Chapter Twelve

Radiological Sanitation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Radioactive Decay
12.3 Radiation Dose
12.4 Minimizing Radiation Exposure
12.5 The Math of Radioactive Decay

12.1 Introduction
The atom consists of two parts:
1. The nucleus which contains:
 Protons.
 Neutrons.
2. Orbiting electrons.

Atom of different elements contain different numbers of protons. The

mass of an atom is almost entirely due to the number of protons and neutrons.
X = any material
A = number of protons + number of neutrons
Z = number of protons
A – Z = number of neutrons

Number of neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number

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Example1:
There are many types of uranium
A 235
Z 92
Number of protons 92
Number of neutrons 143

Most of the isotopes which occur naturally are stable. A few naturally
occurring isotopes and all of the man-made isotopes are unstable. Unstable
isotopes can become stable by releasing different types of particles. This
process is called radioactive decay and the elements which undergo this
process are called radioisotopes/radionuclides.

12.2 Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay results in the emission of either:
 an alpha particle (a),
 a beta particle (b),
 a gamma ray(g).

12.2.1 Alpha Decay

An alpha particle is identical to that of a helium nucleus.

It contains two protons and two neutrons.

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 unstable atom more stable atom alpha particle

Example2:

12.2.2 Beta Decay

A beta particle is a fast moving electron which is emitted from the

nucleus of an atom undergoing radioactive decay.

Beta decay occurs when a neutron changes into a proton and an

electron. As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less neutron, but one
extra proton. The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass number, A,
stays the same.

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Example3:

12.2.3 Gamma Decay

Gamma rays are not charged particles like a and b particles. Gamma
rays are electromagnetic radiation with high frequency. When atoms decay by
emitting a or b particles to form a new atom, the nuclei of the new atom
formed may still have too much energy to be completely stable. This excess
energy is emitted as gamma rays (gamma ray photons have energies of ~ 1 *
10-12 J).

12.3 Radiation Dose

Dose or radiation dose is a generic term for a measure of radiation

exposure.

Contamination is the presence of a radioactive material in any place

where it is not desired, and especially in any place where its presence could
be harmful.

Table(12-1): Loss of Life Expectancy.

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Activity or Behavior LLE(DAYS)
Recreational swimming 40

Being 15 percent overweight 900

Smoking 20 cigarettes per day 1,600

Using pesticides at home 12

Being exposed to radon in a home 35

Living within 10 miles of a nuclear power plant 0.4

Riding a bicycle 6

Driving a car 200

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Chronic dose: means a person received a radiation dose over a long period of
time.

Acute dose: means a person received a radiation dose over a short period of
time.

12.4 Minimizing Radiation Exposure

• Time (minimize).
• Distance (maximize).
• Shielding (lead blanket shielding around letdown radiation
monitors).

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12.5 The Math of Radioactive Decay

 Activity: the number of atoms that decay per unit time: (disintegrations
per second).
 Units:
1. Becquerel (Bq) = 1 decay/second = 1disintegration/sec. = 1 dps
2. Curie (Ci) [old unit] = 3.7 x 1010 Bq

12.5.1 Mathematical Derivation

Each radioactive nuclide has a unique decay constant λ.

N0 t
dN dN
= −λ dt → ∫ = −λ ∫ dt
N N
Nt 0

ln [N0 – Nt] = - λ [t – 0]

Nt
ln = −λ ∗ t
N0

Nt
= e−λ∗t
N0

or At = A0 e-λ*t

λ = 0.693 / t1/2 (large λ rapid decay; small λ slow decay)

where:

N0: The number of radioactive atoms present at t=0.

Nt: The number of radioactive atoms present at t.

Ao: Initial activity of the radioactive material.

At: Activity of the radioactive material at time t.

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e: Base of the natural logarithm.

λ: Decay constant.

t: Time since the initial activity was measured.

Fig(12-1): Activity of Radioactive Material.

Example4:

Find λ from the chart below?

Nt
ln = −λ ∗ t
N0

λ = (6.06 – 0)/ ( 220 – 0)

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 = 0.0275 min‐1

12.5.2 Exponential Decay Equation

The number of decaying and remaining nuclei is proportional to the

original number:

dN/dt = - λ * N

Nt = N0 * e -λt

This also holds for the activity (number of decaying nuclei):

At = A0 * e -λt

Decay factor: e –λt

= Nt/N0 : fraction of nuclei remaining, or

= At/A0 : fraction of activity remaining.

Example5:

14
If your 22920 years old sample(4 half-lives) originally had 1000 C
isotopic, how many 14C isotopic are left today?

Sol:

Nt
= e−λ∗t
N0

λ = 0.693 / t1/2

λ = 0.693 / 5730yr = 1.209*10-4 yr-1

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N22920 yr = 1000. e -1.209*10-4 (22920 yr)

= 63

12.5.3 Half-Life and Mean Life

Radioactive decay shows disappearance of a constant fraction of

activity per unit time. Half-life t1/2 time required to decay a sample to 50% of
its initial activity:

t1/2 = 0.693 / λ

Another relevant quantity of a radionuclide is its mean life, which is the

average life of a group of the radioactive atoms. It is denoted by τ and related

to decay constant λ and half-life t1/2 as follows:

τ = 1/ λ = 1.44*t1/2

Example6:

11
C has a half-life of 20 minutes. Initial sample has 1000 nuclei. How
many nucleus are left after 40 minutes, after 60 minutes and When is less than
1 left?

Sol:

λ = 0.693 / t1/2

λ = 0.693/20 = 0.035 minute-1

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Nt
= e−λ∗t
N0

1. N40 = 1000. e-0.035*40 = 247

2. N60 = 1000. e-0.035*60 = 122
3. e- λ*t = 1/1000 = e-0.035*t ( take lin)

t = 3hr and 18 minute

Example7:

At 11:00 a.m., the 99m-Tc radioactivity was measured as 9 mCi (333

MBq) on a certain day. What was the activity at 8:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. on
the same day (t1/2 for 99m-Tc = 6 hr)?

Sol:

λ = 0.693 / t1/2

λ = 0.693/6 = 0.116 hr-1

1. Time from 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. is 3 hr;

At = 9mCi = 333MBq

A0 = ?

At = A0 * e-λt

A0 = 9* e0.116*3

A0 = 12.746 mCi = 471.605 MBq at 8 : 00 a.m.

2. Time from 11:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. is 5 hr;

A0 = 9 mCi

At = ?

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At = A0 * e-λt

At = 9 * e-0.116*5

= 5.039mCi = 187.443MBq at 4 : 00 p.m.

12.5.4 Specific Activity

Specific Activity (SA) defined as activity per unit mass.

Units:

Bq Ci
or
g g

6.02 ∗ 1023
SA = ∗λ
M

6.02*1023 = Avogadro's number.

M = mass of radioactive material in one mole.

Example8:

Find specific activity of radium which have M =226 g/mole,

t½ = 1600yr ?

Sol:

6.02 ∗ 1023
SA = ∗λ
M
atoms
6.02 ∗ 1023 0.693 1yr 1d 1hr
mole
SA = g ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
226 1600yr 365d 24hr 3600sec
mole

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 atoms Bq
SA = 3.66*1010 = 3.66 ∗ 1010
g.sec g

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