical Geochemistry Laboratory of the Colombian Geological Sur­
SMM, respectively, report that 1) back-arc transtensional basins formed vey. The major oxides and some trace elements (V, Mo, Nb, Ta, W, Zr
coeval with calc-alkaline magmatism, and 2) all the regions west of Lake and Hf) were determined using X-ray fluorescence in an analytical
Maracaibo may not be autochthonous. Sarmiento-Rojas et al. (2006), AXIOS Mineral spectrometer. The major oxides were quantified in a
using subsidence curves, stratigraphic thicknesses, and extensional data sample fused with lithium metaborate and tetraborate, and the trace
from stratigraphic columns and wells in Llanos, Eastern Cordillera, and elements in a pressed sample. The remaining trace elements, including
Magdalena Valley, suggests that two narrow back-arc transtensional rare earth elements, were measured through Inductively Coupled
basins extended regionally throughout Colombia and were separated by Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) using a PerkinElmer NEXION
the paleo Magdalena-La Salina fault system. Kammer and Sánchez mass spectrometer and the AGV-2 standard. The samples were gradually
(2006), conversely, described the formation of rift basins during the dissolved in strong inorganic acids (HF, HNO3, HClO4 and HCl) in an
Early Jurassic in the Eastern Cordillera, indicated by the wedge-like open system using different temperature ramps and heating times. MRC-
geometry of the sedimentary units along the Bucaramanga fault. Hor­ GSR-2 and MRC-BHVO-2 were used as standards. Some elemental con­
ton et al. (2010) attributed the disconnected distribution of detrital centrations, such as Hf, Ta, Mo and Ag, were lower than the detection
zircon ages within the Mesozoic successions of the Eastern Cordillera to limit of the device and therefore are not reported in the tables. For the
the Early Jurassic – Early Cretaceous rifting that formed local exten­ interpretation of the major oxides, data were first recalculated to a 100%
sional basins. Sanchez and Mann (2015), using gravitational and mag­ anhydrous base, considering only the results with LOI (loss on ignition)
netic modeling suggest the presence of thick buried layers of values < 3%. This same quality procedure was carried out on the sam­
sedimentary to metasedimentary rocks likely formed in a pre-Cretaceous ples from other studies used for comparison. The petrographic and
rift system parallel to where the range is currently located. And Nova geochemical diagrams were obtained using the GCDkit software
et al. (2019), indicate that the Perijá Range, SNSM and Cosinas (La (Janoušek et al., 2006).
Guajira) extensional basins accumulated separately because the paly­
nological, micropaleontological and paleomagnetic record is different in 4. Results
the three basins.
To date, however, the relationship between the extensional phases 4.1. Zircon U–Pb geochronology
and the subduction-related record during Early-Middle Jurassic in NW
Gondwana is still unclear (Bayona et al., 2020; Spikings et al., 2015). Table 2 shows the forty-four U–Pb zircon ages obtained in this study.
Analytical data, Wetherill concordia plots, and weighted mean average
3. Methodology plots can be found in tables A and B of the supplementary material,
respectively.
The fieldwork stations and rock survey were planned based on the The U–Pb zircon dates of volcanic rocks are best defined as the time
most recent geological map of the area (Colmenares et al., 2007). of crystallization of the magma in which the zircons occur prior to
Eighty-nine samples were collected on the SNSM foothills for petro­ eruption. Because volcanism is a quick process, any difference in age
graphic, geochemical, and geochronological studies. between crystallization and eruption is usually within the error of the

6
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

analyses (so is not detectable) (Blackburn et al., 2013). suggested by Dickinson and Gehrels (2009) in order to calculate the
In general terms, all our U–Pb data present high dispersion (dates maximum ages of deposition of the volcanic and volcanoclastic samples.
between ~210 and 160 Ma) in each of the volcanic and volcanoclastic Ages were yielded from the 3 to 5 youngest cluster of dates overlapping
samples. This spread could have been caused by 1) analytical bias and at 2σ (YC2σ(3+)) (assuming that this group of zircons crystallized
underestimated uncertainties, 2) post crystallization loss of radiogenic during the same magmatic episode), the youngest single grain age (YSG
Pb from zircons or 3) zircons representing a range of growth histories (2σ)) and the youngest population-weighted mean average age, with
prior to eruption (Schoene et al., 2010). After the exhaustive systematic MSWD ~ 1.0 (Table 2) in order to compare the results between each
acquisition of U–Pb data and cautious analysis of cathodoluminescence method.
images, we interpret that the spread in 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb Fig. 2A shows the KDE (Kernel Density Estimate plot) of all the
dates are the results of extended growth of zircon in the magmatic sys­ depositional ages obtained. We identify three groups: 1) 191 - 179 Ma,
tem. This is a well-documented phenomenon in igneous rocks due to the 2) 177 - 168 Ma and 3) 167 - 163 Ma. These characterize the onset,
prolonged crystallization of zircon in the reservoir, and by inheritance of development, and termination periods of volcanic activity in which the
older zircons in the magma or eruptive column (Schoene et al., 2015). different lithostratigraphic successions were deposited.
Difficulties arise when evaluating which grains crystallized directly Some of the volcanic samples additionally host Mesoproterozoic to
from the magmas and which were caught up in the depositional process Neoproterozoic crystals with dates between 1765 and 568 Ma, likely
(Lawton and Molina-Garza, 2014). Then, we followed the procedures inherited from the basement. One sample (GR6779) also yielded four

Table 2
U–Pb zircon ages obtained in this study.
Lat. Long. YC2σ(3+) Age (Ma) YSG (2σ) Age (Ma) WMA (MSWD ~ 1.0) Age (Ma)

Corual Formation
MIA-716 10◦ 54′ 48.51′′ N 72◦ 58′ 29.47′′ W 191.4 ± 2.2 189.9 ± 5.3 195.3 ± 0.7
JGB-506 10◦ 27′ 54.93′′ N 73◦ 20′ 37.76′′ W 167.7 ± 2.3 165.7 ± 4.6 169.5 ± 1.8
JGB-504 10◦ 28′ 32.44′′ N 73◦ 24′ 27.48′′ W 167.7 ± 3.0 165.6 ± 5.1 171.2 ± 1.6
LMC-101 10◦ 26′ 42.76′′ N 73◦ 24′ 7.04′′ W Insufficient zircons
GR-6797 10◦ 18′ 59.61′′ N 73◦ 51′ 49.23′′ W 173.7 ± 3.8 169.2 ± 7.6 176.3 ± 2.6
Guatapurí Formation
GR-6811 11◦ 12′ 22.26′′ N 73 9 56.24 W
◦ ′ ′′
177.2 ± 3.9 174.8 ± 7.6 178.8 ± 3.4
MIA-726A 10◦ 15′ 46.56′′ N 73◦ 39′ 29.69′′ W 185.8 ± 4.3 184.8 ± 7.7 187.9 ± 3.4
GR-6780 10◦ 5′ 49.81′′ N 73◦ 43′ 27.68′′ W 186.6 ± 4.7 180.4 ± 4.8 191.9 ± 1.2
GR-6782 10◦ 3′ 32.14′′ N 73◦ 46′ 39.68′′ W 166.0 ± 3.8 163.1 ± 8.3 171.7 ± 1.7
GR-6785 10◦ 3′ 30.70′′ N 73◦ 53′ 56.07′′ W 169.6 ± 2.2 168.7 ± 4.4 171.2 ± 1.7
MIA-688 10◦ 1′ 41.25′′ N 73◦ 47′ 57.54′′ W 163.9 ± 2.1 161.3 ± 4.8 167.2 ± 1.0
Keratophyre porphyry
JGB-505 10◦ 30′ 50.95′′ N 73◦ 25′ 45.55′′ W Barren of zircons
TCR-412 10◦ 26′ 21.80′′ N 73◦ 23′ 53.44′′ W 174.7 ± 2.3 172.1 ± 5.1 177.0 ± 1.5
Triassic spilites
GR-6779 10◦ 8′ 43.56′′ N 73◦ 38′ 39.04′′ W 172.8 ± 6.7 163.6 ± 6.3 178.6 ± 2.0
Caja de Ahorros ignimbrite
GR-6773 10◦ 17′ 18.28′′ N 73◦ 23′ 57.31′′ W 174.7 ± 1.9 173.5 ± 4.7 176.1 ± 2.3
LMC-102 10◦ 26′ 35.17′′ N 73◦ 19′ 3.01′′ W 171.7 ± 2.3 169.8 ± 5.5 175.1 ± 1.0
JGB-519 10◦ 7′ 49.32′′ N 73◦ 43′ 22.88′′ W 177.0 ± 1.9 175.8 ± 4.4 180.8 ± 0.6
La Paila ignimbrite
JGB-525 10◦ 6′ 53.16′′ N 73◦ 46′ 55.29′′ W 176.6 ± 1.9 173.8 ± 4.0 179.9 ± 0.8
Los Clavos ignimbrite
GOE-1051 10◦ 50′ 1.39′′ N 73◦ 6′ 26.22′′ W 165.5 ± 2.0 163.5 ± 4.4 165.5 ± 2.0
GR-6767 10◦ 24′ 51.85′′ N 73◦ 34′ 3.94′′ W 173.2 ± 2.9 170.9 ± 6.3 177.7 ± 1.5
GR-6769B 10◦ 24′ 41.66′′ N 73◦ 30′ 32.21′′ W 164.0 ± 5.0 163.4 ± 10.1 165.9 ± 2.1
GR-6770 10◦ 23′ 2.01′′ N 73◦ 27′ 53.42′′ W 170.9 ± 5.9 165.4 ± 5.0 168.5 ± 4.6
GR-6772 10◦ 25′ 0.71′′ N 73◦ 27′ 5.88′′ W 175.9 ± 2.9 175.0 ± 6.3 180.1 ± 1.5
GR-6793 10◦ 12′ 40.91′′ N 73◦ 52′ 15.55′′ W 170.8 ± 3.2 168.4 ± 7.1 174.2 ± 2.0
JGB-522 10◦ 9′ 39.70′′ N 73◦ 44′ 31.84′′ W 175.6 ± 2.0 174.1 ± 4.3 177.5 ± 1.4
MIA-694 10◦ 15′ 10.39′′ N 73◦ 49′ 43.70′′ W 171.4 ± 1.4 170.8 ± 3.5 173.3 ± 0.8
Los Tábanos rhyodacite
GR-6775 10◦ 17′ 37.53′′ N 73◦ 28′ 41.14′′ W 169.7 ± 2.0 168.7 ± 5.0 171.6 ± 4.7
GR-6778 10◦ 15′ 53.21′′ N 73◦ 31′ 59.62′′ W 171.1 ± 2.7 166.4 ± 5.5 171.1 ± 2.7
GR-6789 10◦ 5′ 40.77′′ N 73◦ 49′ 59.61′′ W 172.6 ± 2.6 169.9 ± 5.7 174.2 ± 2.1
MIA-686 9◦ 57′ 55.02′′ N 73◦ 52′ 31.94′′ W 164.2 ± 3.8 162.0 ± 9.0 168.7 ± 1.5
Golero rhyolite
MIA-701 11◦ 9′ 52.36′′ N 73◦ 28′ 24.21′′ W 186.0 ± 2.9 184.1 ± 5.1 191.9 ± 0.8
MIA-705 10◦ 57′ 50.26′′ N 72◦ 57′ 4.23′′ W 181.6 ± 2.3 181.1 ± 5.3 185.4 ± 0.9
MIA-706 10◦ 58′ 13.07′′ N 72◦ 57′ 40.21′′ W 175.9 ± 2.4 175.4 ± 5.0 180.7 ± 0.8
MIA-714 11◦ 2′ 30.74′′ N 72◦ 54′ 26.64′′ W 179.7 ± 2.1 178.6 ± 4.5 183.1 ± 0.9
MIA-718 10◦ 56′ 22.10′′ N 73◦ 0′ 29.08′′ W 183.1 ± 2.3 177.1 ± 3.6 184.6 ± 6.0
MIA-719 10◦ 41′ 41.04′′ N 73◦ 5′ 35.94′′ W 180.8 ± 2.3 178.0 ± 4.9 185.2 ± 1.0
MIA-720 10◦ 35′ 2.38′′ N 73◦ 12′ 2.94′′ W 166.4 ± 2.0 164.8 ± 4.3 167.3 ± 3.2
MIA-721 10◦ 35′ 56.25′′ N 73◦ 12′ 33.08′′ W 176.8 ± 2.2 174.4 ± 5.0 179.4 ± 1.3
MIA-723 10◦ 31′ 53.21′′ N 73◦ 12′ 26.63′′ W 173.2 ± 1.6 170.9 ± 2.8 177.0 ± 0.8
MIA-727 10◦ 17′ 3.70′′ N 73◦ 39′ 2.87′′ W 177.4 ± 2.3 175.8 ± 4.7 181.4 ± 1.0
MIA-691 10◦ 7′ 39.19′′ N 73◦ 52′ 38.51′′ W 166.6 ± 3.2 165.8 ± 6.5 168.4 ± 1.1
MIA-678 10◦ 30′ 56.90′′ N 73◦ 18′ 14.18′′ W 168.4 ± 2.1 166.3 ± 4.4 172.4 ± 0.8
Porphyry granite
GR-6771 10◦ 24′ 23.34′′ N 73◦ 26′ 48.36′′ W 167.2 ± 2.8 165.1 ± 7.9 171.9 ± 1.0
GR-6776 10◦ 19′ 3.26′′ N 73◦ 28′ 8.87′′ W 166.2 ± 4.1 162.4 ± 8.3 NA

