52 | CivilEngineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY iblications x. | Flooring: 1. 25 mm coment concrete over 7 mm time concrete Noor (ireusing LO) | san er sqm 2, 25mmor 0 mm tlooe. | sam er sqm 5. Doors and window sis (CCorcement mortar plain) sam persam Xi. | Rain water pipelPlain pipe RM pert RM Xil. | Steet wooden trusses umber ert No. il | Glass pannels (supply) sam persam XIV. | Fixing of glass panels or elearning [number porn Abstract of Estimate form Table 4.3: A typical estimate form [iene [tweroneramindsr” [aot [uw [Raw | Amount [1] eae eum | 2 | Concrete cum 3. | orc san 4. | Brick workdstone work cum 5. | Stone work on wal sam 8. | Wood wrk umber CChowkhat door and windows Stoo work quinat Roofing sam Plastering pointing and tishing | sam 10. | Flooring sam 1. | Pang meter Methods of Estimation Method-|: Separate or individual wall method: In this method the long walls are measured out-to-out and intemal or cross walls in-to-in To calculate the quantities, length s6 obtained is multiplied by breadth and the height of wall For long wall Long wall ength out-o-out entre to centre length + half breadth on one side + half breadth on other side =centre to centre length + one breadth For short wall Short wall iength in-to-in = centre to centre length - one breadth Itis applicable for symmetrical footing either side all along the walls, also for this centre line remain same for superstructure and for foundation and plinth. Figure represents the plan of superstructure wall of a single room building of Sm x 4 mand section A-B represents the cross-section of a wall with foundations. Estimate the quantities of: 1. Earth work in excavation in foundation 2. Conerete in foundation 3. Brick work in foundation and plinth 4, Brick work in superstructure MADE EASYMADE EASY Construction Management | 53 Publications smn Brick wall 135m —~ 50m——s (a) Plan Section A-B Concrete (b) Solution: 1 1 The length of long wall centra to centre = 5+5x0.3+5 x0.3 = 5.30 m Length of short wall centre to centre = 4+ ; x0. 3+p10 = 430m To estimate the quantities the plan of founciation trench and foundation conerete, the plan of each footing or steps of wall may be imagined as shown below: Long wall = out-to-out Short wall = in-to-in may be dealt one by one Plan of foundation trench & foundation concrete Pan of plinth wal 30)54 — CivilEngineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY == Pubtieations Particulars of Item | 1. Earth work in excavation of foundation Long wall No. Length BH Quantity 2 sa0+4x09+2x09 09 08 62x09x09 Short wall No. Length BH Quantity 1 2 43-Jx09-Lx09 340x09x09=551 | 16.55 cum 2. Conerete in foundation Long walt No. Length BH Quantity 2 5.30+09=6.20 09 030 2x62x09%03 3.35 cum | Short wall No. Length BH Quantity | 2 430-0; 09 03 1.84cum 5.19 cum | 3. Brick wall in foundation and plinth i: Long wall No. Length BH Quantity 4 1 ‘st footing 2 830+ 5x0.6+5 x01 06 03 2x59x06x03 2.13 cum | ‘ | 2nd footing 2 53045(05+05)=580 05 03 2x58x05x03 1174 Plinth wail 2 5:90+3(0.4+0.4) = 6.70 04 08 2x57x04x06 274 | Short wail No. Length BH Quantity | i ‘st footing 2 490-5(06+06)=370 06 03 2xa7x06x03 | 1.33 me | ; | 2nd footing 2 490-5(05+05)=380 0S 03 2x58x05%03 | 4.14 cum 1 Plinth wall 2 480-304+04)=39% 04 06 2x39x04x06 1.87 cum 10.95 cum | MADE EASY nee PubleationsMADE EASY Construction Management | 55 onoenwree Pubieations - sermeemanone | 4, Brick wall in superstructure Long wall No. Length BH Quantity 2 5304203103) 5.60 03° 350 2x56x03x35 11.76 Short wall No. Length B H Quantity 2 430- 4(03+03)= 4.00 03 350 2x4x03x35 | 8.40 20.16 cum it may be noted that in the case of long wall, the length of the second footing, third foating ete. differ by 10 cm and each is shorter than the previous one by 10cm. Similarly for the short wall, the length is longer than the previous footing by 10 om, Method Il: Centre line method Sumtotal length of centre lines of all walls, iong and short has to be found out Find the total length of centre line of wall of some type long and short having same type of foundation and footings and then find the quantities is by multiplying the total centre fine length by the respective breadth and height. In this method, the langth will remain same for excavation in foundation, for concrete in foundation for all footings and for superstructure (with slight difference when there are cross wall or no. of junction) For buildings having cross on partition wall, for each and every junction, half breadth of the respective item on footing in to be deducted from the total centre length, Itis also illustrated through example Estimate by centre line method the quantities of the following items of a two cam room building. 1, Earth work in excavation in foundation. 2. Lime concrete in foundation | 3. First class brick work in foundation 4, First class brick work in lime mortar in wall. | TTI | | wat} |g 44.40 m 8 | MADE EASYSolution: In this problem there are two junctions of the inner wall with main wall Total central length of walls = 2x oe of long wall + 3 x o/c of short wall = 2x 10.60+3%630 = 40.10 If total centre length is multiplied by breadth and the depth at the junction, the portion A or B shown above will come twice and we get the quantity in excess in these portions, and these excess shall have to be deducted, The deduction may be done by reducing the centre length by half breadth for each junction, [1 otal centre lengtn-(2 x 3 wea] x breadth x depth 7 [40 10-2x 5x1 so} 40x1.00= 42.90 cum The same principle is applied to foundation concrete of footing, plinth wall and superstructure wall 1, Earth work in excavation in foundation Length B oH Quantity 40.10-2x2x1 10=39.00 1.10 1.00m 4290 2. Lime concrete in foundation “Length BH Quantity ©80.10- 1.10 = 39.00 110 03 12.87 3. 1st class brick wall “Length 8 H Quantity Ist footing 4010-2%4x08=9990 08 02 629 2nd footing 4010-2%2x07=9940 07 O41 276 1 31d footing 40.10-2%}%06=9950 06 01 297 1 4th footing 4010-2x4x05=0960 05 01 198 13.4 cum 4. Istclass brick wall Length B oH Quantity 4010-2x5x04=9970 04 42 68.7eum Deduction of doors, windows, shelves, openings and lintels can also be done accordingly. © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MIRE EASYMADE EASY Construction Management | 57 coeeunemnneme Puoations 4.8.2. Estimation of Labour Normally a buldingis mad up of many diferent systems broken down into smaller components and are associated with responsibilty of individual workers or crew. Crewis the team of workers which can be of same trade on a composite composition of different trades Find duration of interior and exterior painting activities for quantities of 440 sq.m, | 378 sq.m respectively using crew production rate 11 sq.m/nr and 14 sq.m/hr respectively, Assume that | only after interior paint, exterior paint can be done. Solution: 440 Time required for interior painting = <== 40 hes 378 Time required for exterior painting = SE> = 27 hrs | 7, Total time required = 40 + 27 hrs Fre = 8.98 days (Assuming 8hrs of work per day) | pong What is a duration of an excavation activity of 3000 m® quantity of excavation using an excavator with the production rate of 200 m°fday a loader of 250 m®/day and three trucks of 150 m*/day? Comment on the crew formation. Solution: Time required for excavation Time requidred for loader 3000 Time required for three trucks = e5-= 20 days Excavator and loader will remain unused. 000 Try 4 tusks = 355 = 15 days Crew formation: Excavator — 01nos Loader — 01 nos Trucks — 04nos 48.3 Analysis of Rates The basis of arriving at a cortect or a reasonable rate per unit work or supply, for a particular item following its specification and detailed survey of materials, labour equipment, etc. are required for each item of work and prevailing rate is called analysis of rate MADE EASY‘= Publications 58 | CilEngineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MNAIDE EASY A contractor wants to estimate the equipment related cost for earth work involving a quantity of 40000 m3. The contractor has made calculations and arrived at a following requirements for equipment for this excavation work, Equipment Capacity _No. Required Duration for which eqip. is reqd, 5 months (10 hrs/day @ 2hr OT) 1. PoclainCK-90 80 m/hr 1 2. Dumpers 6m? 3 5 months (10 hrs/day @ 2hr OT) Calculate equipment cost (cost/m) units for earth work Changes/months Workers Poclain CK-90 125000, 220 /day Dumper 50000 200 /day | Helper _ 180 /day Spare and maintenance = 25% of owning cost Over time charges = 50% operator cost Solution 1. Equipment owning cost + operating charges Equipment No. Chargesimonth PoclainCk-30 1 125000 Dumper 3 50000. 