Material Science & Metallurgy

Powder Metallurgy

Anushri Joshi
([email protected])
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri
Joshi, KJSCE
 What is Powder Metallurgy
• Powder metallurgy (PM) is a term covering a wide range of ways in which
materials or components are made from metal or non-metal powders

• PM processes can avoid, or greatly reduce, the need to use metal removal
processes, thereby drastically reducing yield losses in manufacture and
often resulting in lower costs.

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

Powder Metallurgy

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Powder Production
• Different manufacturing processes are used for powder
production of different size, shape & distribution which decide
properties of powder

Electro-che
Mechanical Physical Chemical mical

• Reduction
• Machining
• Inter granular
• Crushing • Condensation
corrosion • Electro
• Milling • Thermal
• Precipitation chemical
• Shotting decomposition
from aqueous deposition
• Graining
solution
• Automization

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Mechanical Processes - Milling
• Equipments used: Ball mills, rod mills, eddy mills, disk mills etc

• Ball mills : Material is tumbled and rotated in large container with

large number of hard balls

• Control on speed of rotation to allow proper grinding action is

necessary

• Dry or wet method for milling. In wet method liquids such as distilled
water, alcohol, acetone etc are used

• Material of drum : Stainless steel lined with hard alloy steel plates

• Material of balls : Steel, alloy steel etc

• Can be used for any type

Material of& Metallurgy
Science metal –powder production
By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE (widely used
Mechanical Processes - Milling

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Mechanical Processes
Machining : To produce coarse powder in form of filings, turnings,
chips etc. It is further reduced in size using crushing or milling.

Crushing : Solid materials are crushed by hammers, jaw

crushers, gyratory crushers etc
• Powder particles of brittle
material are angular
• Powder particles of brittle
material are flaky

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Mechanical Processes
Shotting : Molten metal is poured on vibrating screen and liquid
droplets are solidified in air or neutral gas. Size and character of
powder depends on temperature of molten metal, frequency of
vibration and size of openings in screen. This method generally
produces spherical particles

Graining: Similar to shotting except solidification of droplets is

done in water

Atomization : Mechanical disintegration of molten metal by

compressed/inert gas. Disintegrated particles are solidified.
Following are methods used for atomization
– Liquid atomization
– Gas atomization
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Mechanical Processes
Atomization

• Atomization is accomplished by forcing a

molten metal stream through an orifice at
moderate pressures.

• A gas is introduced into the metal stream just

before it leaves the nozzle, serving to create
turbulence

• Solidification of droplets using different

techniques is done to get metal powder
particles

• It is possible to control the powder

characteristics by changing the process
variables (such as temperature, stream
velocity, etc
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Physical Processes
Condensation :
• Metal powders are obtained by condensation of metal vapour

• Suitable for volatile metals e.g Zn, Mg, Cd

• Care must be taken to avoid formation of oxide

Thermal Decomposition (Gaseous pyrolysis)
• Metal powders are obtained by Thermal Decomposition of their
respective carbonyl vapours (e.g. Fe, Ni )
• Fe, Ni carbonyls are produced by passing CO over spongy or
powdered metal
• Carbonyls are volatile liquids and decompose at atmospheric
pressure and temperature 150 to 400oC
• Fe(CO)5 → Fe + 5 (CO)
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Chemical Processes
Reduction :
• Suitable compound of metal (oxide, oxalate, formate) are reduced
by suitable reducing agent ( Carbon, hydrogen, CO etc)
• Used for manufacture of Fe, Cu, NI, W, Mo powders

Inter granular Corrosion

• Separating grains by inter granular corrosion using suitable
electrolyte. Powder of stainless steel is prepared as follows:
• Chromium in SS forms chromium carbide at 500 to 800oC which
separates along grain boundaries
• This network of carbide is corroded by an aqueous solution of 11%
CuSO4 and 10% H2SO4
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Chemical Processes
Precipitation :

• Less noble metal displaces more noble metal from aqueous

solution containing ions of more noble metals e.g. Silver is
displaced from silver nitrate solution by Cu, Fe