7
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

inherited dates between 289 and 275 Ma, corresponding to source rocks altered to chlorite. The phenocrysts and microphencrysts are mainly of
formed during the Early Permian period (Fig. 2B). plagioclase, opaques, pyroxenes and sporadically completely altered
olivine. Occasionally the basalts contain amygdales and micro veins.
The micro veins are filled with epidote, epidote-zeolite or quartz. The
4.2. Microscopic characteristics of the volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks alterations present in the basalts are saussuritization, epidotization,
chloritization, propillitization and serpentinization.
Eighty-four thin sections of volcanic (43) and volcanoclastic (41) The latites and quartz-trachytes exhibit microporphyritic and
rocks were analyzed. The modal classification is presented in Fig. 3 and porphyritic texture in a devitrified felsitic micro-cryptocrystalline ma­
modal counting in Table C of the supplementary material. trix (Fig. 4E). Occasionally they present perlitic and brechoid texture.
The different volcanic and volcanoclastic informal units from Col­ Some samples have amygdales filled with quartz, varying from almost
menares et al. (2007) exhibit variable petrographic compositions, likely equidimensional of ~0.3 mm in diameter, to irregular and elongated
suggesting in some of them a bi-modal (mafic and acidic) character. In with width between 0.2 and 0.9 mm and length of 3.5 mm. The main
the volcanic samples, andesites, rhyolites and dacites are predominant, alterations are argillization, sericitization and carbonation.
and to a lesser extent basaltic andesites, latites, quartz-latites, quartz-­ In addition, ash tuffs, lapilli tuffs and pyroclastic breccias with ju­
trachytes and alkali feldspar rhyolites (Fig. 3A). In the volcanoclastic venile (altered and devitrified tuffs, welded or not welded), accessory
samples, the vitreous tuffs predominate over the lithic and crystalline (andesites, quartz latites, dacites, rhyolites, obsidians) and accidental
tuffs. (monzonites, quartz monzonites and mudstones) fragments in a vitreous
The alkali feldspar rhyolites and rhyolites present porphyritic, to crystalline matrix are also present. The tuffs were classified according
spherulitic and fluidal textures (Fig. 4A). The phenocrysts are of potas­ to Schmid (1981) (Fig. 3B) and are described below.
sium feldspar, quartz and plagioclase, and the spherulites are of potas­ Vitreous tuffs present a devitrified micro-cryptocrystalline matrix,
sium feldspar and quartz intergrowths. The matrix is cryptocrystalline locally forming poorly developed aggregates of feldspar and quartz.
felsitic and vitreous, and occasionally fluidal. Additionally, these sam­ Generally, the matrix is brown and presents alteration to chlorite, pal­
ples have amygdales filled with zeolite and chlorite. agonite, epidote and calcite. The crystals, anhedral to euhedral, are of
Dacites exhibit porphyritic and microporphyritic textures. The ma­ plagioclase, potassium feldspar, biotite completely altered to chlorite
trix presents microcrystalline felsitic texture (Fig. 4B) and micrographic and epidote, and hornblende. These are accompanied by accessory
intergrowths. The phenocrysts are of plagioclase, potassium feldspar, minerals such as apatite, titanite, zircon and opaques, and ash and lapilli
quartz and biotite, and occasionally hornblende. The main alterations in lithic fragments (Fig. 4F).
these rocks are sericitization, kaolinization and chloritization. The crystal tuffs are constituted by devitrified glass matrix and
Andesites have porphyritic, microporphyritic and fluidal textures. anhedral to euhedral crystal fragments (some smaller than 0.08 mm) of
The matrix is microgranular felsitic, microlytic hyalocrystalline and plagioclase, quartz, potassium feldspar, hornblende and biotite, together
fluidal microlytic (Fig. 4C). Interstitial microcrystals of opaque and with volcanic lithic fragments (Fig. 4G).
secondary aggregates of epidote and locally chlorite and calcite are The lithic tuffs (Fig. 4H) present microcrystalline fragments of
present into the oriented microliths. The pheno and microphenocrysts quartz, feldspars (produced by devitrification of the matrix) and
are of plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, quartz, and occasionally pyrox­ disseminated opaque minerals in a cryptocrystalline matrix. Plagioclase
ene. The main alterations in these rocks are sericitization and are anhedral to subhedral, very fine-to-medium sized, and slightly
propillitization. altered to sericite and epidote. Potassium feldspars are subhedral,
Basalts have a porphyritic, fluidal, microlitic fluidal and pilotaxitic inequigranular, fine-to-medium grained phenocrysts. Quartz appears in
texture (Fig. 4D). The matrix is microcrystalline and consists of oriented the form of anhedral phenocrysts with dissolved edges.
and disoriented plagioclase crystals, saussurite and opaque minerals.
The glass in several samples is dyed in yellowish brown-color when it is

Fig. 3. A) QAPF classification diagram (oversaturated in Si) (Streckeisen, 1980). B) Petrographic classification of the volcanoclastic rocks (Schmid, 1981). The
descriptions of the most abundant lithotypes are presented next.

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D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Fig. 4. Thin section photographs of the volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks present in the SMM: A) Rhyolite, B) Dacite, C) Andesite, D) Basalt, E) Latite, F) Vitreous
tuff, G) Crystal tuff and H) Lithic tuff.

4.3. Whole-rock geochemistry The Nb/Y vs Zr/Ti rock classification diagram (Pearce, 1996;
Winchester and Floyd, 1977) shows that the 23 volcanic samples from
Sixty-one rocks (28 volcanic and 33 volcanoclastic rocks) were the Jurassic informal units are distributed along the compositional fields
collected for geochemical studies. The samples were first analyzed under of rhyolite-dacite, trachyte, trachyandesite and andesite-basaltic
the microscope and then plotted in the diagram of Large et al. (2001), andesite (Fig. 6A). Each unit presents a generalized basic-intermediate
seeking possible signs of alteration (Fig. 5). In this way, samples to acidic trend, except Corual and Guatapurí formations, which show
MIA-726, MIA-723, GOE-1024, MIA-686, MIA-712, MIA-721, MIA-701, more basic-intermediate compositions. The rocks are sub alkaline
MIA-727, and MIA-713 were discarded. Our data is presented in this (Fig. 6B) and are distributed between the calc-alkaline and high-K cal­
section along with the geochemical results of correlative Jurassic vol­ c-alkaline fields. The Golero Rhyolite, though, is mainly high-K cal­
canic units for comparison purposes. All our geochemical results are c-alkaline (Fig. 6C). Two suspicious samples plot in the alkaline field
presented in Table 3. likely due to an increase in K2O and NaO caused by a hydrothermal
The major elements percentage content of the samples varies be­ alteration (No modal or normative evidence of alkaline minerals was
tween: SiO2: 52.9 and 78.4%, TiO2: 0.08 and 1.2%, Al2O3: 12.1 and found in these two samples) (Fig. 6B). Corual Formation is mainly
19.4%, MgO: 0.04 and 5.71%, CaO: 0.1 and 9.6%, K2O: 0.73 and 5.88%, metaluminous, Los Clavos is mainly peraluminous, while the rest of the
and Na2O: 1.87 and 6.70% (Fig. 5). units plot between the metaluminous and peraluminous fields (Fig. 6D).
The Harker diagrams show that TiO2, Al2O3, MgO, CaO, and P2O5 The classifications of the 29 volcanoclastic samples are similar to the
decrease regularly with increasing SiO2, whereas K2O and NaO increase volcanic rocks, although present more scattered results. These distribute
displaying great scatter (Fig. 5). This rising distribution suggests along the rhyolite-dacite, trachyte, trachyandesite and andesite-basaltic
geochemical mobility due to alteration; for this reason, the classification andesite (Fig. 6E), are sub alkaline (calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline)
and tectonic discrimination diagrams used were based on immobile or (Fig. 6F and G) and plot between the metaluminous and peraluminous
less mobile incompatible elements. The discontinuity present between fields (except for Caja de Ahorros ignimbrite which is only metal­
approx. 67–72% SiO2 in all figures is an effect inherent to the fractional uminous) (Fig. 6H).
crystallization process when crystal - liquid separation occurs more The geochemistry results of the volcanic rocks were additionally
efficiently in the volcanic series (Dufek and Bachmann, 2010). arranged following the groups established in Fig. 2A to analyze the