2. Spars and Maintenance 25% of owning cost = 0.25 x 1375000 = Rs, 343750 3. Operator cost No. Daily wage. Operator for poclain 1 Rs. 220/day Helper for bucket cleaning 2 Rs. 180/day Drivers for dumpers a Rs. 200/day 4. Overtime charges 50% of operator cost = 0.5 x 183400 = Rs. 76700 Total cost = As. 1948850 for 40000 m? of earthwork = Cost per unit of earthwork = Rs. 48,72/m~ Rs. S0/m? 4.9 Detailed and Abstract Estimates of Buildings From the given figure below, calculate the detailed and abstract estimate for | the single room Building (Load bearing type structure) by (a) Long wall and short wall method (b) Centre line method MARGE ERSH undertaking Duration Total 5 625000 | 2 750000 Rs. 1375000 _ Amount % 220 26 x 2x 180 x 26 x ‘3.x 200 x 26 x 5 = Rs. 78000 I Rs. 153400 (For detailed understanding)maAvE EASY Construction Management | 5G nee Publications Total 24.192 m? Solution: — ors) | siete | owe == 4 fos | eee ellicocasieeenit | Tooof FEE, mingfoas * 53 j oso, aro ROC ed tae : : = 094) | ee | Cross-section | | 43 06 tls Note: Almenion inc orate Bete Es ~| | | oss — Seaman sie ‘Single room building (Load bearing type structure) A, Long wall-Short Method _ S.No, Particular of Htems No. L(m) Bim) Him) Q(m*) Explanation 1. Earth work excavation | i foundation | (@) Long wat 2 62 09 14 5910.45 +045 =62 Bu03+08+00=14 | {b} Short walls 2 34 09 14 8.568 3-0.45-045=34 2. CG. (1:4:8) bed for foundation {a) Long walls 2 62 08 08 3.348 (®) Short walls 2 34 09 03 1.836 Total 5.184 m? MADE EAS! a Publ60 | Civil Engineering © Construction Practi Planning & Management MADE EASY Publications 3. RC Masonry in CM (1:6) for (@) Footings (i) Long walls, 2 69 06 05 354 L=53+03+03=59 (i) Short walis Pee wy (a fed L=43-03-03=37 Total 5.76 m? (b) Basement {) Long wats 2 575 045 06 3.105 L=5.9+0.225+0,228=5.75 (i) Short wails 2 385 045 06 2079 L=4,3-0.225-0.225=3.85 Total 5.184 m? 4, Brick masonry with CM (1: 6) for superstructure | {a) Long walls 2 56 030 300 10.08 L=5.94015+015=56 | (©) Shor walls 2 490 030 300 7.20 L=43-015-015=40 | (©) For parapet wall | 56 | (Ck (2) Long wais| 2 86 02 075 168 (©) Shon walls 2 44 02 075 132 Total 20.28 m* Deductions for openings (a) Doors 1 10 03. 21 063 (b) Windows 3 18 03-12 402 Total -2.25 nm! Net brick masonry = 20.28 ~ 2.26 5. RCC (1:2:4) for (@) Root ab | 86 48 012-300 (b) Linteis over | (i) Doors 1 12 03 0.15 0.054 {i) Windows 3 15 08 018 O20 | (©) Beene | (i) Long beams 2 56 03 0.3 1.008 | mea Bea oat ae | Total 5.075 m? 6. Sand filing for basement 1-485 3.85048 8.96 L=5.0-0075-0075= 4085 | 7. CC (1:4:8) for flooring 1 485 3.85 On 1.87 B= 4.0-0.075-0.075 =3,85 8. Flooring with Mosaic tiles 1 50 4.0 - 20.0 m?- 9. Plastering with CM (1: 6) for auper structure Inside Fer walls 1 igo — 30 840 Laz6oesq=180 |MADE EASY falications Outside For walls 1 04 = Basement outside 1 216 — Parapet wall (a) Inside 1 188 (b) Top 1 196 02 Deductions for openings Doors ee Windows ee i = Net plastering = 146.18 ~ 15.0 = 131.18 m@ 10. Plastering for Ceiling with CM (1:5) 150 40 11, White Washing with two coats with Janatha cement Same as quantity of plastering for walls and Ceiling 12. Colour washing with two coats Same as quantity of Plastering for walls and Ceiling 18. Supply & Fixing of best ‘country wood for (2) Doors, 1 (0) Windows 3 14, Painting with ready mixed synthetic enamil paints with two coats over primary coat for new wood for {2) Doors. (©) Windows: Q4xg 18 — 15. Petty supervision and contingencies at 4% and rounding off. Construction Management 61 30 612 L=2(66446) = 204 08 1296 H=30+01240.75 (upto parapet wall) 075 141 | = | Total 146.18 me 241 42 12 108 Total 15.0 m? = 0me 151.18 (= 131.18 + 20 = 151.18) | 161.18 (= 191.18 + 20) = 151.18, | 1 No. | 3Nbo | 21 4.725 | 12° 1248 Total 16.875 m?62 Civil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management — mADE EASY ati en B. Centre Line Method S.No. Particular of Items No. Urn) Bim) Hien) _Q(m?) “Explanation | 41. Earth work excavation for foundation 119209 14 24.492m? = 215.3 +43)= 19.2 53 43 2 CO(1: 4: 8) bed for Foundation 1 192 09 03 5.184m* 3. RR Masonry in CM (1:6) for {a} Footings 1 192 06 08 576 (b) Basement 1 192 045 06 6.184 Total 10.944 m9 4, Brick Masonry with CM (1:6) for superstucture 1192-203 3.0__17.28 mn? For parapet wall 41° 200 02 075 3.00 Deductions for openings : (@) Doors 21 0.63 eee Toe Total =2.25 mi (b) Windows 0 ~ 2.05 = 18.03 m? 8. RCC (1:2: 4) for (@) Roof slab ibev eek eae) o1zeaeaica0) (0) Lintels over : {) Doors Piel Bse9.3 SGM: 0-054: {i Windows 3 18 03. 0.18 0.203 (6) Beams 1 192 08 03° 1.728 Total 5.075 m? 6. Sand filing for basement 1 485 385 048 8.96 L =8.0-0075-0.075=485 7. CC(1:4:8) for flooring «1485 3.85 01 | 187 B= 40-0075-0.075=385 8. Flooring with Mosaicties = 15.0 40 20.0 9. Plastering with CM (1: 6) for super structure Inside For walls 1 180 — 30 540 Outside | For walls 1 204 — 30 612 Basement outside 1216 — 06 12.96 MADE EASY cataMADE EASY Publications s-smnm Parapet wall (a) Inside ‘eee {b) Top. 1 196 02 Deduction for openings Doors Windows Construction Management | 63 10. " 12. 13. 14. 16. Plastering for Ceiling with CM (1:5) 1 50 40 White Washing with two coats with Janatha cement Same as quantity of plastering for walls and Coiling Colour washing with two coats Same as quantity of plastering for walls and Ceiling Supply & Fixing of best country wood for {a) Doors (b) Windows 3 Painting with ready mixed synthetic enamil paints with two coats over primary coat for new wood for 1 (a) Doors ayxt io (b) Windows 2gx8 160 — Petty supervision and contingencies at 4% and rounding off, 075 144 — . 392 Total 146.18 m? 21 42 L=50-0.075-0.075=4.85 12 108 B=4,0-0.075-0.078 = 3.85 Total 15.0 m? — 200me 151.18 m? (131.18 + 20 = 151.18) 151.18 m? 1No. 3 No. 21 4.725 1212.18 Total 16.875 m?64 at a2 Givil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management r Objective Brain Teasers Correct graph for direct cost in a construction project, at a paint of time / Quantity (b) \ Cost Cost \ Quanity Cost (c) Cost (¢) Quanity In time cost trade off for direct cost, indirect cost and total cost, the variation of cost wrt project duration will be Cost a) ~ Project duration x (b) Project duration as a4 Qs ae ar as ag MADE EASY MADE EASY a ee Pultlcation Project duration {@) None of these Unit of plastering, points and finishing is (@) ms om (© mm (@) isnumbers Unit of measurement for RC sunshade with specified thickness and width @ m {o) m (o) m? (a) isnumbers Office expenses of site as well as head office will be included in @ Direct cost (©) Any of the two (b) Indirect cost {d) None of these In cost estimation, site overhead for a project generally of direct cost @ 14% (©) 18-20% (©) 515% (@) None of these In Conceptual Cost estimate of a hospital, the required data will be (a) Detailed design and specification of project (6) No initial input is required (©) Unit cost Le., costjunit of patients or bed of previous similar project () Drawing and plan elevations Conceptual estimate is prepared by (a) Owners or owner's consultant (©) Engineers (©) Contractor (@) Any of the above Pre-bid estimate (detailed) is propared by (b) Engineer (9) Anyofthe above (a) Owner (©) ContractorMADE EASY Construction Management |g Q.10 att 43 ata = Puntiations pe Current estimate of a project is Rs. 350 milion () Ais wrong Ris correct while the same estimate 4 years back was Rs. (d) Ais correct Ris wrong ili late inf oe ee on Q.15. What willbe the duration to install 6000 sq ft of (o) 10% (A) 3.98% shuttering for walls if productivity of carpenter ae is 0.008 man hours/sq.ft.? Adjustment for location, time, size of A to (a) 36hrs (b) 48hrs calculate project estiamte of B will be _ (c) 60hrs (d) None of these i f A ees opioke Q.46 Previous cost of similar project is Rs, 500 lakh. a eaae Time adjustment = 1.20 Location adjustment = 0.95 () “a Size adjustment = 2.1 Final cost of new project will be (9) xx Oflytime cost of A (a) 1326.3lakhs Time cost of B (b) 1197 lakh @) « (c) 831.25 lakh (0) 1080lakh In unit cost method, unit costis calculated using A+B A+4B+0 Q.17 Assertion (A): At every stage in centre line ans rr) method deduction of half breadth of the main Asc wall at hat particular evel shall have to be made () 8 for junction. Where, Reason (R): In centre ine junction area gets A= Min. unit cost of previous project counted twice. 