Chapter 9 : Natural ecosystem and human activity

9.1 The ecosystem:

A defined area which consists of living thing (biotic factors) and non-living things (abiotic factors), and
includes interaction between them.

Ecosystem structure:

• Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area at the same time.
• Community: a group of populations of different species that live together in an area and interact with
each other.
So Ecosystem= community of living things + abiotic factors.

• Habitat: the place within an ecosystem where an organism lives.

• Niche: the role of a species within the ecosystem.

Biotic factors:

Factors are related to living things, they include:

Producers, consumers, predators, preys, decomposers, competitors,

Abiotic factors:

Factors are related to non-living things, they include:

Humidity, temperature, water, oxygen, salinity, light, ph.

-Interactions could be between living things-biotic interactions such as competition, predation and
pollination. Or between living and non-living things such as photosynthesis and respiration.

-Ecosystem processes:

The way how living / non-living things interact, ecosystem has 2 processes:

-Flow of energy and nutrient cycle.

These processes can be illustrated by photosynthesis, food chain, and food web.

Photosynthesis: the process in which plants make their own food using water, carbon dioxide and
energy from sun light to convert it into glucose.

Chlorophyll

Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen.

Light

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Food chain: a diagram showing the relationship between a single producer and primary, secondary and
tertiary consumers.

Or it describes the feeding relationship between living organisms.

Food web: a diagram showing the relationship between all (or most) of the producers, primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers in an ecosystem.

Plants (producers) make their food by photosynthesis- capture light energy- in form of glucose (change
light energy to chemical energy), energy and nutrients (carbon, nitrogen) pass to other organisms
(primary consumers) when they feed on plants, and so to secondary, and tertiary consumers.

Fungi and bacteria feed on dead bodies (decomposer), to release the nutrients to be taken again by
plants and re-used again and again, and this referred to nutrient cycle.

Unlike nutrients, energy can’t be recycled, instead of it flows (moves at one direction), high portion of
energy-captured by plants- loss through each trophic level almost (90%), which used by the organisms
to sustain its life processes (movement, reproduction…), only 10% pass to the next trophic level. The
role of 10%, this is referred to flow of energy. That explains reducing of number of living organism at
higher levels on pyramid of energy. Fig 9.2 pg. (192) and fig 9.6 (pg. 195)

Producers: organisms within an ecosystem that can carry out photosynthesis.

Primary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from producers.

Secondary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from primary consumers.

Tertiary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from secondary consumers.

Decomposers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from the bodies of dead organisms.

Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or food web.

Pyramid of numbers: a diagram that represents the number of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem by a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to the numbers at that level

-Nutrients cycle

As discussed nutrient can be recycled and can be taken again.

-Carbon cycle:

Like carbon, any nutrient cycle consists of general 2 stages: fixation from the reservoir into the living
thing and then removal to the reservoir again fig 9.7 pg. 196.

Fig 9.8 (a) pg. 196 simplified carbon cycle.

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Carbon exists in form of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (reservoir), it is fixed into living thing
(producers) into form of carbohydrates (glucose) by photosynthesis, then it passes to other organisms
(consumers) when they feed on producers, in form of proteins, fats,…,. Carbon is released to the
atmosphere again either by respiration or decomposition of both producers and consumers. Fig 9.8 (b).
pg. 196 carbon cycle in details.

9.3 The causes and impacts of habitat loss

Causes of habitat loss:

A. The drainage of wet land:

Wet lands are areas which saturated with water such as: swamps, lakes, marshes, ponds,….

Wet lands provide several ecological benefits such as:

Shore land protection, maintain water quality, flood control, recharging aquifers, Biological productivity,
Provide habitats, Source of variety of products e.g. fish, fuel and fibres.

Wet lands are drained for many reasons:

- Agriculture, control mosquito and forestry.

- Use for disposal of waste created by road construction;

- Discharge of pollutants
- Peat removal
- Removal of ground water.

B. Intensive agriculture practices:

Providing land for agriculture may result into deforestation which leads to habitat loss, in addition using
of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers (agrochemicals) cause death to living organisms by effect of
bioaccumulation and bio magnification.

C. Deforestation:

Trees provide habitat and sources of food for many organisms (insects, birds, rats, reptiles,..)

Impacts of habitat loss:

The main impact of habitat loss is loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion:

Habitat loss results in extinction of species-affects the food chain- and reduces biodiversity and as a
consequence results in genetic depletion (loss of some genes).

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Genetic depletion is a problem because it reduces the ability of developing of new strain (by genetic
modification) as well as losing of some drugs and medications.

9.4 The causes and impacts of deforestation:

Vegetation is removed for many reasons such as:

- The need for timber (wood)-this is referring to logging- for many purposes: fuel, building material,
industries (furniture and papers).
- Need for land either for intensive farming, pastoralism, industries, building of settlements.
- Mining, making roads, airports …

Impacts of deforestation:

1. Habitat loss and genetic depletion.

2. Soil erosion and decertification:
Trees conserve and maintain soil structure: they act like wind breakers, reduce surface run-off,
roots keep soil structure, and dead leaves and branches enrich the soil with organic matter.
3. Climate change:
Deforestation results into less up taking of CO2 , which results in trapping more heat, and
enhancing global warming and climate change.