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D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Fig. 5. Alteration diagram AI vs CCPI (Large et al., 2001) and Harker diagrams of the volcanic and volcanoclastic Jurassic rocks of the SMM.

chemical changes occurring along time in the Jurassic successions rhyolite compositional fields, have peraluminous to metaluminous af­
(Fig. 7). finity and are dominant of high-K calc-alkaline character.
In this way, the samples from Group 1 (black, 191–179 Ma) are The multi-elemental diagram normalized to the primitive mantle
distributed in andesite-basaltic andesite and trachy-andesite fields, (Sun and McDonough, 1989) (Fig. 8A) present negative anomalies of Nb,
present calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline character and are domi­ P and Ti and positive anomalies of Rb, Ba, K, and Pb, likely caused by the
nantly metaluminous. The Group 2 samples (red, 177–168 Ma) corre­ mobilization of fluids that interact with the magma (Pearce et al., 1984;
sponds to andesite-basaltic andesites, dacites, and rhyolites, of high-K Pearce, 1996). The high values of the large-ion lithophile elements
calc-alkaline to calc-alkaline character and peraluminous to metal­ (LILE) show progressive depletion towards the high-field strength ele­
uminous affinity. The Group 3 samples (green, 167–163 Ma) distributes ments (HFSE), following the typical pattern of arc environments.
along the andesite-basaltic andesite, trachy-andesite, trachyte and The rare earth elements (REE) normalized to the Nakamura

10
 Table 3

D.A. Ramírez et al.

Whole-rock geochemistry obtained in this study.
Sample JGB504 JGB506 JGB507B MIA716 MIA703 MIA704 GOE1025 GR6794 GR6812 MIA726A GR6780 GR6782

Latitude 10◦ 28’32.4" 10◦ 27’54.9" 10◦ 28’14.8" 10◦ 54’48.5" 10◦ 55’45.4" 10◦ 57’21.3" 9◦ 59’27.5" 10◦ 12’38.4" 11◦ 12’41.4" 10◦ 15’46.5" 10◦ 5’49.8" 10◦ 3’32.1"
Longitude 73◦ 24’27.4" 73◦ 20’37.7" 73◦ 21’24.37" 72◦ 58’29.47" 72◦ 57’2.50" 72◦ 56’39.41" 73◦ 52’0.43" 73◦ 51’15.41" 73◦ 10’31.58" 73◦ 39’29.69" 73◦ 43’27.68" 73◦ 46’39.68"
Unit Corual Corual Corual Corual Corual Corual Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí

SiO2 57.70 57.20 64.65 62.86 66.35 66.85 70.65 59.63 57.70 70.96 63.65 62.83
TiO2 1.01 0.99 0.74 0.60 0.48 0.49 0.33 0.78 1.06 0.42 0.62 0.65
Al2O3 16.17 16.58 16.09 15.77 16.19 14.53 14.03 17.28 17.58 12.97 16.04 16.02
Fe2O3 7.10 7.08 4.32 5.29 4.32 3.35 2.71 6.02 7.45 3.37 4.65 5.11
MgO 3.80 3.66 1.64 2.61 1.40 1.42 0.80 2.40 1.91 0.70 2.17 2.12
CaO 6.54 6.10 2.57 4.62 2.14 2.89 0.76 4.53 4.48 4.90 3.33 3.59
Na2O 3.02 3.14 4.12 3.70 4.46 3.33 3.72 3.53 6.70 2.80 4.60 4.77
K2O 3.04 2.98 4.35 1.87 2.11 3.94 4.57 2.70 0.73 1.72 2.67 2.12
P2O5 0.34 0.30 0.19 0.12 0.13 0.17 0.10 0.32 0.24 0.04 0.30 0.28
LOI 0.89 1.56 1.03 2.37 2.23 2.81 2.08 2.36 1.93 1.93 1.53 2.24
Mn 849.00 956.00 681.00 604.00 460.00 385.00 219.00 854.00 743.00 425.00 607.00 350.00
Li 15.80 21.10 19.10 16.10 20.10 16.00 24.90 32.90 9.90 11.50 40.00 37.80
Be 2.43 2.14 3.68 1.14 1.62 1.76 2.10 2.34 1.31 1.30 2.53 2.00
Sc 20.03 18.98 15.00 16.05 8.29 6.57 4.72 14.36 19.93 7.42 9.84 10.52
Co 29.00 23.80 16.40 24.10 10.30 12.90 8.40 18.70 19.10 9.20 18.10 18.70
Ni 29.00 22.10 5.90 26.50 5.70 13.70 13.60 10.10 25.70 9.10 23.60 39.40
Cu 105.10 262.70 15.80 7.10 9.20 7.20 11.50 33.00 30.30 4.70 51.40 55.10
Zn 137.20 103.60 63.50 79.90 75.10 56.20 50.60 63.80 62.30 49.60 79.20 69.40
Ga 19.00 18.10 20.00 15.50 18.00 18.20 21.30 19.40 19.80 13.30 21.00 18.10
As 1.56 2.09 2.28 2.37 2.89 41.73 2.06 3.08 5.44 4.42 1.61 1.59
Rb 81.00 79.00 119.00 44.00 53.00 127.00 130.00 73.00 17.00 27.00 82.00 69.00
Sr 571.00 478.00 296.00 268.00 312.00 301.00 190.00 663.00 365.00 425.00 637.00 528.00
Y 38.00 29.00 35.00 32.00 21.00 18.00 11.00 23.00 32.00 20.00 14.00 14.00
11

Cd 0.42 0.33 0.33 0.19 0.20 0.19 0.10 0.20 0.27 0.20 0.28 0.23
In 0.10 0.07 0.12 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04
Cs 1.39 0.87 1.00 0.52 0.84 3.02 2.09 1.17 0.07 0.30 2.53 3.43
Ba 1158.00 1177.00 1606.00 722.00 875.00 1097.00 1039.00 1693.00 405.00 823.00 881.00 571.00
La 31.30 29.40 51.70 23.00 26.50 32.10 37.10 25.30 23.60 21.30 46.80 27.70
Ce 75.00 75.40 105.30 53.10 60.50 70.40 64.10 58.20 55.00 48.50 80.60 59.80
Pr 10.40 10.20 14.20 5.90 7.00 7.60 6.80 7.90 8.00 5.50 9.80 7.00
Nd 32.40 32.80 41.70 19.90 21.30 22.70 17.60 25.60 30.10 20.40 30.40 22.80
Sm 8.50 8.40 10.10 4.60 4.80 5.00 3.50 6.40 7.40 4.50 6.00 5.00
Eu 2.40 2.40 2.50 1.40 1.50 1.50 1.20 2.40 2.00 1.40 1.90 1.60
Gd 8.10 7.80 9.10 4.70 4.70 4.70 3.50 5.90 7.60 4.20 5.30 4.70

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Tb 1.18 1.16 1.36 0.71 0.66 0.62 0.46 0.88 1.22 0.67 0.67 0.61
Dy 6.44 6.38 7.47 4.27 4.02 3.43 2.38 4.63 6.88 3.76 3.33 3.15
Ho 1.25 1.25 1.52 0.92 0.83 0.70 0.44 0.95 1.37 0.78 0.64 0.62
Er 3.61 3.63 4.47 2.75 2.55 2.03 1.35 2.69 3.85 2.33 1.78 1.75
Tm 0.49 0.50 0.64 0.41 0.39 0.29 0.19 0.38 0.51 0.34 0.23 0.23
Yb 3.12 3.32 4.24 2.67 2.71 2.00 1.26 2.52 3.31 2.36 1.53 1.49
Lu 0.44 0.48 0.63 0.42 0.42 0.30 0.19 0.36 0.43 0.34 0.23 0.23
Tl 0.68 0.31 0.66 0.22 0.25 0.62 1.01 0.57 0.12 0.16 0.68 0.42
Pb 7.50 12.20 16.80 9.90 11.20 7.40 8.90 7.60 11.30 9.40 9.40 8.60
Th 7.40 6.20 13.10 3.80 2.70 8.00 11.60 4.70 3.10 1.90 9.70 6.30
U 1.79 1.48 2.97 0.72 0.40 1.52 2.14 1.32 0.71 0.34 2.22 1.74
V 179.00 146.00 66.00 101.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 106.00 190.00 66.00 90.00 84.00
Zr 270.00 272.00 420.00 145.00 177.00 172.00 157.00 298.00 221.00 126.00 281.00 220.00
Nb 10.00 10.00 17.00 5.00 5.00 7.00 10.00 7.00 7.00 5.00 16.00 12.00

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 D.A. Ramírez et al.
Table 3 (continued )
Sample GR6784 GR6785 GR6787 GR6797 MIA688 JGB514 JGB518 MIA676C MIA676D GR6773 GR6774 GR6777

Latitude 10 0’59.47"
◦
10 3’30.70"
◦
10 4’9.09"
◦
10 18’59.61"
◦
10 1’41.25"
◦
10 7’5.77"
◦
10 5’41.78"
◦
10 31’19.22"
◦
10 31’19.22"
◦
10 17’18.28"
◦
10 17’10.32"
◦
10◦ 14’1.47"
Longitude 73◦ 54’22.72" 73◦ 53’56.07" 73◦ 50’59.88" 73◦ 51’49.23" 73◦ 47’57.54" 73◦ 41’0.01" 73◦ 40’14.9" 73◦ 19’59.92" 73◦ 19’59.92" 73◦ 23’57.31" 73◦ 27’47.40" 73◦ 28’13.10"
Unit Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí Guatapurí C. de Ahorros C. de Ahorros C. de Ahorros