8 = Average unit cost of previous project (@) Aand R both are correct and Ais correct, C= Max. unit cost of previous project explanation (©) Aaand R both are correct and R is not For the separate or individual wall estimate cottectexplanatonot A calculation of short wall, length measured will (©) Ais wrong Ris correct be (d) Ais correct Ris wrong (@) centre to centre (0) cle + one breadth Q.18 For centre line diagram, (©) cle-one breadth on 4 1 (@) ole 5 x one breadth 38m Assertion: Separale or individual wall estimate is applicable for symmetrical footing on either | side all along | Reason: Cenire line will remain same for fom superstructure and for foundation and plinth, (a) Aand R both are correct and A is correct a explanation Total centre line length will be {®) A and R both are correct and R is not (a) 413m (b) 40m correct explanation of A ©) 395m (d)_ None of theset “MADE EASY66 | Civil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY eee sada ~ — Publications 1. (a) 2.(a) 3. (0) 4. (b) 5. (b) Fy 6 (c) 7.(c) 8. (a) 9. (ce) 10. (d) 14. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17.(a) 18. (c) Cost Project duration 5. (b) Indirect cost 1. (a) Ata particular point of time Direct cost = quantity 8. (a) Totloat tender 9. (c) Toapply fora tender 10. (d) Current price = Previous price (1 + Tine Cost uantty 16. (b) 500x12x2.1x0.95 18. (Cc) 333438) +38x9+43x2=41,3m 2. (a) With respect to project duration 1 ™ Project duration IDC & Project duration Ee 1 41.8~5 x breadth xNo. of junctions 1 = 413-5 4 3x0i9x = 39.5, MADE EASY ublleationsEngineering Economy 5.1 Introduction Engineering economy is the science of applying economics to select the best from a group of various engineering design. An options if implemented will produce a time pattern of consequences which must be evaluated, compared and predicted in relation to their costs. Thus the essential prerequisite of successful agineering application is economic feasibility. pt of economy study may be summarized with the following points: (@)_Allaltermatives physically capable of achieving the engineering objective should be clearly defined (6) The physical consequences of each alternative should be identified and evaluated in terms of money units (0) Theditference between alternatives should be the basis for comparison and they should be compared on a uniform basis as interest rate etc, 5.2 Interest and Interest Formulae Interest:The term interest is used ta design a rental for the use of money. Interest Rate: An interest rate is the ratio of the gain received from an investment over a period of time, usually one year and the investment is usually taken as Rs. 100. It is expressed in the percentage form and ignated as The Time Value of Money: Time value of money means that two equal amounts at different points time do not have equal value if the interest rate is greater than zero. It is the relationship between interest and time that leads to the concept of ‘the time value of money’ of Simple Interest: When the totalinterest earned or chargedis directly proportionalto the principal involved. the interest rat number of interest periods for which the principal is computed, the inter led simple T= (P) (n) () where T= totaliinterest, P= principal amount lent or borrowed n= number of years (interest periods), i= interest rate per year (per interest period) (Cova : MADE EASY —68 | CivilEngineering * Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY _ petit ammemesen Publications 5.2.1 Compound Interest Whenever the interest charge for any interest periad (a year, for example) is based on the remaining principal amount plus any accumulated interest charges upto the beginning of that period, the interest is said to be compound 5.2.2. Notations and Cash Flow i= Annual interest rate = Number of annual interest periods P = Present sum of money i.e. present worth at zero time, F = Fulure sum of money i.e. future worth equal to the compound amount at the end of 'n’ years A= Asingle payment, in a series of 'n’ equal payments, made at the end of each annual interest period G = Uniform period-by-period increase or decrease in amount (the arithmetic gradient) 5.2.3 Cash FlowDiagram The graphic presentation of each value plotted at appropriate time is called a cash flow diagram, The normal conventions for cash flow diagrams are as foiows: (@)_ The horizontal axis is the time scale with progression of time moving from left 10 right. The value. indicated on time scale (viz., 0, 1, 2... n) indicates the end of the respective period. {b) The arrows signify cash flow, normally downward arrows represent disbursement or costs and upward arrows represent receipts or benefits, (A) Interest Formulae for Single Payment ea one o oD od) * Figure below shows acash flow diagram | involving a present single sum (F}, 2 Pe Presentworh F = Future worth at future single sum (F), separated by ri atime; #=0 ‘ne ond ofr yeer eee Fig. 6.1 Cash Flow Diagram for Single Payment Case. Finding Fwhen Pis given At the end of nyears, Fo Asin F pr ti The quantity (1 + i)"is commonly called “single payment compound amount fector” indicated by the functional notations as (E i a be F (6 in) = Single payment compound amount factor = (1 + 1)’ So, se PR Eero newtMADE EASY Engineering Economy | 6G atlone 7 eee Case. Finding Pwhen Fis given From equation F = P{1 + i)”, solving this for Pgives the relation 1 P las | is called “single payment present worth factor" indicated by the functional The quantity ir) y symbol as (é i a) 1 (Zio) Single payment present worth factor = = F ey {B) Interest Formulae for Equal Payment Series * Figure shows a general cash flow diagram tft ni involving a series of uniform (equal) payments, oO w ay" each of amount A, occurring at the end of each | year with interest rate’ per year. Pp F Case-til. Fig. 6.2 Cash Flow Diagram for Equal Payments Finding Pwhen Ais given I Aexists al end of each year for n years with i rate of interest, the present worth Pis obtained by summing the present worth of each payment of amount A AA AeA (HA oy ieee 1 . Amatatr wl 1 The series in the bracketisin the geomatric progression whose first term (a)is 7-75 and geometric 1 ratio (O18 TA dar Sum of GP. is given bya (=) - MADE EASY70 | Chil Engineering Construction Practice, Planning & Management MRDE EASY uistieatlons (i+if-4 ei ‘The quantity [ | |s called “uniform series present worth factor” indicated by the function rato [2 Gey” +i P [Ee] = uniform (equal) series present worth factor Case, Finding A when Pis given. ey a [tse] The quantity in the bracket is called “capital recovery factor” using the functional symbol as (2) Sahn Casev. Finding Fwhen Ais given F (14)? -1 e og J [eet (143) The factor in the brackets called “equal payment series compound amount factor* given by F fundamental notation as ie i nj Casevl. Finding Awhen Fis given fe Tet] (iti = ara is called “sinking fund factor" using functional notation as The quantity in the bracket (arn MADE EASY PubleationsMADE EASY nm Publications Summary of various Compound Interest Factors: (©) Interest Formulae for Uniform Gradient Payment Series Engineering Economy Compatind intrest Factors 70 Factor by which Functional find | S¥@" | given ts multiplied Fantor Name notation = iv Single payment compound BE, Frye avis | amount