• Generally used for production of copper powder (Fe is used to

displace Cu from CuSO4)

• Good purity of metal and particle shape is dendritic

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Electro-Chemical Processes
• By electro deposition from aqueous solutions or fused salts

• Similar to electro plating (Plated layer should be continuous and

adherent)
• Coarse, loose and non-adherent layer is preferred for powder
manufacture
• Powder is manufactured by
1. Deposition as hard and brittle mass (Ground to powder)
2. Deposition as soft and non adherent material (powdered by
light rubbing)
3. Direct deposition as powder which drops to bottom of cell
• Used for Cu, Be, Fe, Zn etc

• High purity powder is obtained

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Powder Conditioning - Annealing
• Annealing in reducing atmosphere or vacuum

• To reduce work hardening effect, oxide content and impurity

• High temperature annealing : Increases apparent density and

reduces pressure requirement

• Low temperature annealing : Decreases apparent density and

increases pressure requirement for compacting

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Powder Conditioning : Blending / Mixing

• To obtain homogeneous mixture

• Required to obtain uniform properties after sintering
• Addition of lubricants to reduce die wall and punches
• For better mixing, blender of double cone or Y- shape is used

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Compacting
• It is a process of compacting metal powder in a die through the
application of high pressures.

• Steps followed :
1. Powder mix is fed into die cavity through hopper and feed shoe
(vibrating feed shoe is used to assist powder flow)
2. Volume of powder is controlled by adjusting position of bottom
punch
3. Upper surface is leveled by sweep of feed shoe and top punch is
pushed into die cavity
4. Pressure is applied on one or both punches to compact powder
5. After maximum compression, upper punch is removed and
compact is ejected by raising lower punch
6. Pressure is adjusted to get required density; density increases, as
pressure increases (Usual pressure : 1 to 150 kg/mm2)
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Compacting

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Isostatic Pressing
• Pressure applied simultaneously and equally in all directions
• Process of pressure application : Hydrostatic Pressing (By
hydraulic medium) and Isostatic pressing (gaseous medium)
• This method gives uniform strength and density
• Produces very little scrap metal
• Can be used to make many different shapes using moulds
• Precise tolerances
• Compacting pressures range from 100 MPa to 280 MPa for
most metals
• The density of isostatic compacted parts is 5% to 10% higher
than with other powder metallurgy processes.
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
Isostatic Pressing

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Other Methods Used for Compacting
• Explosive forming : Pressure is generated by explosion
• High energy rate forming : Pressure is generated with high
speeds by using compressed gas or combustion of
petroleum-air mixture
• Powder rolling (Roll compacting)
• Powder extrusion
• Vibratory compacting
Along with producing required shape, compacting has following
effects on properties of compact :
1. Reduces voids and increases density of compact
2. Produces adhesion and provides green strength
3. Deforms powder and allows recrystallization during
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Sintering
• Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid
mass of material by heat or pressure without melting it to the
point of liquefaction.
• Used to increase strength and hardness of green compact
• Process : Heating compact to temperature under controlled
conditions with or without pressure for definite time
• Driving force for sintering is decrease in free energy due to
decrease in surface area
• Solid Phase Sintering : Green compacts are heated above
recrystallization temperature
• Liquid Phase Sintering : Heating above melting point

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Advantages
• Very high levels of purity and uniformity in starting materials

• Preservation of purity, due to the simpler subsequent fabrication process

• Stabilization of the details of repetitive operations, by control of grain size

during the input stages

• Absence of binding contact between segregated powder particles – or

"inclusions" (called stringering) – as often occurs in melting processes

• No deformation needed to produce directional elongation of grains

• Capability to produce materials of controlled, uniform porosity.

• Capability to produce nearly net-shaped objects.