SiO2 72.44 66.68 63.97 53.48 77.46 61.79 59.50 69.25 68.71 64.11 65.97 63.21
TiO2 0.30 0.79 0.58 1.01 0.14 0.91 0.88 0.77 0.41 0.60 0.50 0.62
Al2O3 13.46 14.77 16.35 16.68 12.65 15.32 16.24 12.39 15.41 15.64 15.07 15.72
Fe2O3 2.06 3.48 4.48 9.01 0.42 5.48 6.13 5.65 2.97 4.18 3.53 4.69
MgO 0.80 1.04 0.62 3.70 0.10 2.89 2.73 1.90 1.28 1.60 1.29 2.09
CaO 1.07 2.64 2.31 8.12 0.15 2.02 6.68 4.01 1.60 3.16 2.56 2.70
Na2O 4.96 4.74 4.67 3.85 4.59 6.38 3.31 1.87 4.18 4.31 4.38 4.84
K2O 3.13 2.55 3.74 1.89 3.51 2.82 1.10 2.08 3.66 3.55 4.01 3.77
P2O5 0.08 0.19 0.23 0.32 0.03 0.39 0.46 0.23 0.14 0.18 0.15 0.19
LOI 1.43 2.80 2.73 1.58 0.88 1.82 2.66 1.57 1.44 2.38 2.30 1.77
Mn 350.00 392.00 301.00 1136.00 24.00 602.00 762.00 557.00 404.00 668.00 587.00 764.00
Li 27.70 30.30 11.60 3.80 31.90 26.40 16.20 17.00 13.00 26.20 20.00 42.70
Be 2.25 2.84 2.58 1.38 1.85 2.68 2.41 1.60 1.90 2.43 2.40 2.50
Sc 4.59 9.77 9.30 26.42 2.28 12.60 14.07 18.00 6.10 8.94 8.62 12.36
Co 7.00 9.90 13.70 28.60 8.80 21.10 20.90 24.00 14.00 13.50 12.20 17.10
Ni 4.80 6.70 9.90 73.70 1.90 58.30 27.60 35.00 13.00 6.90 4.50 6.90
Cu 43.60 12.00 6.50 132.90 11.20 48.30 68.10 8.20 18.00 13.60 13.60 31.80
Zn 42.50 65.60 62.80 104.50 54.10 63.70 96.20 55.00 63.00 67.50 56.30 71.80
Ga 13.20 18.10 17.60 16.80 9.80 16.20 21.70 15.00 17.00 17.80 17.00 19.00
As 3.11 2.40 4.16 2.41 0.90 6.41 1.71 2.80 1.40 2.18 1.91 4.82
Rb 81.00 70.00 94.00 66.00 75.00 63.00 53.00 84.00 101.00 98.00 116.00 101.00
Sr 219.00 326.00 500.00 598.00 149.00 186.00 851.00 387.00 290.00 398.00 306.00 342.00
12

Y 13.00 24.00 22.00 26.00 10.00 18.00 18.00 15.00 28.00 26.00 29.00
Cd 0.14 0.33 0.15 0.26 0.18 0.25 0.45 0.09 0.08 0.13 0.13 0.19
In 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.06
Cs 0.77 0.93 2.55 0.31 2.71 0.42 55.23 0.49 0.72 1.62 1.60 0.88
Ba 1447.00 1073.00 1590.00 887.00 1377.00 966.00 532.00 596.00 987.00 918.00 914.00 964.00
La 30.70 42.40 27.50 17.20 28.50 47.30 46.50 16.00 30.00 31.20 32.40 34.10
Ce 59.60 74.40 57.50 34.50 59.70 91.10 85.50 35.00 54.00 72.70 76.30 77.90
Pr 7.10 9.50 7.80 5.80 5.60 12.30 10.50 4.40 5.90 9.60 9.60 10.40
Nd 20.50 33.60 27.60 26.90 12.20 38.90 28.00 17.00 21.00 33.40 27.70 38.60
Sm 3.90 6.90 5.80 6.40 2.80 8.10 7.10 3.60 3.90 7.00 6.50 7.90
Eu 1.40 2.00 2.00 2.00 0.95 2.40 2.20 1.20 1.20 1.80 1.70 2.00

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Gd 3.60 6.40 5.20 6.30 2.70 7.00 6.60 3.10 3.60 6.50 6.20 7.30
Tb 0.49 0.86 0.74 1.00 0.37 0.92 0.89 0.50 0.51 0.94 0.92 1.04
Dy 2.54 4.60 3.96 5.93 1.93 4.44 4.47 2.50 2.80 5.39 5.07 6.17
Ho 0.51 0.92 0.81 1.17 0.37 0.82 0.82 0.47 0.55 1.11 1.08 1.25
Er 1.66 2.68 2.44 3.45 1.19 2.37 2.45 1.30 1.60 3.28 3.24 3.72
Tm 0.25 0.38 0.34 0.47 0.17 0.31 0.33 0.15 0.22 0.47 0.46 0.53
Yb 1.77 2.39 2.29 3.08 1.20 2.11 2.12 0.89 1.50 3.11 3.12 3.41
Lu 0.29 0.37 0.35 0.43 0.19 0.31 0.34 0.11 0.22 0.48 0.48 0.53
Tl 0.59 0.56 0.54 0.54 0.68 0.37 0.43 0.39 0.40 0.53 0.54 0.75
Pb 12.90 11.50 11.90 17.30 15.60 10.50 8.00 10.00 6.60 12.60 11.00 10.00
Th 8.80 8.00 3.40 1.40 16.20 9.00 8.80 2.60 6.20 8.20 9.40 8.50
U 2.24 2.52 1.20 0.48 3.01 1.88 2.13 0.55 1.80 1.77 1.87 1.77
V 66.00 66.00 90.00 190.00 66.00 66.00 101.00 96.00 39.00 66.00 66.00 90.00
Zr 181.00 320.00 193.00 148.00 109.00 226.00 294.00 163.00 169.00 247.00 227.00 241.00
Nb 8.00 13.00 6.00 4.00 11.00 16.00 20.00 7.00 8.00 10.00 10.00 11.00

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 D.A. Ramírez et al.
Table 3 (continued )
Sample LMC102 GOE1031 GOE1032 GOE1051 GOE1055 GR6752 GR6767 GR6769B GR6770 GR6772 GR6793 GZ6881

Latitude 10◦ 26’35.17" 10◦ 15’5.12" 10◦ 15’53.64" 10◦ 50’1.39" 10◦ 47’15.16" 10◦ 30’54.27" 10◦ 24’51.8" 10◦ 24’41.66" 10◦ 23’2.01" 10◦ 25’0.71" 10◦ 12’40.91" 10◦ 55’44.50"
Longitude 73◦ 19’3.01" 73◦ 50’32.93" 73◦ 48’51.18" 73◦ 6’26.22" 73◦ 5’20.21" 73◦ 14’52.27" 73◦ 34’3.94" 73◦ 30’32.21" 73◦ 27’53.42" 73◦ 27’5.88" 73◦ 52’15.55" 73◦ 1’30.23"
Unit C. de Ahorros Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos

SiO2 66.09 65.86 74.96 74.02 78.04 66.14 61.32 66.36 67.64 66.49 67.84 68.15
TiO2 0.51 0.50 0.18 0.20 0.11 0.55 0.71 0.57 0.54 0.55 0.38 0.59
Al2O3 15.64 16.48 13.70 13.80 12.20 16.36 16.26 15.35 15.54 15.47 15.49 13.57
Fe2O3 3.94 2.87 1.11 1.42 0.85 3.80 5.81 3.89 3.58 3.81 3.45 5.45
MgO 1.35 0.87 0.25 0.33 0.10 1.65 2.30 1.87 1.13 1.33 1.12 2.23
CaO 3.05 2.93 0.30 0.49 0.28 1.80 4.93 2.97 2.12 3.15 2.72 2.37
Na2O 3.91 4.22 4.79 4.39 4.18 4.56 3.53 4.21 4.35 4.16 4.02 3.46
K2O 3.87 4.02 3.61 4.33 3.13 3.15 3.09 2.86 3.58 3.63 3.45 2.65
P2O5 0.17 0.15 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.16 0.17 0.13 0.13
LOI 1.21 1.65 0.79 0.78 0.89 1.53 1.37 1.40 1.11 1.01 1.11 1.18
Mn 672.00 628.00 93.00 204.00 309.00 699.00 924.00 461.00 664.00 604.00 558.00 331.00
Li 15.00 7.80 7.30 5.10 3.60 15.00 14.30 31.50 12.10 12.10 19.00 15.80
Be 2.30 2.23 2.15 2.27 1.48 1.80 2.03 2.43 2.66 2.67 2.16 1.42
Sc 9.80 7.61 3.08 2.84 3.18 7.90 16.46 8.50 7.50 8.96 6.90 13.98
Co 18.00 12.20 13.00 12.60 17.40 21.00 29.90 22.50 16.60 17.60 18.40 27.50
Ni 5.50 5.00 3.00 3.00 3.60 14.00 9.60 30.60 8.50 9.20 6.50 67.00
Cu 23.00 80.10 8.90 5.40 4.50 37.00 56.40 42.10 9.60 21.60 24.20 6.60
Zn 69.00 61.50 28.00 25.50 35.30 77.00 143.70 66.40 50.50 60.20 62.90 33.20
Ga 18.00 19.30 14.50 17.10 10.20 19.00 21.50 18.60 16.90 18.50 18.80 14.30
As 2.70 2.48 0.96 1.31 1.24 2.20 3.03 1.44 1.97 1.71 3.46 10.80
Rb 118.00 112.00 86.00 97.00 58.00 88.00 94.00 71.00 82.00 102.00 104.00 67.00
Sr 327.00 421.00 206.00 117.00 82.00 559.00 437.00 431.00 332.00 338.00 385.00 203.00
Y 23.00 26.00 20.00 21.00 14.00 30.00 16.00 27.00 28.00 17.00 29.00
13

Cd 0.15 0.17 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.64 0.21 0.18 0.19 0.15 0.13 0.17
In 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.11
Cs 1.20 1.02 0.39 0.43 0.19 2.80 1.89 0.39 0.59 0.47 1.20 1.69
Ba 836.00 1447.00 1229.00 1008.00 1168.00 1174.00 1189.00 874.00 1146.00 904.00 853.00 1368.00
La 33.00 30.50 30.20 48.00 30.40 24.00 30.90 30.80 39.70 37.40 23.30 22.30
Ce 66.00 67.40 65.50 74.60 66.70 49.00 76.70 69.30 80.80 79.10 50.30 49.60
Pr 8.10 8.50 7.90 9.90 7.80 6.00 9.90 8.60 10.30 10.50 6.40 6.80
Nd 27.00 28.90 21.40 29.20 21.50 21.00 32.80 28.60 34.20 36.10 21.40 23.20
Sm 5.50 6.00 4.50 5.30 4.20 4.10 7.80 5.30 7.30 7.60 4.60 5.90
Eu 1.40 1.80 1.10 1.20 0.97 1.60 2.10 1.70 1.90 1.80 1.60 1.80
Gd 5.10 5.40 4.00 4.60 3.80 3.80 7.30 5.00 6.70 7.00 4.40 5.90