factor Ein E P a de _ - Aas sinjepoyman sen | (Pj n 5 won fer Be | P Unform series preset | (P. ria ore (ee) i A | i Capita recovery (A Efe | = ee | S|. bg Unitorm series compound | (Fj, e ‘amount factor Ze a A ‘Some econornic analysis problems involve receipts or disbursements that are projected to increase or decrease by auniform amount each period, thus contributing an arithmetic series. In general, a Uniformly increasing series of payment for n interest periods may be expressed as A,, A, +g, A,+29, A;+39...A, +(n—1) gas shown in figure, where A, denotes the first year end payment in the series and’g the annual change in magnitude called gradient amounts. A, = Payment at the end of the first year ‘Annual change in gradient Number of years Equivalent annual payment of the series Az= Equivalent annual payment of the gradient series (0. g, 2g, .. (9- 1}g) at the end of successive years. AzA,+ A (B49) lacs = where A _ aa (n-2)g (mtg —cifat sl i Al Ada TAT at 34 5 1+ 2 yon Fig. 6.3 Uniform Gradient Payment Series and Fis the fulure amount equivalent to the gradient series. The future amount equivalent to the gradient series c: " MADE EASY be derived from the table as follows.72 | Civil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE Ase Table 5.1 : Gradient Series and an equivalent Set of Series Ha] Galen ea ayer | Sarna" | tetggent eta 1 | o 0 ie) o a a oto ot 3 ae ont | nae on ‘3 ovaroe Lon | ot eo | FE FE Zhe 1 A }of5 | =o g The terms in the brackets con: progression, g| The resulting factor oof ee Jeol tet +IEDE + (141)! —(n- Ht] cymes ten ees (ey aceants HOI Ray ats PE ‘sist nterms, 1* term being (1 #)2and ratio being (1 + i) of geometric 2g a gery A and willbe designated (3 in] + Ay= Equivalent annual cost o set of gradient series = o6)MAGE EAS Engineering Economy | 73 Example: If a man receives an annual salary of Ris, 8,000 increasing at the rate of Rs. 500 a year, what is his equivalent uniform salary for a period of 10 years, present worth and future worth at an interest rate of 10%? A asa &in] soof 1.10 (0.10 sooo sco 5 10 ola ors)] = 8000 + 500 x 3.7256 = Rs, 9862.75 Pp Ale 102.10] =Rs 9862.75 6.0104 = Rs. $9,279 Fe AE o%10|=Rs 9862.75x 16.338 = As. 161,137 Nominal and Effective Interest Rates Very olten compounding of interest is done twice, four times or twelve times a year as per agreement. The interest rates associated with this more frequent compounding are normally quoted on an annual basis. Where the actual or effective rate of interest is 3%, interest compounded each six month period the annual or nominal, interest rate is quoted as ‘6% per year compounded semiannually’. Thus the nominal rate of interest is expressed on an annual basis and itis determined by multiplying the actual or ‘effective rate per interest period times the number of interest periods per year. An expression for the effective annual interest rate may be derived rY from effective interest rate = (»4) ~1 where ris nominal interest rate and cis no. of interest periods per year. if the compounding is annual then r Aa ‘All annuities (uniform Series-end of year payment) start (rom the end of frst year are called van > cdinary annuities. I the payment does not begin uni some ler date, the annuity is known as Know @ — “d2"erredannuity’ 5.3 Capitalised Cost Oe ae eee Capitalised worth is defined as the present worth of | i ya i perpetual service, In other words, itis the present worth ofa y A A A A A Aa Uniform series of annuity of infinite period, If there exists a” present or principal amount and this earns interest at the rate Fig. 6.4 Captaised Cost A of period, then the end of period perpetual payment A can be made from this principaias P= This can be obtained from the figure “MADE EAs74 | CivilEngineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE ERSY ~nnemcee Publication The Pis often spoken as the capitalized value of A. In providing for perpetual care of some structure or the maintenance, we often encounter a special type of perpetuity. A certain amount X may be needed every K periods to provide a fund for replacement or maintenance. The most common method is to convert X amount ‘occurring at end of K period into an equivalent cash flow of equal annual payment A and then let this A be assumed to extend infinity Another approach may be as follows; what principal amount P, when compounded at iper period for K periods will at the end of A" period equal to Xneeded plus Pto be available for accumulating interest to provide the next X payment. This can be stated as ik) =X+P 5.4 Comparison of Alternatives Inengineering economy, the prospective respective receipts and disbursements of two or more alternatives, proposals must be placed on an equivalent basis for comparison. This may be accomplished by the proper use of interest formulae developed in the previous article, The most common bases for comparison are ‘A. Present worth amount 8. Annual equivalent amount C. Capitalized amount D. Rate of return method 5.4.1 The Present Worth amount ‘The method is described as follows, 1. Indicate all expenses and benefits at appropriate point of time in the form of cash flow separately for each alternative, Represent downward arrows for expérises (costs) and upward arrows for benefits or savings. In the algebraic expression + sign is for expenses and ve sign is for benefits. 2. Shift the amount at zero time by using proper interest formulae and find total present worth amount of each alternative and compare. There may be two cases, Case: When service life of each alternative is same. Case-tl : When service life of elternatives are different. 54.2 Annual Equivalent Amount The annual equivalent amount is another basis for comparison that has characteristics similar to the present worth amount. The cash flowis converted in a series of equal annual amount by first calculating A the presen! worth amount for the original series and then multiplying twith capital recovery factor ( pe a) The comparison is made by seeing the annual equivalent amount of each alternative,MADE EASY Engineeringtconony | 75 een Publications = 543 The Capitalized Amount The annual equivalent amount obtained is assumed to extend for infinite period and the capitalized A amount is obtained by using >. The equivalent annual amount is calculated for replacement and maintenance cost and added to the initial cost of the alternative, 5.4.4 Rate of Return Method It is defined as the interest rate that reduces the present worth amount of a series of receipts and disbursements to zero for each alternative, In economic terms, the fundamental concept of rate of return is that itis the rate of interest earned on the unrecovered balance of an invest ment so that unrecovered balance is zero at end of investment’ life. The computation of rate of return generally requires a trial and error solution until the can be interpolated, The common convention used is ‘+’ sign for cash inflows and ‘signs for cash outflows. 5.5 Break Even Analysis BS ccameine 5.5.1 Break Even Analysis for Business Enterprise Break even analysis implies that at some point in the { + business operations, total revenue equals total cost. Basically, gaateas onennsts- eee Break Even Analysis s concerned with finding the point at which "venue relationships) various alternatives) revenue and cost agree exactly, hence the term Breakeven (Point), The Break Even Point is thetefore the volume of output at which neither. a.profit.nor a loss is incurred, If the production rate is greater than that ofthe Break Even Point (BEP), a prot wil result, When, the production rate is, less than that of the (BEP), a loss val be incurred, 5.5.2 Break Even Chart A break even chart is a graphical representation of the relationship between costs and revenue for all possible volumes of output. The main objective af the graphic device is to determine the break even point and profitpotential under varying conditions of output and costs. In brief it may be called a continuous income (profit and loss) statements The variable cast is the ordinate between FF’ and FV. Line OS is the revenue line anda linear relationship is utilised to describe the total sales. The point at which total cost line f | atte meets the revenue line is knawn as BEP (Break Even Point) eee, | cost The BEP can be described in the forms of output units or : turnover ofthat output units. The horizontal line (or the distance) between BEP and outout being produced is called margin or _ safety, and it is expressed as a percentage of the total ° Unis of output of turnover ——» turnover. If this distance is large, it indicates that the profits will be there even if there is a drop in production because of Fig. 5.5 Break Even Chart Prot coat = é 2 £ Fed cost MADE EASY Publications76 | GWilEngineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MROE EAS i Publeations some unavoidable reasons. The angle between sale line and total cost line at BEP is called angle of incidence (©). Ifthis angle is large, rate of profit will be high. For the most favourable position in business the angle of incidence and margin of safety should be as high as possible. 