• Capability to produce materials which cannot be produced by any other

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Sintering
• Sintering process leads to
– Diffusion : Especially on surface of particles
– Densification : Decrease in porosity which is present in green compact
and increases particle contact area. This reduces size of compact.
Reduction in size of compact may not be uniform
– Recrystallization and grain growth : Between particles at contact area
leading to structure similar to original

• Stages of Sintering :
– Compaction : Powder particles are brought together and are deformed
at points of contact
– At sintering temperature : Diffusion of atoms along particle boundaries
– For metals : New crystallites form at points of contact and grow. Inter
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Stages of Sintering
(1) Initial bonding among particles
(2) Neck growth
(3) Pore channel closure
(4) Pore rounding
(5) Densification or pore shrinkage

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Mechanisms of Sintering
Six distinct mechanisms can contribute to the sintering of a
consolidated mass of crystalline particles:
• Surface diffusion – Diffusion of atoms along the surface of a
particle
• Vapor transport – Evaporation of atoms which condense on a
different surface
• Lattice diffusion from surface – atoms from surface diffuse
through lattice
• Lattice diffusion from grain boundary – atom from grain boundary
diffuses through lattice
• Grain boundary diffusion – atoms diffuse along grain boundary

• Plastic deformation – dislocation motion causes flow of matter

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
Mechanisms of Sintering

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Types of Sintering
• Solid state sintering
– Only solid phases are present at the sintering temperature.
– This process occurs nearly above recrystallization temperature
– Green compacts are heated above recrystallization temperature
– No presence of liquid phase
– Densification Mechanism : Solid state diffusion

• Activated sintering
– Process in which the activation energy for sintering is lowered
– This is mostly achieved by chemical addition to the powder.
– The best activators are palladium and nickel.
– The reaction is normally exothermic and can contribute to an
enhancement of sintering

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Liquid Phase Sintering
• Use of liquid phase for all or part of sintering cycle
enhances densification
• There are two types of liquid phase sintering
– Melting one or more components present in green
compact
– Infiltration of the original green compact with a liquid
formed outside the compact
• Stages of sintering
1. Rearrangement/Liquid Flow
2. Solution precipitation
3. Final densification
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Liquid Phase Sintering
• Stages of sintering
1. Rearrangement or Liquid Flow : Liquid is pulled into pores
due to capillary action and rearrangement of grains into more
favourable configuration

2. Solution-precipitation : In areas where capillary pressures are

high (particles are close together) atoms will preferentially go
into solution and then precipitate in areas of lower chemical
potential where particles are not close or in contact. This is
called "contact flattening". This is similar to grain boundary
diffusion

3. Final densification : Densification of solid skeletal network,

liquid movement from efficiently packed regions into pores.
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Sintering Atmospheres
• Choice of sintering atmosphere is done based on
– Characteristic of material
– Requirement of sintered material
• Protective atmosphere is necessary in sintering to prevent
oxidation and to promote the reduction of surface oxides
• Reducing atmosphere is generally used in sintering which is
divided in to three classes
– Dry H2 or dissociated NH3
– Exothermic atmosphere having low or medium carbon
potential
– Endothermic atmosphere enriched with hydrogen gas
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Post Sintering Operations
1. Sizing or Coining : Sintered product maybe distorted due to
temperature effect during sintering operation. Rectification is
done in sizing operation by placing component in master die
and applying pressure on it
2. Impregnation : If component is required to be impregnated,
sizing should be avoided
3. Hot Re-pressing : Hot Repressing will give even greater
densification, with consequent greater improvement in the
mechanical properties, but less accurate control of the final
dimensions is to be expected

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Advantages of PM
• Components of any desired composition can be formed
• Metal and non-metal components can be formed together
• Controlled porosity can be obtained (Application : Liquid or
gas filters, self lubricating bearings etc)
• Disadvantages of molten metal processing are reduced
• Production of refractory metals like W,Mo,Ti is possible
without melting (e.g. ductile W in incandescent lamp)
• Components from metals which are insoluble in liquid state
can be formed with uniform distribution
• Minimum machining is required
• Faster production
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Limitations of PM
• Fine metal powders of some metals like Mg, Al are hazardous
when they come in contact with air

• Not preferable for small scale production due to high set-up

cost

• Not suitable for large components

• Poor corrosion resistance due to porosity

• Less density

• Mechanical properties are less compared to conventional

metals Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Applications of PM

• Automotive components :Porous bearings, doors, brakes

• Defense Applications

• High temperature applications : Refractory metals and metal

carbides

• Aerospace applications

• Atomic energy applications

• Household applications
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Rapid Prototyping Techniques
• Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly
fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using
three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data.

• Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D

printing or additive layer manufacturing technology.

• 3D printing : Process that deposits a binder material onto a

powder bed with inkjet printer heads layer by layer.

• Additive Manufacturing : Builds a three-dimensional object

from a computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file,
usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 Fused Deposition Modeling
In Fused Deposition Modeling a
filament a) of plastic material is fed
through a heated moving
head b) that melts and extrudes it
depositing it, layer after layer, in the
desired shape c). A moving
platform e) lowers after each layer is
deposited. For this kind of 3D printing
technology additional vertical support
structures d) are needed to sustain
overhanging parts

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Stereolithography
Schematic representation of
Stereolithography: a light-emitting
device a) (a laser or DLP) selectively
illuminates the transparent
bottom c) of a tank b) filled with a
liquid photo-polymerizing resin. The
solidified resin d) is progressively
dragged up by a lifting platform e)

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Selective Laser Sintering & Melting
• Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing (AM)
technique that uses a laser as the power source to sinter powdered
material (typically nylon/polyamide), aiming the laser automatically at
points in space defined by a 3D model, binding the material together to
create a solid structure.

• Selective laser melting (SLM) uses a comparable concept, but in SLM the
material is fully melted rather than sintered, allowing different properties
(crystal structure, porosity, and so on).

• SLS (as well as the other mentioned AM techniques) is a relatively new

technology that so far has mainly been used for rapid prototyping and
for low-volume production of component parts. Production roles are
expanding as the commercialization of AM technology improves.

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 SLS & SLM
SLS
• High power laser (e.g. carbon dioxide laser) to fuse powder
particles
• Selectively fuses particles based on 3D digital description of part
given by CAD file
• Process occurs at certain cross section, post which bed is lowered
and next cross section is scanned
• Density of finished product depends on power of laser
SLM
• Use a high power-density laser to melt and fuse metallic powders together

• The SLM process has the ability to fully melt the metal material into a solid
three-dimensional part unlike SLS.
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 SLS

A Laser scanning direction

Selective laser sintering process
1 Laser 2 Scanner system 3 Powder delivery B Sintered powder particles (brown state)
system 4 Powder delivery piston 5 Roller 6 Fabrication C Laser beam
piston 7 Fabrication powder bed 8Object being D Laser sintering
fabricated (see inset) E Pre-placed powder bed (green state)
F Un sintered material in previous layers

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 SLM

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE

 Advantages of SLS
• It is fully self-supporting, it allows for parts to be built within other parts in a
process called nesting – with highly complex geometry that simply could
not be constructed any other way.

• Parts possess high strength and stiffness & good chemical resistance

• Bio compatible

• Fastest additive manufacturing process for printing functional, durable,

prototypes or end user parts.

• Vast variety of materials and characteristics of Strength, durability, and

functionality, SLS offers Nylon based materials as a solution depending on
the application.

• Due to the excellent mechanical properties the material is often used to

substitute typical injection molding plastics.
Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE
 References

• Material Science and Metallurgy by V.D. Kodgire, Everest Publishing

House

• Materials Science and Engineering : An Introduction by W.D.Callister

• Material Science & Engineering by V.Raghavan, PHI publication

• Mechanical Metallurgy by G.E.Dieter, McGraw Hill International New

Delhi

• Material Science : NPTEL Lectures by Dr. Satish Kailas

• Material Science : NPTEL Lectures by Dr. Rajesh Prasad

• Fracture Mechanics : NPTEL Lectures by Dr. K.Ramesh

Material Science & Metallurgy – By Anushri Joshi, KJSCE