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Tb 0.76 0.72 0.57 0.59 0.50 0.52 1.04 0.66 0.99 1.07 0.64 1.01
Dy 4.20 4.06 3.25 3.35 2.61 2.60 5.80 3.34 5.32 5.45 3.32 5.83
Ho 0.84 0.81 0.70 0.69 0.56 0.52 1.19 0.65 1.10 1.20 0.69 1.18
Er 2.60 2.38 2.21 2.24 1.81 1.60 3.55 1.87 3.28 3.47 2.07 3.46
Tm 0.36 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.27 0.21 0.50 0.25 0.46 0.50 0.29 0.48
Yb 2.50 2.23 2.37 2.45 2.00 1.40 3.19 1.63 3.05 3.29 1.93 3.19
Lu 0.37 0.29 0.36 0.37 0.29 0.20 0.44 0.25 0.46 0.49 0.28 0.42
Tl 0.34 0.60 0.53 0.40 0.34 0.44 0.65 0.43 0.42 0.51 0.61 0.55
Pb 14.00 13.00 4.50 8.20 9.50 19.00 11.00 13.50 10.50 13.10 12.90 9.70
Th 7.90 5.10 6.60 10.00 5.40 3.60 6.80 7.50 9.60 9.70 2.70 4.00
U 1.90 1.56 2.19 1.84 0.62 1.30 1.44 2.05 1.97 1.94 0.66 0.68
V 54.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 60.00 112.00 67.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00
Zr 232.00 331.00 152.00 173.00 91.00 165.00 249.00 193.00 240.00 242.00 156.00 172.00
Nb 12.00 10.00 8.00 13.00 7.00 6.00 10.00 10.00 11.00 11.00 6.00 6.00

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 D.A. Ramírez et al.
Table 3 (continued )
Sample GZ6888 JGB519 JGB522 JGB525 JGB505 TCR412 GR6775 GR6778 GR6786 MIA724 MIA687 JGB508A

Latitude 10◦ 22’5.48" 10◦ 7’49.32" 10◦ 9’39.70" 10◦ 6’53.16" 10◦ 30’50.95" 10◦ 26’21.80" 10◦ 17’37.5" 10◦ 15’53.21" 10◦ 4’8.24" 10◦ 33’54.42" 9◦ 59’15.53" 10◦ 14’42.97"
Longitude 73◦ 30’11.85" 73◦ 43’22.88" 73◦ 44’31.84" 73◦ 46’55.29" 73◦ 25’45.55" 73◦ 23’53.44" 73◦ 28’41.1" 73◦ 31’59.62" 73◦ 51’38.44" 73◦ 10’29.43" 73◦ 52’11.64" 73◦ 32’52.54"
Unit Los Clavos Los Clavos Los Clavos La Paila Tr. porphyries Tr. porphyries Los Tábanos Los Tábanos Los Tábanos Los Tábanos Los Tábanos Los Tábanos

SiO2 63.78 64.34 65.21 65.54 53.43 73.32 76.53 74.20 73.76 75.31 66.20 62.80
TiO2 0.64 0.60 0.55 0.63 1.10 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.23 0.49 0.67
Al2O3 16.51 15.78 15.70 15.76 16.75 14.39 12.95 13.48 13.32 12.98 15.56 16.08
Fe2O3 4.49 4.22 4.10 4.47 8.91 1.37 0.95 1.60 1.69 1.18 3.50 4.59
MgO 1.65 1.68 1.37 1.16 4.47 0.26 0.26 0.35 0.40 0.15 1.81 2.39
CaO 2.87 2.10 3.62 0.72 6.30 0.70 0.18 0.63 1.15 0.22 0.92 3.26
Na2O 4.06 4.63 2.67 3.70 3.22 4.39 3.28 4.17 3.73 4.04 5.01 4.34
K2O 3.73 4.03 4.37 5.86 2.76 4.04 4.59 4.42 3.97 5.21 3.73 3.55
P2O5 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.20 0.36 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.15 0.23
LOI 1.83 2.17 2.03 1.61 2.27 1.08 0.91 0.63 1.49 0.55 2.40 1.80
Mn 582.00 663.00 611.00 647.00 1165.00 270.00 212.00 325.00 162.00 355.00 506.00 563.00
Li 19.60 31.80 17.60 33.30 13.70 4.10 4.90 7.30 6.90 7.00 46.60 22.80
Be 2.66 2.69 2.54 2.30 2.33 1.90 2.29 3.34 2.71 2.92 2.66 2.53
Sc 11.20 10.26 9.48 11.78 23.36 1.90 2.59 3.87 2.24 2.02 5.09 11.19
Co 17.30 11.60 10.00 14.30 25.70 5.40 12.30 16.90 12.00 15.30 10.60 17.90
Ni 6.70 6.70 6.40 6.70 27.20 3.70 1.60 3.40 5.20 1.30 12.10 19.80
Cu 24.00 16.00 8.70 17.50 256.10 4.20 11.50 19.60 10.50 4.90 33.00 12.90
Zn 64.20 67.70 67.40 59.30 179.30 43.00 24.20 43.80 39.10 33.60 66.00 88.60
Ga 20.10 18.70 19.20 16.40 18.30 18.00 13.00 16.50 16.10 17.20 19.40 20.10
As 2.29 4.29 4.15 14.04 2.34 1.60 1.57 1.46 0.96 1.66 2.53 2.27
Rb 107.00 110.00 122.00 157.00 66.00 102.00 124.00 114.00 123.00 131.00 131.00 93.00
Sr 392.00 329.00 232.00 313.00 500.00 253.00 90.00 163.00 184.00 76.00 207.00 560.00
Y 29.00 31.00 33.00 28.00 30.00 15.00 25.00 21.00 10.00 25.00 11.00 19.00
14

Cd 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.19 0.42 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.18
In 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05
Cs 1.05 2.83 1.39 2.90 0.33 0.38 1.30 0.72 1.03 0.71 2.34 1.03
Ba 1204.00 1176.00 1336.00 2264.00 1218.00 1476.00 937.00 983.00 894.00 834.00 1618.00 1455.00
La 43.50 44.20 45.30 35.70 28.80 35.00 31.40 44.00 35.40 53.70 23.40 29.60
Ce 85.40 87.30 83.30 85.30 74.60 60.00 66.40 75.40 62.20 94.50 53.80 70.80
Pr 11.10 11.50 10.80 11.30 10.30 6.60 7.50 9.20 6.50 10.40 5.70 8.90
Nd 30.90 36.70 33.40 38.10 33.20 21.00 18.90 25.80 14.30 27.90 17.50 30.90
Sm 7.90 8.10 7.50 9.00 9.10 4.00 3.70 5.30 3.10 6.00 3.90 6.40
Eu 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.10 2.60 1.30 0.92 1.30 0.97 0.98 1.70 2.10
Gd 7.30 7.90 7.10 8.60 8.60 3.90 3.40 4.90 3.00 5.80 3.50 6.10

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Tb 1.12 1.19 1.09 1.25 1.23 0.50 0.46 0.70 0.37 0.85 0.51 0.84
Dy 6.32 6.56 6.00 6.47 6.85 2.60 2.59 3.72 1.85 4.55 2.44 4.31
Ho 1.29 1.30 1.25 1.27 1.34 0.50 0.55 0.83 0.36 0.96 0.49 0.82
Er 3.86 4.02 3.80 3.68 3.83 1.40 1.85 2.61 1.11 3.00 1.43 2.54
Tm 0.55 0.58 0.56 0.52 0.53 0.19 0.30 0.40 0.16 0.46 0.20 0.35
Yb 3.53 3.90 3.78 3.40 3.48 1.30 2.17 2.80 1.09 3.17 1.25 2.35
Lu 0.54 0.61 0.57 0.53 0.48 0.18 0.37 0.46 0.17 0.49 0.20 0.36
Tl 0.49 0.65 0.69 1.04 0.33 0.43 0.69 0.68 0.87 0.58 0.93 0.57
Pb 15.00 10.90 18.00 17.40 38.00 7.00 8.70 14.40 12.00 13.40 7.50 8.00
Th 9.70 10.20 10.60 5.40 5.30 6.60 10.00 9.70 14.30 13.10 10.20 7.50
U 2.12 2.06 2.24 1.32 1.43 1.80 2.08 2.17 2.84 2.79 2.46 2.20
V 67.00 67.00 66.00 66.00 207.00 14.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 95.00
Zr 255.00 255.00 244.00 208.00 248.00 173.00 107.00 132.00 125.00 138.00 196.00 186.00
Nb 11.00 12.00 12.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 14.00 11.00 6.00

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 D.A. Ramírez et al.
Table 3 (continued )
Sample GOE1059 GR6795 B MIA705 MIA706 MIA714 MIA719 MIA720 MIA725 GR6790 GOE1027 MIA691 MIA677

Latitude 10 31’49.21"
◦
10 12’30.89"
◦
10 57’50.26"
◦
10 58’13.07"
◦
11 2’30.74"
◦
10 41’41.04"
◦
10 35’2.38"
◦
10 33’11.98"
◦
10 9’50.46"
◦
10 5’53.15"
◦
10 7’39.19"
◦
10◦ 30’59.97"
Longitude 73◦ 15’20.31" 73◦ 50’34.72" 72◦ 57’4.23" 72◦ 57’40.21" 72◦ 54’26.64" 73◦ 5’35.94" 73◦ 12’2.94" 73◦ 11’24.90" 73◦ 56’5.32" 73◦ 54’42.43" 73◦ 52’38.51" 73◦ 18’32.75"
Unit Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero Golero