5.5.3. Functions of Break Even Chart The various functions of Break Even Chart are as follows: 1. It's an important too! of business management and it gives crystal clear view of the position of a business. BEP of the chart marks clearly no profit no loss situation, !tis useful in understanding the effects of variations of fixed cost, variable cost and revenue on the profitability of a business. So it is used to portray the effects of proposed changes in operational policy. 4. Angle of incidence and margin of safety indicates the business position—whether favourable or unfavourable. 5. Itindicates likely profits or losses at various outputs levels. 6. _Itis a decision making tool in the hands of management. Limitations of Break Even Chart: 1, When the market conditions may not remain constant over the range of projected capacity itbecomes difficult to classity the costs as fixed or variable, the BEP may nol portray the true picture 2. The break even chat is @ too! for a short run analysis. The total cost line (sum of variable cost and fixed cost) need not be straight line. In actual practice, costs do not vary in diteet proportion 4. The revenue ling may also not be a straight ine. 5. Itrepresents a static picture whereas business operations are very much dynamic. 6. Analysis of break even chart presents additional difficulty when a company produces a variety of products. 5.6 Depreciation Depreciation is detined as the loss in value of an asset with the passage of time. A reserve fund should be created to realize the cost of asset atthe end of ts ite and it must not be confused withthe profit, The main purpose of the depreciation is to provide for the recovery of capital that has been involvedin the possession of the physical property, Types of Depreciation: ‘A common classification of depreciation is as follows (@) Physical depreciation (b) Functional depreciation (¢)_ Contingent depreciation fa) Physical Depreciation Depreciation resulting in physical impairment of an asset is known as ‘physical depreciation. This results in lowering the ability of the asset to render its intended service. The primary cause of physical depreciation is wear and tear because of its constant use such as abrasion, shocks, vibration, impact etc. and the deterioration due to action of elements such as corrosion of pipe, chemical decomposition. MADE EASMADE EASY Engineering Economy | 77 (b) Functional Depreciation Functional depreciation often called OBSOLESCENCE and is defined as the loss in the value of the property due to change in fashion, design or structure or due to inadequacy to meet the growing demand, necessity of replacement due to new invention being more economical and more efficient ete. (©) Contingent Depreciation Itis due to: 1. accidents (due to negligence) 2, disease (pollution of water, parasites) 3. diminution of supply (natural gas, electricity water etc Table 5.2 Diference between Depreciation and Obsolescence Depreciation ‘Obsolescence 7, Thisis the physicalioss nthe value propery dueto | 4. This fs the functional iss inthe value of the property woarand tear and decay to duo to change in design, structure, fashien, uty, demand et. 2. depends upon is oginal condition, quaty of essen te eenicg cece ne mantenance sc modecfuse cc mene eee * 3. Itvaries with age 3. Notdependentonage 4, There are severalmethodstorcalcuiatingthe amount | 4. Nomethodis avaiable for calculation of obsolescence. ofdepreciation Salvage Value (or Resale Vatue} Iris the value of the property at the end of its utility period without being dismantled. Salvage value implies that the property has further utility. A structure that has been well maintained and carefully handled will fetch more salvage value. Scrap Value The value of a property realized when it become absolutely useless excep! for sale as junk ists sorap value. The utlity ofthe article is assumed to be zero. Book Value Itis defined as the value of the property shown in the account books in that par cost less total depreciation till that year. lar year i.e. the original ‘Methods for Calculating Depreciation There are several methods of calculating depreciation. Some of them are simple and used regularly ‘whereas some are relatively uncommon. The following notations have been used C= Initial cost of an asset at zero time (This will include the cost of asset +transportation charge + installation and other charges spent initially) Cq= Salvage value (or scrape value) to be estimated at the end of utlly period Life of the asset Book value at the end of period 'm 5.6.1 Straight Line Method In this method, the property is assumed to lose value by a constant amount every year. At the end of the lite, the salvage value (or scrap value) left78 Chil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY nas BubieatiOns Do This method is recommended for all the equipments/assets with constant demand and which You do not face any obsolescence during their useful life. Itis widely used in the case of all civil Know@ — <70!eerIng appliances and applications 5.6.2 Declining Balance Method (or Constant Percentage Method) In this method, the property is assumed to lose value annually at @ constant percentage of its book value, Let FDB be the fixed percentage Depreciation for 1* year = ©, x FOB Book value at end of 1 year C,~ C,xFDB = C,(1 = FOB) Depreciation for 2"4 year = Book value at beginning of 2 year x FDB C, (1 -FDB} FOB (Book value at beginning of 24 = Book value at the end of 1* year) depreciation for second year. 8, = C,(1-FD8)- C,(1~=FDB)FOB. = C,(1-FOBP (1 FOB)? Similarly, By Book value at the end ofn years = C, (1—FDB)° = 6,(1-Fo8P oy =1(2 FDB { c } Do Sp |” Sorte cases, the owt of maintenance inoveases towards Wie ond Of the Mies Whey be Rid > desirable to charge large amount of depreciation in the early period and less in the fag period, A so that the combined effect of depreciation and maintenance costs roughly remains the same. This method is most suitable when the asset fears to be obsolete before its life such as electronic equipments etc., but there are two difficulties in using this method, The frst ifficulty is that this formula can never depreciate to its salvage value, But iis is not a serious difficulty. 