Management of deforestation:

Deforestation could be managed in different ways:

- Selective logging: the removal of old and non-valuable species.

- Strip logging: trees are cut in a way in which can regenerated again.

- Efficient use of wood (reduce, recycling of wood product, finding alternatives).

- Quota (limit amounts of wood per person), taxation, laws and regulation.

- Reforestation and agroforestry.

Agroforestry: is the practice of growing crop in between the rows of trees.

This activity provides variety of ecological activities:

Trees conserve and maintain soil structure: they act like wind breakers, reduce surface run-off, roots
keep soil structure, and dead leaves and branches enrich the soil with organic matter.

Crops in case of legumes provide or enrich the soil with nitrogen.

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9.5 The need for sustainable management of forests:

Besides providing habitat, food, drugs, and medicines, forests perform a variety of ecological services:

1. Carbon sink and carbon store

Young forest absorbs more CO2 during photosynthesis than it releases by respiration, this is referring to
carbon sink.

Mature forest takes and releases the same amount of CO2 during phtotsynethesis and respiration; this is
referring to carbon store.

2. Role in water cycle:

Trees reduces the surface run-off by the effect of interception, thus increases infiltration as well as
increase the amount of water vapor by transpiration.

3. Prevention from soil erosion:

Trees conserve and maintain soil structure: they act like winds breakers reduce surface run-off, roots
keep soil structure, and dead leaves and branches enrich the soil with organic matter.

4. Ecotourism:

Forests can be source of tourism attraction, in which people pay many for luxury and time, which later
can be invested in conservation of ecosystem.

9.6 strategies for conserving the biodiversity and genetic resources of natural ecosystems:

Conservation is the protection, preservation, restoration and management of natural ecosystem

1. Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species, sustainable forestry and agroforestry:

Wild plants and animals could be source of medical drugs as well as genetic stock for developing new
strain by genetic modification.

Sustainable harvesting could be done by a management plan as follow:

Firstly: assessment of plant abundance.

Secondly: investigation of growth rate.

Finally: species should be harvested in less than the growth rate, and monitored.

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2. National parks, wildlife reserves and ecological corridors:

National parks and ecological reserves are defined areas devoted for preservation and protection by the
action of laws and regulations posed by the government, they mainly difference in size.(ecological
reserves are much larger). The main objective is protection NOT TOURISM, or even using of natural
resources there.

Laws are usually implemented than ban or limited such hunting and logging, fine and imprison in case of
violence of laws.

The nature of laws and regulations vary from country and national parks.

Wild life corridors are areas of land that link large reserves or other wildlife areas.

Corridors are critical for the maintenance of ecological processes including allowing for the
movement of animals and the continuation of viable populations.

3. Extractive reserve:

Is attempt to find a balance between using of resources to meet economic benefits without destroying
the ecosystem.

Conservation and management is done by local people with help of government.

4. World biosphere reserves:

Are another ways try to strike a balance between conservation and meeting the people needs.

They are mainly divided into 3 areas (zones): fig (9.19) pg. 208

A. Core area: where protected ecosystem is exist.( no human activities but protection, conservation, and
monitoring.

B. Buffer zone: area of research, education and tourism (laboratories, libraries,…).

C. Transition (multi-used): where local people, government, and conservation organizations work
together to manage the area to benefit local people.

One benefit of biosphere reserves they are recognized internationally via the United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNSECO), that make support of fund much easier.

-Beside (UNSECO) many organizations seek their efforts for environmental conservation such like:

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), an
international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

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UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) is the global champion for the environment with
programs focusing on sustainable development, climate, biodiversity and more. It provides
information / data;
WWF (The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non-governmental organization founded
in 1961, working in the field of wilderness preservation, and the reduction of human impact on the
environment. It raises money; has education programs.
IUCN (The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the global authority on the status of the
natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.it encourages partnerships between countries;
publishes red list; the creation of innovative solutions to conservation issues.

5. Seed banks, zoos and captive breeding:

These strategies are considered to be the last resort for conservation, when the habitat has been
totally fragmented (destroyed) or severely threatened.

Seed banks are used to conserve plants as seeds under specific conditions:

- Collected seeds are examined by x-ray to check embryo viability.

- seeds are dried to remove water, and kept at very low temperature(-20) to suppress germination.

- stored seeds are checked regularly to make sure they still a live.

Zoos and captive breeding:

Zoos provide 3 main roles in conservation:

- Education for illegal trade of animals.

- Scientific research to control disease.

- Captive breeding programs to increase species numbers.

Zoos with small number of animal try avoid inbreeding (reduce the diversity) with different ways:

-Organisms are not allowed to breed repeatedly with the same partner.

- Zoos have data base to record the breeding history for individuals.

6. Sustainable tourism and ecotourism:

Tourism provides many benefits such as income for government and local people, development of
infrastructure, and jobs.

However it could have negative impacts: habitat destruction for settlements and accommodation for
tourists, temporary increasing of populations may cause several problems such as: air pollution

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(travelling, more energy consumption,…), noise pollution, and tourists may influence local people
customs and habits.

Sustainable tourism is important which ensure both people and government benefit of tourism without
damaging the environment.

-Ecotourism (ecological tourism) is a form of sustainable tourism, which is guided by environmental

principles to conserve the environment and improves the welfare of the local people.

(Money that spend in tourism return in form of conservation and protection of ecosystem).

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