SiO2 65.21 75.63 72.93 75.64 75.41 74.68 76.93 72.68 64.93 62.31 72.75 73.17
TiO2 0.59 0.18 0.33 0.19 0.17 0.26 0.22 0.24 0.60 0.84 0.36 0.22
Al2O3 15.74 13.01 13.52 12.89 12.92 12.55 12.36 13.74 16.07 15.82 13.87 14.12
Fe2O3 4.08 1.25 1.93 1.01 1.08 1.59 0.74 1.89 4.10 5.07 2.01 1.58
MgO 1.63 0.27 0.70 0.28 0.23 0.10 0.12 0.42 1.84 3.18 0.26 0.45
CaO 2.76 0.18 1.30 0.68 0.60 1.20 0.10 0.50 3.49 3.99 0.36 1.02
Na2O 4.19 4.39 3.93 3.83 3.97 5.80 4.10 4.56 4.64 4.70 4.73 3.43
K2O 3.85 4.26 4.48 4.92 5.16 2.33 4.71 4.86 2.68 1.60 4.70 5.08
P2O5 0.17 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.29 0.28 0.04 0.05
LOI 1.53 0.66 0.77 0.51 0.38 1.23 0.60 0.84 1.06 1.86 0.74 0.67
Mn 652.00 247.00 187.00 103.00 98.00 182.00 144.00 490.00 427.00 666.00 223.00 501.00
Li 22.60 8.20 11.60 3.70 5.70 2.30 2.10 9.10 27.70 24.00 6.10 7.30
Be 2.00 2.56 3.00 3.50 2.94 1.18 2.37 2.83 2.72 1.74 3.81 2.30
Sc 8.39 2.10 5.05 3.51 3.38 3.54 2.71 4.54 9.27 17.51 5.31 4.20
Co 14.30 17.30 16.40 15.50 13.50 10.30 11.70 12.70 19.10 23.60 12.40 15.00
Ni 7.10 2.50 9.10 5.40 4.40 2.40 1.70 7.20 24.50 51.40 3.30 2.40
Cu 19.50 4.70 6.30 29.20 4.40 4.40 6.40 5.80 19.00 90.50 12.00 11.00
Zn 65.40 28.30 23.10 19.50 41.60 16.70 307.00 48.80 68.60 94.20 40.00 40.00
Ga 18.80 14.40 16.40 15.80 16.20 9.40 14.90 16.90 19.10 25.40 18.70 15.00
As 2.20 2.45 2.08 1.87 1.75 4.60 2.54 1.68 6.14 3.63 2.23 2.80
Rb 106.00 104.00 104.00 106.00 110.00 36.00 91.00 110.00 81.00 50.00 116.00 172.00
15

Sr 362.00 110.00 211.00 139.00 107.00 115.00 46.00 99.00 425.00 468.00 79.00 192.00
Y 30.00 26.00 15.00 11.00 15.00 26.00 18.00 22.00 13.00 19.00 36.00 23.00
Cd 0.16 0.08 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.14 1.02 0.12 0.17 0.23 0.11 0.07
In 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03
Cs 1.13 1.35 0.92 0.86 0.69 0.13 0.40 0.59 1.97 1.88 1.20 1.50
Ba 1010.00 713.00 703.00 300.00 530.00 1331.00 897.00 1113.00 904.00 851.00 1567.00 1238.00
La 36.40 29.20 26.20 24.00 40.10 42.40 49.00 52.90 41.20 33.20 45.70 39.00
Ce 79.20 61.20 55.30 39.80 69.60 75.60 55.00 89.80 70.80 72.30 83.80 67.00
Pr 10.00 7.20 5.00 4.40 6.40 8.10 8.60 9.80 9.10 9.40 10.20 7.70
Nd 31.60 18.10 13.30 12.40 13.00 23.50 27.60 26.60 30.10 28.40 28.50 26.00
Sm 7.20 3.80 2.70 1.90 3.10 5.20 4.60 5.50 5.60 6.30 6.60 4.80
Eu 1.70 0.84 0.75 0.44 0.63 1.50 0.83 1.30 1.80 2.10 1.90 1.20

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Gd 6.70 3.40 2.60 1.90 3.10 5.10 4.20 5.30 5.00 6.00 6.30 4.80
Tb 0.94 0.45 0.35 0.27 0.40 0.66 0.56 0.71 0.63 0.78 0.91 0.68
Dy 5.42 2.50 2.14 1.63 2.41 3.66 2.98 4.01 2.97 4.08 4.76 3.90
Ho 1.12 0.53 0.47 0.38 0.52 0.76 0.66 0.85 0.56 0.77 0.96 0.81
Er 3.32 1.75 1.55 1.34 1.71 2.26 2.28 2.66 1.53 2.20 2.90 2.50
Tm 0.47 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.28 0.33 0.39 0.40 0.20 0.29 0.41 0.37
Yb 3.08 2.04 1.91 1.84 2.04 2.24 2.87 2.91 1.23 1.91 2.69 2.60
Lu 0.43 0.34 0.32 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.47 0.47 0.18 0.27 0.41 0.39
Tl 0.41 0.61 0.56 0.56 0.39 0.18 0.48 0.47 0.61 0.35 0.86 0.60
Pb 11.50 12.70 7.60 9.20 10.60 12.90 9.60 14.80 10.30 13.70 21.40 20.00
Th 8.10 9.70 15.60 18.60 14.80 4.70 14.90 12.30 9.30 6.50 14.30 9.00
U 1.72 2.11 3.10 3.77 3.26 0.63 2.92 1.64 1.89 1.86 2.98 2.50
V 73.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 66.00 78.00 66.00 11.00
Zr 250.00 105.00 102.00 79.00 96.00 201.00 112.00 170.00 243.00 280.00 373.00 196.00
Nb 11.00 9.00 12.00 13.00 13.00 8.00 13.00 13.00 16.00 12.00 22.00 13.00
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

chondrite (1974) (Fig. 8B) show a negative slope defined by the population weighted-mean average age, with MSWD ~1.0, is the least
enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREE) when compared to the reliable since this method assumes that all the population represents a
heavy rare earth elements (HREE). The (La/Yb)N ratios in all the sam­ single zircon growth event. The YSG(2σ) and YC2σ(3+), on the other
ples vary between 4.76 and 22.6. Corual Formation display low slopes hand, yielded within error results. YSG(2σ) is usually not reliable
((La/Yb)N = 6.69–8.14) and Guatapurí Formation ((La/Yb)N = (especially if it is an ICP-MS age) because of the possibility that these
4.76–20.45), Golero ((La/Yb)N = 7–22.26) and Tábanos ((La/Yb)N = ages are the result of post-crystallization disturbance to the U–Pb sys­
9.65–21.75)) high slopes. The Eu/Eu* ratios vary between 0.75 and tem. Then, we chose the more conservative method and use YC2σ(3+) to
1.08, presenting mostly negative Eu anomalies, which suggests the place limits on the maximum age of deposition. According to Schoene
crystallization of plagioclase during the fractionation and evolution of et al. (2015), this method represents a statistically robust estimate of the
the magmas. deposition and/or rapid crystallization of the pyroclastic or volcanic
According to the geochemical discrimination and tectonic environ­ material.
ment diagram (Fig. 9), the Jurassic volcanic rocks of the SMM present The age results, however, show that the established stratigraphic
enrichment in Th and Nb, which is characteristic of rocks that were framework of the informal volcanic units is equivocal and not recon­
subjected to interaction with the crust in subduction zones (Pearce, cilable with the radiometric age data. For instance, Corual Formation
2008). yielded ages between ca. 191 and 167 Ma, and Guatapurí Formation
between ca. 186 and 163 Ma. Each of these age ranges represents the ca.
5. Discussion 28 Ma lifespan of the total Jurassic magmatic activity in the SMM. One
way to explain this scenario would be that both units were erupted by
5.1. The informal volcanic units of the SMM and their age separated volcanic centers, but this is unlikely since field stratigraphic
relations indicate that lithologies part of Guatapurí Formation overlay
Preliminary lithostratigraphic units sometimes are not fully locally lithologies of the Corual Formation (Gómez, 2017). The
described and are given informal names (Murphy et al., 2013). This is misleading cause of this problem is probably related to the extension of
the case of the volcanic rocks depicted in the foothills of the Sierra the mapped informal units. Some areas were depicted in the geological
Nevada de Santa Marta; the heavily forested areas and difficult access maps only based on their lithological (e.g. conglomerates) or color
due to the absence of trails impeded their appropriate description characteristics (e.g. reddish Guatapurí Formation) (Bayona et al., 2020),
(Tschanz et al., 1969). These successions were mapped considerably enlarging their areas.
photo-geologically with insufficient field control (Colmenares et al., We suggest that the Jurassic volcanic units of the SMM require a
2007; Tschanz et al., 1969). Additionally, the complex structural sce­ more detailed stratigraphic study. The volcanic successions of the SMM
nario, generated by the Cretaceous to Eocene tectonic deformation are characterized by irregularly mixed lithology and highly complicated
(Montes et al., 2010), gave way to two superimposed styles that structural relations, to the extent that the original sequence of the
complicated more the geologic puzzle. component rocks was obscured, and the individual rocks or rock
To comprehend better this stratigraphic problem, we summarized sequence cannot be readily mapped (Murphy et al., 2013). These
the principal lithostratigraphic characteristics described by previous informal units best adjust to the definition of a volcanic complex, which
authors in Table 1. Two principal problems were identified: 1) the defines a diverse assemblage of extrusive rocks, related intrusions, and
informal units lack a clear and complete definition, characterization, their weathering and erosional products (Kumpulainen, 2017).
and description (Murphy et al., 2013). In the SMM, most of these vol­
canic successions were generally described as groups of ignimbrites 5.2. Sources of inherited zircons
varying in composition from mafic to acidic. These included volcanic,
volcanoclastic, and sedimentary products cropping out locally, without Fig. 2B presents the KDE diagram representative of all U–Pb zircon
clarifying the geological aspects that make them unique when compared dates previously obtained in the basement rocks of the SMM and our
to the other successions. 2) The depositional ages of the units are not data. It clearly shows that the current U–Pb geochronological record of
clearly defined. Time properly plays little in establishing or identifying Los Mangos Granulite and Dibulla Gneiss yields coeval dates to the
lithostratigraphic units or their boundaries (Murphy et al., 2013); Grenville orogenic event (which spans ca. 1300 - 950 Ma), and the
however, by setting their depositional age, these can be time-correlated Sevilla Metamorphic Complex yields coeval dates to the Grenvillian and
to make paleogeographic reconstructions. Pan-African events (which spans ca. 870 - 550 Ma). No igneous or
The age of the SMM volcanism has remained poorly understood due metamorphic rocks of Cambrian to Carboniferous age have been re­
to the lack of accurate dating. The K–Ar data in plagioclase, hornblende, ported in the SMM. The U–Pb geochronological record re-starts during
and whole-rock reported by Tschanz et al. (1974, 1969) and Bayona the Permian with the crystallization of the El Encanto Orthogneiss and
et al. (2010) show ages that extend from the late Permian (?) - Early the intrusive rocks of the Valencia creek.
Triassic until the Early Cretaceous. The authors also point out that most The zircons inherited in the volcanic and volcanoclastic Jurassic
of these radiometric data are minimum ages, and therefore possibly do record (Fig. 2) indicate these basement rocks as their most probable
not represent the time of mineral crystallization, but the period of the sources. The oldest population, between 1300 and 890 Ma, would have
last thermal event. The Permian ages might be related to the excess of derived from the Los Mangos Granulite, Dibulla Gneiss, and Sevilla
inherited argon, and the younger ages to the diffusion of this element by Metamorphic Complex (Cardona et al., 2010a; Cordani et al., 2005;
the recurrent igneous activity or heating caused by extensional tecto­ Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). The older ages (>1300 Ma) likely corre­
nism (Bayona et al., 2010; Tschanz et al., 1974). spond to recycled zircons that were originally inherited in the SMM
U–Pb dating of zircons permits an order of magnitude improvement Precambrian units from the erosion of the South Amazonian craton
over previous K–Ar studies (Blackburn et al., 2013). Recent radiometric provinces (Cordani et al., 2005; Tassinari and Macambira, 1999). The
data obtained locally by Leal-Mejía (2011), Quandt et al. (2018) and younger ages (890 - 800 Ma) probably were sourced from the Anor­
Zuluaga et al. (2015) in plutonic, volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks thositic Gneisses unit, which according to Tschanz et al. (1969) and
report U–Pb ages between ca. 192 and 176 Ma, restricting the duration Piraquive (2017) is younger than the granulites.
of the magmatic events to the Early Jurassic. The second population, between 660 and 560 Ma, would be sourced
Our zircon regional scale results prolong the range of the magmatism from the Sevilla Metamorphic Complex (Buritaca Gneiss and Los
from Early Jurassic until the boundary of the Middle and Late Jurassic. Muchachitos Gneiss). The ages obtained that are within this range are
These new U–Pb results were calculated using three different methods to scarce, however, U–Pb data from Cardona et al. (2006) and Piraquive
determine the best estimate to the deposition (Table 2). The youngest (2017) present unique dates between ca. 730 and 530 Ma that could