'n actual practice, the depreciation for the last year is taken as book value at the beginning of the last year minus salvage value, The other serious difficulty is that this method can not be used when the salvage value of the asset is zero. MADE EASY PubMADE EASY Engineering Economy | 79 5.6.3 Double Declining Balance Method In this method also, the property is assumed to lose value annually by fixed factor of the book value. FDDB = Fixed factor for double declining balance method. FODB is taken as double the straight line Rate. Le. FODB The process of calculation of depreciation and book value of each year is the same as adopted in the Declining Balance Method. De The applicability of he method is also similer’.e. when itis intended to charge larger portion of an > depreciation in the early life of the property, particularly the asset/equipment faces the Know @ obsolescence before the estimated life. 5.6.4 Sum of the Years Digit Method This method also falls in the category of accelerated type depreciation method like Declining Balance Method and Double Declining Balance Method in which depreciation models assume that the value of an asset decreases at a decreasing rate In this method, the digits corresponding to the number of each years af life are listed in reverse order. The sum of these digits is then determined. The depreciation factor for any yearis the reverse digit for the year divided by the sum of the digits, and depreciation for a year is the product of depreciation factor of that year and the amount (C,- C,). The general expression for the annual depreciation for any year (m) when the life is nyears is expressed as na This method also provides rapid depreciation during the early years of life like the previous two You > methods but this method has one advantage over them that it enables properties to be Know @ — 00P"@ciated to zer0 value and is easier to use in practice. 5.6.5 Sinking Fund Method Sinking fund depreciation model assumes that the value of an asset decreases at an increasing rate. Equal amount (0) is assumed to be deposited into a sinking fund at the end of each year of the assets life. The sinking fund is ordinarily compounded annually, at the end of the estimated life, the amount accumulated equals the total depreciation of the asset (C,- C,). tis to be clearly understood that the depreciation amount is the sum of two components. The first components the amount deposited into sinking fund and the second component is the amountof interest eamed on the accumulated value of the sinking fund at the beginning of the particular year in question. MADE EASY80 | Civil Engineering ¢ Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY ie . = Publleatiorr 1100 = — {| sinking ina —| 1000 ———Jsraistfine |] ‘900 ‘Sum of cis of years {- Dectining Batonce —| oS Dearing out Decing — | Baio 3 — j a oy | 200 -— 100 N| oot 28 48 ‘Agen Years (9) ————> Fig. 5.6 Sinking Fund Method Let "! be the rate of interest. The first component of depreciation which is to be deposited equally al the end of each year = a4 a ae ala : i Combining both factors into account, the depreciation for ” year by this method is enumerated as D, = Dft +iyr-" m=1,2,3 - MADE ERSYmADE ERSY Engineering Economy | gy 5.7 Depletion What natural resources are being consumed in producing produets or services, the term ‘Depletion’ is. used to indicate the decrease in value of the resource. The term is commonly used in connection with removal of coal froma mine, timber from a forest, stone from a quarry, oil from reservoir etc. When these natural resources are sold oF mined, the reserve decreases and value of the property diminishes, However thereis a basic difference in the manner in which the amounts received through depletion and depreciation must be handled. In case of depreciation, the property involved usually is replaced with similar property when ii has been fully depreciated. In the case of depletion of mineral or other natural resources, such replacement is not possible. Once the gold has been removed from the mine or the oil from the well, it cannot be replaced. Therefore in the actual operation of many natural resource business, the depletion fund created may be used to acquire new properties such as new mines to give continuity to the enterprise. Depletion for a year = ( Cost of property units sold during the year No. of units in the property ‘The maintenance cost of an office building with design life of 50 years is estimated to be Rs. 1,50,000 for the first five years. An expenditure of Rs. 15 lacks is expected in the 20th years and Rs. 18 lacks in the 35th years. Assuming rate of interest as 10% per annum, whatis the equivalent uniform annual cost over the entire design life of 50 years? Solution: | o1 2 5 4 5 50 yoars | ie Re 15 lacks Re, 18 lacks | ‘ach year Let, P = Present worth of various maintenance costs | P P Pp | = 150000{ 5, 10%, 5}+ s00000{ =, 10%, 20} 1s00000[ =, 0%, 35] | | = 150000) {= +1800000] —" (ti) (4) (140.1) 1 = 150000] {+2 ="), 4500000] 1, + 1800000] 1 ono.) (40. (H+0.4) = 150000(3.7908) « 1500000 (0.1486) + 1800000 (0.0366) ~ 868620 + 222900 + 64080 | = 865600 i Lot A = Equivalent uniform annual cost over the entire design life of 50 years i+ (14) 855600. = P(A = 865600 A= P(4 10%, 50] = 7 (3. so) [iy 1] = 855600 (0.10086) = Rs, 86295.82 [a+0.9? -1] (0.\(1+40.1)° | “MADE EASY82 a4 Q2 as a4 iil Engineering @ Construction Practice, Planning & Management g Objective Brain Teasers Break even points the volume of output at which {@) Profit without loss is incurred (0) no profit no loss is incurred (0) onlyloss is incurred (a) none of these Capital recovery factor considers (@) developing a predetermined sum ata future data at a uniform rate (6) consuming a predetermined sum tila future data at a uniform rate (0) developing a predetermined sum at a future date at a uniformly varying rate (6) consuming @ predetermined sum tila future date at uniformly varying rate ‘Which one of the following statements applies to the deolining balance method of depreciation aceounting? (2) Uniform write-off of cost throughout the service is aimed (©) Greater write-off inthe early years is aimed. (©) Smaller write-off in early years is aimed (a) Avarying rate of depreciation is applied on the basis of market vaiue of the asset For four levels of investment (whether or not technology changes are:also implicit). the following estimates of annualised costs and annualised benefits are made as in the given table: Plan | Aniualised benefits | Annuallsed Cost (Rs. in Lakhs) (Rs.in Lakhs) A +5000 2000 8 5250 2300 © 5850 2700 D 6100 3000 Out of these four, the plan of choice (a) could be either Cor D (b) could be either A, Bor D (0) wouldbe D (a) would be C as a6 az as ag MADE EASY ‘A machine costing Ris 8500 will have a scrap value of Rs 300. Machines of this class have a working hour average life of 25000 hours. What will be the depreciation charge at the end of the first year, ifthe machine is operated for a total of 1500 hours? {use straight line method of depreciation) fa) Rs. 492.00 (o) Rs. 548.50 (b) Rs. 542.00 (d) Rs. 692.00 ‘An equipment costs Rs. 25 Lakhs with an estimated salvage value of Rs. 5 Lakhs after 5 years of useful life. What is the approximate equated annual cost for use of the equipment 7 (@) Rs.4Lakhs ——(b) Rs. 10 Lakhs (©) Rs. 13 Lakhs (d} Rs. 17 Lakhs Amachine costs Rs. 16,000. By constant rats of declining balance method of depreciation, its salvage value after an expected life of 3 yoars is es, 2,000. The rate of depreciation is (a) 0.25 {b) 0.30 © 040 (a) 0.50 The average investment value of an equipment over its 5-year fois Rs, 83000 whereas the annual depreciation is Rs. 11000. Cost of money is 15% a and taxes are at 5% of investment value. The ‘equipment is used for 1800 hours during each year, The hourly ownership cost for the equioment will be (@) Rs. 37.7 () Rs. 18 (b) Rs. 24 (d) Rs. 12 The principal or capitalized amount is sufficient to provide for areplacement costing Rs. 100,000 atthe end of each fith year from now. Continuing for ever, (i= 10% per year) is (a) 11,000 (b) 50,000 (c) 163,707 (4) 1,50,000 Q.10 A man receives an annual salary of Rs. 8000 increasing at the rate of 500 a year, Than his MADE EASY © Copyright |MADE ERSY Publications ~messm ‘equivalent salary fora period of 10 years is (given interest rate is 10%). (a) 9500 {b) 8060 (c) 9000 (d) 9862.75 (b) 2. (6) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7.