16
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Fig. 6. Classification diagrams of the volcanic (A

to D) and volcanoclastic (E to H) Jurassic rocks of
the SMM. A and E) Nb/Y vs Zr/Ti modified by
Pearce (1996), B and F) TAS (Le Bas et al., 1986),
C and G) Co vs Th (Hastie et al., 2007), D and H)
A/CNK vs A/NK (Shand, 1943). Shaded and
delineated areas represent the geochemical data
from other Jurassic volcanic units from the north
of Colombia (La Quinta (Rodríguez and Obando,
2020), Ipapure rhyodacites (Zuluaga et al.,
2015), Norean Formation (Correa-Martínez et al.,
2019), Segovia and La Malena Volcanites
(González et al., 2015a)), and Corual and Los
Indios units from the SMM (Gómez, 2017).

17
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Fig. 7. Classification diagrams of the volcanic Jurassic rocks of the SMM following the groups defined in Fig. 2A (1. Onset, 2. Development. 3. Termination of
volcanic activity).

serve as a fingerprint for this unit. Finally, the third population, between 5.3. Tectono-magmatic implications
289 and 271 Ma is coeval with the Permian rocks of the Valencia creek
and El Encanto Orthogneiss (Cardona et al., 2010b; Piraquive, 2017). From the three general tectonic models proposed for the Jurassic
A very small group of data yielded concordant dates between 230 magmatism (Bayona et al., 2020), our analysis indicates that the sub­
and 220 Ma. These data, however, were obtained from mixed zones or duction of the Farallon Plate under Gondwana (assuming minimum
fractures within the zircons indicating that these results lack geological strike-slip displacement) (Quandt et al., 2018; Spikings et al., 2015;
significance. Toussaint, 1995; Zuluaga et al., 2015), and the oblique subduction and

Fig. 8. A) Multielemental diagram normalized to the Primitive mantle (Sun and McDonough, 1989). B) REE diagram normalized to chondrite (Nakamura, 1974).

18
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

constituted by large batholiths and volcanic successions in the study

area is not compatible with a rifting model during the Jurassic (Tous­
saint, 1995).
Some samples from La Quinta and Corual formations (Gómez, 2017;
Rodríguez and Obando, 2020) plot in the alkaline field (Fig. 6B), a
typical characteristic of intracontinental rifts (Ziegler and Cloetingh,
2004). However, no feldspathoids or pyroxenes or alkaline amphiboles
were described in the petrography, nor did in the CIPW norm calcula­
tion. Most likely, these samples undergone elemental mobility effects
caused by hydrothermal alteration, increasing the K2O and NaO
percentage.
An abrupt tectonic change occurred at the beginning of the Jurassic
period. The stress field models recorded in the crust of North America
indicate the displacement of Gondwana to the south-southwest at ca.
200 Ma, stretching the crust between the margins of both continents
during the initial stages of Pangea breakup (Beutel, 2009). This plate
movement may have triggered the east directed oblique subduction of
the young, thin, hot, buoyant oceanic lithosphere (Chilean-type sub­
duction zone, according to Stern, 2002) formed during the Middle-Late
Triassic extensional setting (back-arc) that prevailed along the western
margin of Gondwana (Spikings and Paul, 2020).
Crustal thickness calculations made on this study based on La/Yb vs
Sr/Y ratios (Table 4)(Profeta et al., 2015) on sample 08VDL18 (La
Quinta Formation - Merida, van der Lelij et al. (2016)) indicate ~64 km
thick for the upper plate during these times. This result is backed by the
ƐHf isotopic data obtained in the same sample which shows unradio­
genic values (− 4.8 to − 7.4) (van der Lelij et al., 2019). Considering the
buoyant character of the downgoing plate, these features may be in
Fig. 9. Tectonic environment discrimination diagram of the Jurassic volcanic
agreement with the slab flattening setting presented by Pindell and
rocks from the SMM (Pearce, 2008). Shaded and delineated areas represent the
geochemical data from other Jurassic volcanic units from the north of Colombia Kennan (2009). According to Chapman et al. (2017), the partial melts
(Sources: La Quinta (Rodríguez and Obando, 2020), Ipapure rhyodacites that occur landwards from the trench (e.g. in response to slab flattening)
(Zuluaga et al., 2015), Norean Formation (Correa-Martínez et al., 2019), become increasingly evolved due to the incorporation of major amounts
Segovia and La Malena Volcanites (González et al., 2015a)), and Corual and Los of continental lithospheric mantle in the melt region, which could have
Indios units from the SMM (Gómez, 2017). been the case for the SMM and Perijá regions.
Zuluaga and Lopez (2019), studied the initial magmatic record and
south-north migration of tectonic blocks along the continental margin indicates that the rocks crystallized in the Santander and Merida Andes
(Bayona et al., 2010, 2006; Pindell and Kennan, 2009) are the most regions are characterized by high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic affinity
consistent models. We favor the first model since the second, so far, is and low Nb–Ta anomalies. Additionally, the N–S elongated shapes of the
primarily supported by paleomagnetic results and its proven integration intrusives reflect their emplacement along a trans-tensional structural
to the contemporaneous magmatic record needs to be tested. setting linked to an upper-crust high-temperature thermal regime
Before Jurassic magmatism started, between ca. 240–215 Ma, the coupled to decompression melting (Aspden et al., 1987; Zuluaga and
tectonic configuration of northwestern Gondwana presented contrasting Lopez, 2019). The only depositional ages reported in volcanic and
scenarios in its northern (SMM, Merida Andes and, Santander Massif) sedimentary rocks coeval to this initial event were yielded in the La
and western regions (Central Cordillera of Colombia) (see Figure 14c in Quinta - Merida Andes at 202.0 ± 1.6 and 203.2 ± 0.2 Ma, respectively
Spikings and Paul, 2020). The isotopic data recorded in the latter doc­ (Fig. 10)(Langer et al., 2014; van der Lelij et al., 2016).
uments oceanic crustal growth extension, in which more juvenile mafic The plutonic activity in Santander lasted ca. 6 Ma (between ca. 201-
material (ƐNd values of +10.18 to +3.4) was progressively injected into 195 Ma), before the slab rolled-back west and created new focuses of
the crust (Cochrane et al., 2014). In contrast, the northern regions of the magmatic activity in the SMM (Spikings et al., 2019)(on top of the
continent were subjected to terrane accretion or strong plate coupling, basement formed by Los Mangos Granulite, Dibulla Gneiss, Buritaca
as the switch from I to S-type granite geochemistry in the SMM, Guajira Gneiss, Los Muchachitos Gneiss, and El Encanto Orthogneiss), Middle
and Lower Magdalena Basin suggest (Cardona et al., 2010b). Support for Magdalena Valley and the San Lucas Range (Correa-Martínez et al.,
compressive tectonics in the north is also documented by van der Lelij 2019; Leal-Mejía et al., 2019).
et al. (2019), who indicates that the rocks exposed in the Santander The onset of volcanism in the SMM started during the Early Jurassic
Massif and Merida Andes may have not been affected by Middle-Late at ca. 191 Ma (Group 1, Figs. 2A, 10 and 11) contemporarily with the
Triassic extension since their isotopic data do not show depleted first pulses of the vast Jurassic plutonic activity (Southeastern and
signatures. Central Belts of batholiths, and Atánquez batholith). The volcanic and
After this stage, an apparent tectonic calm phase settled in a passive volcanoclastic record from ca. 191 to 179 Ma (Group 1) is found in the
margin setting towards the eastern conjugate margin of NW Gondwana, currently mapped Corual, Guatapurí and Golero informal units, and
between ca. 215–200 Ma (Cochrane et al., 2014; Spikings and Paul, correspond to rocks with a wide range of elemental compositions from
2020). The deposition of the Late Triassic – Early Jurassic (?) Los Indios andesite-basaltic andesites to trachyandesites and trachytes, presenting
Formation likely occurred, characterized by lower shoreface to offshore calc-alkaline to high-k calc-alkaline character and predominant metal­
deposits (mainly black mudstones and limestones) interspersed with uminous affinity (Fig. 7). Fig. 9, however, shows that the samples from
local upper shoreface fan delta deposits (Gómez, 2017). This formation Corual and Los Indios formations compiled from Gómez (2017) fall in
was directly associated by previous authors to syn-rift phase deposits the OIB-EMORB field and differ from the data obtained in the present
(Gómez, 2017), however, the evidence of a calc-alkaline magmatic belt study. These notable differences in their results may be due to analytical
biases related to Nb determination (Hall and Plant, 1992), so these data

19
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Table 4 km) (Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006) that started forming since at least ca.
Calculated crustal thicknesses (Profeta et al., 2015) during the different stages of 185 Ma (Horton et al., 2010) by the resultant syn-tectonic extension
volcanic development in the SMM. after the subducted Triassic oceanic plate rolled-back.
Sample Group (La/Yb)n MgO SiO2 Moho depth (km) In contrast to the aforementioned units, the geological record of the
JGB506 3 5.9 3.7 57.2 38.2
Ipapure - Cerro La Teta rhyodacites (La Guajira) initiates at ca. 184 Ma
JGB504 3 6.7 3.8 57.7 40.9 (Fig. 10) and presents predominantly acidic compositions (dacites and
GR6769B 3 12.6 1.9 66.4 54.3 rhyolites), of calc-alkaline, and mainly peraluminous character (Zuluaga
GR6797 2 3.7 3.7 53.5 28.4 et al., 2015). This magmatism only lasted 3 Ma and was simultaneous to
JGB525 2 7.0 1.2 65.5 41.8
the deposition of the continental sedimentary rocks of Ranchogrande
GR6785 2 11.8 1.0 66.7 53.0
GR6780 1 20.5 2.2 63.7 64.6 Formation before a marine transgression immersed this area (Nova
08VDL18a – 18.9 1.3 63.1 62.9 et al., 2019).
a During the development stage of the SMM Jurassic arc (Group 2:
Sample from La Quinta-Mérida (ca. 202 Ma) (van der Lelij et al., 2016).
177-168 Ma) the elemental compositions of the volcanic and volcano­
clastic rocks vary between andesites-basaltic andesites, rhyolites, and
were not considered in this study.
dacites, presenting calc-alkaline to high-k calc-alkaline character
A volcanic scenario with similar geochemical characteristics to the
(Fig. 7). This group, though, shows metaluminous to peraluminous af­
SMM occurred in the Perijá Range (La Quinta Formation – Perijá), and
finities that might have been caused by different melt sources. Crustal
farther south in the San Lucas Range and Middle Magdalena Valley
thickness calculations for samples GR-6785 and JGB-525 range between
(Noreán Formation and La Malena volcanites). Fig. 10 shows coeval
~52 and 41 km; but sample GR-6796 indicates a thinner thickness (28
plutonic-volcanic activity in SMM and San Lucas Range, but no plutonic
km) (Table 4). This last result could explain the ƐNd180 data of +0.0,
counterpart has been described in Perijá. We suggest that La Quinta -
+1.1, and +1.9 (Quandt et al., 2018), which suggest local mantle-like
Perijá rocks were likely derived from the SMM or San Lucas Range
contributions to the volcanic products (Fig. 10).
volcanic complexes since no coeval ages are yielded in the Santander
Between ca. 167-163 Ma (Group 3), the volcanic and volcanoclastic
Plutonic group. The volcanic and volcaniclastic inherited-zircon record
activity remain geochemically similar to group two (basic-intermediate
of La Quinta - Perijá, although very scarce, present similar inherited
composition and metaluminous to a peraluminous character), however,
populations to the Jurassic volcanic and volcanoclastic units of the SMM
the high-k calc-alkaline signatures dominate (Fig. 7). According to De
(Fig. 2B; the KDE patterns are characterized by Precambrian pop­
Astis et al. (2000) and Zhu et al. (2019), this latter characteristic may be
ulations, and no Paleozoic zircon input). The volcanoclastic sedimen­
related to melting derived from recycled subducted sediments in the
tation in Perijá likely occurred in a narrow transtensional basin (<150
mantle wedge caused by an unusually steep geothermal gradient. The

Fig. 10. Compilation of the principal geochronological, geochemical and isotopic characteristics of the Jurassic volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks of the SMM and the
coeval rocks cropping out in Merida Andes, Santander, San Lucas, Perijá and La Guajira (Sources: Cardona et al., 2006; Correa-Martínez et al., 2020, 2019; Cuadros
et al., 2014; González et al., 2015a, 2015b; Langer et al., 2014; Leal-Mejía, 2011; Nova et al., 2019; Quandt et al., 2018; Rodríguez et al., 2020; Rodríguez and
Obando, 2020; van der Lelij et al., 2019, 2016; Zapata et al., 2020; Zuluaga et al., 2015). The age of the Ipapure Granodiorite was established only by lithological
relations in the field (Ríos-Blandón, 2016). All ages from the volcanic or sedimentary rocks of other studies were recalculated using the YC2σ(3+) method.

20
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Fig. 11. Schematic tectonic model of the NW Gondwana margin before and during the deposition of the volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks of the SMM (gray layer)
(Not to scale).

crustal thickness during this period remains between ~52 and 41 km for geothermal gradient that originated the high-K calc-alkaline rocks and
samples GR-6769B, JGB-504, and JGB-506 (Table 4) and no isotopic how this relates to the tectonic conditions that caused the cessation of
data have been reported yet for this group (Fig. 10). this arc.
The general ƐNd trend of the volcanic rocks of the SMM (ƐNd180:
-6.6, − 3.5, − 3.4, − 3.3, Quandt et al., 2018) and Ipapure - Cerro La Teta 6. Conclusions
rhyodacites (ƐNd180: -4.4, − 4.8, Zuluaga et al., 2015) suggest long
residence time and magma contamination within the crust. Bustamante Our new geochronological data indicate that the Jurassic volcanism
et al. (2016) report a magmatic isotopic trend from evolved to more of the SMM began at ca. 191 Ma, extending throughout ca. 28 Ma, until
depleted signatures between 190 and 120 Ma in the Central Cordillera of its magmatic cessation at ca. 163 Ma. Inherited zircons in these rocks
Colombia, similar to the trend developed in the San Lucas Range yielded ages between ca. 1760–271 Ma, suggesting that magmas were
(Leal-Mejía and Shaw, 2019). This could also be the case in the SMM, but emplaced in the basement rocks of the SMM.
due to the lack of isotopic analysis in the samples from group 3, this The geochemical characteristics indicate that the volcanic and vol­
hypothesis could not be established in this study. canoclastic successions varied along time. Between ca. 191 and 179 Ma
The magmatic activity in the SMM and Perijá Range ceased at ca. 163 (Group 1: onset) rocks present elemental compositions from andesites-
Ma, while it continued in the San Lucas Range. Models proposed to basaltic andesites to trachyandesites, with calc-alkaline to high-k calc-
explain the lull of arc magmatism include: 1) change in the angle of alkaline character and predominant metaluminous affinity. During ca.
convergence, 2) change in the convergence rate, 3) change in the sub­ 177–168 Ma (Group 2: development) volcanism presents basic-
duction angle and 4) draining of melt in the source region after a intermediate to acidic elemental compositions, calc-alkaline to high-K
magmatic surge (Sagong et al., 2005). Although no geochemical nor calc-alkaline character, and metaluminous to peraluminous affinities.
isotopic evidence related to extension is reported yet in the north of Finally, between ca. 167–163 Ma (Group 3: termination) volcanism
Colombia, the studies in the adjacent sedimentary basins indicate the presents basic-intermediate to acidic elemental compositions, metal­
continued widening of the transtensional basins and development of uminous to peraluminous character, and predominant high-K calc-
major depocenters in Santander, Perijá and Merida Andes (Bayona et al., alkaline affinity (likely caused by melting of recycled sediments in the
2020; Horton et al., 2010; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). Molina-Garza mantle wedge).
et al. (2020)) reports a similar tectonic scenario in Mexico, related to a The Jurassic continental arc developed on a thick continental crust,
new rifting phase initiated after ca. 170 Ma, which led to the opening of after the Middle-Late Triassic oceanic slab rolled-back from a previous
the Gulf of Mexico. flat subduction zone. Calculated thicknesses on the rocks of Group 1
We hypothesize that the rotation of the Maya block (or Yucatán) and present values of ~64 km (~30 km thicker than average continental
the seafloor spreading in the Gulf of Mexico and proto-Caribbean basins crust), and groups 2 and 3 values of ~52–41 km thick. Some data from
likely affected the tectonic configuration of the northwestern conti­ group 2, though, show a thinner thickness of ~28 km that probably
nental margin of Gondwana (Pindell and Kennan, 2009; Bartok et al., relates to the ascent of mantle-like components to the upper-crust. The
2015; Busby, 2012; Kneller and Johnson, 2011; Pessagno and Martin, causes of cessation of magmatic activity are still unclear, however, the
2003) causing any or all of the tectonic processes described by Sagong continued extensional setting reported for the adjacent sedimentary
et al. (2005). However, new isotopic data is needed from the group 3 basins after ca. 170 Ma may suggest a drastic change in the tectonic
rocks to deeply explore the magmatic causes of the suspected high regime on all the NW corner of Gondwana.

21
D.A. Ramírez et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102866

Author statement Cardona, A., Cordani, U.G., MacDonald, W.D., 2006. Tectonic correlations of pre-
Mesozoic crust from the northern termination of the Colombian Andes, Caribbean
region. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 21, 337–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Diego Ramírez: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, jsames.2006.07.009.
Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing, Visualization. Ana María Cardona, A., Chew, D., Valencia, V.A., Bayona, G., Mišković, A., Ibañez-Mejía, M., 2010a.
Correa: Formal analysis, Investigation Juan Pablo Zapata: Formal Grenvillian remnants in the northern Andes: rodinian and phanerozoic
paleogeographic perspectives. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 29, 92–104. https://doi.org/
analysis, Investigation. Gabriel Rodriguez: Project administration, 10.1016/j.jsames.2009.07.011.
Funding acquisition. Cardona, A., Valencia, V., Garzón, A., Montes, C., Ojeda, G., Ruiz, J., Weber, M., 2010b.
Permian to Triassic I to S-type magmatic switch in the northeast Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta and adjacent regions, Colombian Caribbean: tectonic setting and
implications within Pangea paleogeography. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 29, 772–783.
Declaration of competing interest
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2009.12.005.
Castaño, J.M., Rodríguez, F., García, C.A., 2018. Caracterización de parámetros en la
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial concentración de circones para andesitas, monzogranitos, riolitas, cuarcitas y
cuarzomonzonitas. Bol. Geol. 25–38.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Cediel, F., Shaw, R.P., Cáceres, C., 2003. Tectonic assembly of the northern andean
the work reported in this paper. block. In: Bartolini, C., Buffler, R.T., Blickwede, J.F. (Eds.), The Circum-Gulf of
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