(d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a) / 7 Hints @ Solution 5. (a) 2500200 0.328 Reshe 0.328 x 1800 = As. 492 O= Equated annual cost or annual depreciation Initia value - Salvage value _ Useful ife of equipment in years _ 2500000600000 400000 8 7. (a) Rate of depreciation | © Copyright ae Engineering Economy | Q3 tnitial cost , = 16000 Salvage value, C, = 2000 n=38 8 1-{ 2000.)" {fa tractor is used on a haul road whose rolling resistance is higher or lower than 65 kg per 6.2.4 Rimpull + Rimpull isa term used in connection with rubber tyres of wheeled tractors, * It defines the tractive force between the rubber tyres of driving wheels and the surface on which the tyres operate, + tis expressed in kg and is calculated as per following conditions: 1. Ifthe coefficient of traction is high enough such that slippage is eliminated, then 375 xHPx Efficiency Speed in mph [The efficiency of tractor may be taken in between 0.80 and 0.85] MADE EASY Maximum rimpul86 Civil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY c 7 == Publications 2. If the coefficient of traction is such that slippage starts before its rated capacity, then Maximum rimpull = Total pressure between driving wheels and the surface x Coefficient of traction. 6.2.5 Gradability * Gradabilty is defined as the maximum slope, expressed as a percent, up which prime mover a crawler tractor or wheel type tractor, may move at a uniform speed. Determination of Gradability of a Tractor 1. Applying suitable factor of safety, the available drawoar pullof a tractor is taken not more than 85% of the rated drawbar pul 2, The drawbar pull of a crawler tractor, taken from the manufacturer's specifications, is usually based on rolling resistance of 85 kg per tonne. Any rolling resistance in excess of this amount should be applied to the weight of the tractor. 3. The rolling resistance of a hauling units calculated as per the given specications. The combined rolling resistance is obtained by adding the rolling resistance of a crawler tractor and the rolling resistance of the hauling unit 5. Pullavailable to negotiate the grade is obtained by subtracting the combined rolling resistance from the available drawbar pull 6 Combined weight of tractor and its hauling unit is taken in tonnes. 7. Assuming 10kg pull required per tonne of the combined weight per 1° grade, the gradabilty of the given situation is ascertained. Depreciation Cost Initial value - Salvage value * Annual depreciation = (jsciullife of equipment (in years) * Initial value = Price of equipment + Transportation cost + Loading and unloading charges + installation charges investment Cost Annual Investment Cost = 10-20% of the average annual cost of he equipment The average annual cost of the equipment may be found out in fl 1. When there is no salvage value of the equioment, ing ways : P+ f P we Pins) Pay = 2n where, P = Total initial cost P,, = Average annual cost n= Life of equipments (in years) MADE ERSuMADE EASY Engineering Equipments | g7 2, When there is salvage value of the equipment, (P-s) P= P+ 48 a where, P= Total original cost, P,,= Average annual cost n= Life (in years), 5 = Salvage value Fuel Consumption Cost Fuel consumption is reported in litres per hour 1. Fora gasoline engine = Operating factor x Rated HP x 0.30, 2. Fora diesel engine = Operating factor x Rated HP x 0.20 Operating factor = Engine factor x Time factor Lubricating Oil Cost ‘+ An empirical formula may be used to estimate the quantity of lubricating oi Rated HP x Operating factor x0.003 kg per HP-hr | C “ 0.74 kg periitre t where, q= Quantity of consumed lubricating oil in fitre/hr C= Capacity of crankcase of engine in litre, = Number of hours between changes ‘+The operating factor may be assumed as 0.6 when sufficient data is not available for the purpose 6.3 Earthwork Equipments 63.1 Tractor : ‘The primary purpose of a tractor is to pull or push loads and |i may also be used as a mount for many types of equipment such as bulldozer, shovel, dragiine, hoe, trenchers, etc. 63.1.1 Types of Tractors Tractor = (Crawler Tractor ‘Whee! Tractor wo Whea! Tractor Four Whee Tractor 1. Crawler Tractor + Acrawier track is an endless chain consisting of stee! links made of stee! plates connected together by pins and bushings as shown in Fig. 6.1 + Generally, itis used for moving heavy units on rough surface having poor traction * The optirnum pull that a crawler tractor can provide depends upon its weight and is equal to the coefficient of traction (depending upon road surfaces) multiplied by the weight of unit, regardless of the power supplied by the engine, Fig. 6.1 Crawler Tractor (connor MADE EASY U am Puliestions88 | Civil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MAQE ERGY * Its maximum speed is limited to 10 kmph while average speed lies between 4.6 to 5.6 kph. * Its suited for short haul say 60 to 150 m. Doyou know? A crawler tractor has a life of 8 to 12 years (9000 to 16000 firs) depending upon iis horse power which varies from 100 to 300 HP. The following are the advantages claimed by crawler tractors: 1. Having more tractive effort, it can operate on sot footing such as loose or muddy soil !tcan operate in rocky formations where rubber tyres may get seriously damaged. Itcan travel over rough surfaces which may reduce the cost of maintaining haul roads, 2 3 4, Ithas greater flotation because of lower pressure under the tracks. 5. Being compact and powerful, it can handle very difficult jobs. 2. Wheel Tractor * One of the basic advantages of a wheel tractor compared with a crawier tractor lies in its higher speed. * However, in order to attain a higher speed, a wheel tractor must sacriice its pulling effort * As the speed is increased through the selection of higher gears, the rimpull will be decreased in approximately the same proportion. + Its useful ife lies between 8 fo 10 yrs (12,000 to 15,000 hrs) depending upon its horsepower which is generally more than 75 HP. Do you know? Another point of a wheel tractor is that it possesses a lower coefficient of traction between ‘rubber tyres and some soil surfaces, the wheel tractor starts slipping before developing its rated rimpull The advantages claimed by wheel tractors are as follows: 1. Itcan travel at higher speed (maximum speed up to 80 kmph) on the job or more from one job to another ttcan give greater output where considerable travelling is necessary. It can travel over paved highways without damaging the surfaces. itcan operate easily which makes the operator less tired A wheel tractor is very useful in the following conditions: eo Ren {a} Long push distance (b) Fast return (@) Loose soil litle or no rock (d) Level or downhill work (e) Good underfoot conditions 63.1.2 Comparison Between Crawler Tractor and Wheel Tractor The following factors should be considered when comparing crawler tractors with wheel tractors: 1. Traction: Coefficient of traction for a crawler tractor is upto 0.9 where itis up to 0.6 for a wheel tractor. 2. Useful Rimpull: Since uselul rimpull = machine weight x coefficient of traction, therefore, a crawler tractor negotiates very heavy loads whereas a wheel tractor is useful for ight loads.MADE EASY Engineering Equipments | gq 63.13 3. Speed: A wheel tractor possesses speed up to 3 to 4 times higher than a crawler tractor. Where haul distance is considerable and/or jabs are scattered at different locations, the wheel tractor can be used more efficiently as to be compared with crawler tractor. 4, Maneuverabllity: A wheel tractor has steering wheel which is easy to operate and control while a crawler tractors provided with stick control which is not easy to control, So articulated steering and good visibility give high maneuverability to wheel tractors and better confidence to their operators. 5. Compaction: Ground pressure of wheel tractors vary from 1.25 kglcm? (0.125 N/mm?) 0 1.50 kgicrn? (0.150 Nimm?) whereas the same for crawler tractor stands from 0.85 kg/om? (0.085 Nimm?) to 1.00 kglem? (0.1 Nimm®), hence crawler tractors can effectively be used on loose or muddy soil 6. Cost: Crawler tractors are more costly initially than wheel tractors but on uneven, undulated areas and particularly on rocky and hilly areas, crawler tractors provide better service and prove cheaper inthe long run. 7. Operation and maintenance cost: Operation, maintenance and repair cost is less in wheel tractor as compared to crawier tractor. 8. Effect on pavements: The tar and concrete pavements are liable to damage by crawler tractors while wheel tractors are liable to slip over smooth footing, ‘Types of Wheel Tractors + There are two types of wheel tractors viz two wheel and four wheel + In the two wheel tractors, steering and driving both are done by the same wheels whereas in four wheels the steering is done by front wheels (smaller in size) and driving is done by the rear wheels (bigger in size). * For the same power of the engine, the two wheel tractor develops more rimpull than that of four wheels because of congentration of weight on the wheels (in case of two wheel tractors). «Among the relative advantages claimed by each type are as follows : Two Wheel Tractor: 1. Higher tractive force is available because the concentration of total load on the same wheel, 2. Increased maneuverability because an operator has to manage the work of steering and driving with a skill 3. Due to elimination of one axle, the rolling resistance is less. 4. The number of tyres to provide and maintain is only half that of four wheel type thereby reducing the cost Four Wheel Tractor: His abi fo act as an indepencient unit when separated from the trailing Unit 2. Ithas got separate wheel (ront) for steering purposes, so the operator feels better confidence while driving 3. Thereis less tendency to bounce on rough surfaces, so the driving is quite smooth Itoan be driven at higher speeds even on the rough surfaces because of the reasons mentioned in (2)and(3)90 | Civil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MROE EASY 63.2 Dozers * Dozers are very efficient excavating tools for short hauling distance of upto 100 m. * A dozer is a tractor-power unit that has a blade attached to the machine's front, it is designed to provide tractive power for drawbar work. * — Adozer has no set volumetric capacity. The amount of material the dozer moves is dependent on the quantity that will remain in front of the blade during the push. * Crawler dozers equipped with special clearing blades are excellent machines for land clearing Heavy ripping of rock is accomplished by crawler dozers equipped with rear-mounted rippers because of the power and tractive force that they can develop. 6.3.2.1 Types of Dozers The dozers are classified on the basis of mounting as: 1. Crawler-mounted dozer 2. Wheel-mounted dozer Merits of a crawler-mounted bulldozer: 1. _Itis able to deliver greater tractive effort and especially useful when operating on loose or muddy soil. 2. It is able to travel over very soft soll 3, It is able to operate'in rocky formations where rubber tyres are likely to get damaged 4. Itis able to travel over very rough surfaces having no haul roads. 5. Ithas greater flotation because of iow pressure under the tracks. 6. Itis versatile for various jab conditions. Merits of a wheel-tractor bulldozer: 1. Higher travel speed, 2, Elimination of hauling unit tor transporting the bulldozer. 3. Greater output, especially where considerable travelling is involved. 4. Less operator fatigue. 5. Able to travel on paved highways without damaging the surfaces. Table 6.1 : Comparison of whee! dozer and crawler dozer ‘Wheel Dozer | Crawler Dozer “Good on fim sos and concrote and abrasive sols hat | 7. Can work on a variety of sols: sharp-edged pieces not have no sharp-edged pieces. 18 destructive to dozer though fine sand will newease running gear near. ‘Best forlvel anddownhit work 2. Canworkoveraimostany tertain, Wet weather causing soft & slick surace conditions will | 3, Can warkansofigroundand overmid-sck surfeces, slower stop operation, 4. The concentrated wheel load will provide compaction & | 4. Will exert very low ground pressures with special low kneading sctionto ground surface. {ground pressure undercarriage and rack configuration, Good forshortworklstances. Can handlctight soi, Stow retumspeeds,5-10 mph. ‘Con pushlarge blade loads. Good forlong vavel distances, Best inhandingloose sols. Fast return spoods, 8:28 mph, Can only handle moderate bladeloads, - MADE EASY PublleationsMADE ERsu Engineering Equipments |g 1 6322 63.23 Crawler Dozers with Direct Drive ‘© The power is transmitted straight through the transmission as if there was @ single shaft. ‘+ These are superior when the work involves constant loading conditions. ‘+ Ajob where full blade loads must be pushed long distances would be an appropriate application of a direct drive machine. ‘+The rated drawbar pullis the pull that can be sustained for continuous operation. ‘+ Maximum drawbar pullis the pull that the dozer can exert for a short period while lugging the engine, such as when passing over soft spot in the ground that requires a temporary higher tractive effort. Crawler-Dozers h Torque Converter and Power-Shift Transmissions ‘+ Transmissions that can be shifted while transmitting full engine power are known as power shift ‘+ Torque converters are used to absorb drive train shock loads caused by changes in gear ratios, © A power-shift transmission provides an efficient flow of power from the engine to the tracks and ives superior performance in applications involving variable load conditions, + Larger dozers are always equipped with power-shift transmissions, ‘+ Hydrostatic power rain offers an infinitely variable speed range with constant power to both tracks, ‘+ Hydrostatic: power train transmissions are available on small size dozers. According to Control of Blade Based on the method of controlling, lowering and raising of blade, a dozer may be classified as 1. Cable controlled dozer 2. Hydraulic controlied dozer Merits of cable controlled bulldozers: (a). Simple to install and operate. (b)_ Easy in repairing the controls. (©) Reduction in the danger of damaging the machine. Merits of hydraulic controlled bulldozers: (a) Able to produce a high down pressure on the blades to force them {blades} into the ground (b) Able to maintain a precise setting of the position of the blade. Uses of Dozers Dozers are used as both support and as preduction machines on many construction projects. They may be used for operations such as 1. Moving earth or rock for short haul (push) distances, upto 300 ft (91 m} in the case of large dozers. 2. Spreading of earth or rock fils. 3. Backiiling trenches. 4. Opening up of pilot roads through mountains or rocky terrain 5. Clearing the floors of borrow and quarry pits. 6. Helping load tractor-pulled scrapers. 7. Clearing land from timber, stumps and root mat.92 | Chil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management MFADDEE EEFISSE 63.2.4 Blade Performance A dozer's pushing potential is measured by two standard ratios: 1. Horsepower per fot of cuting edge 2. Horsepower per loose cubic yard of material retained in front of the blade. * Horsepower per foot (hp/ft) provides an indication of the ability of the blade to penetrate and obtain a load. The higher the ratio, more aggressive is the blade, * Horsepower per loose cubic yard (hp/lcy) measures the blade's ability to push a load. A ‘higher ratio means that the dozer can push a load at a greater speed. ab ‘* When the cutting blade is set perpendicular to the direction of travel, itis called bulldozer. You ? It pushes the earth forward and dump it to some place. Know @ —* When the cutting biade is set at an angle with the direction of travel, itis called angle ‘dozer. It pushes the earth forward and to one side, sometimes a V-blade. 63.2.5 The Output of Dozers ‘The output of a bulldozer can be defined as the bank measure volume it handles per hour. The output of the bulldozer depends on following factors: Size and conditions of the bulldozer. Distance travelled by the bulidozer. Speed of operations. Characteristic of soil being handled Surface on which the bulldozer is operating, Efficiency of the bulldozer (blade factor). * The blade of a bulldozer has a theoretical capacity (expressed as rated mold board capacity) which varies with the class of earth and the size of the blade * Output of a bulldozer in bank measure vol/tir Parone __ Rated mold board capacity inloose volume | “Actual operating time in minutes per hour ~ ‘Swell factor Time required per tripin minutes whereas, time required per trip in minutes or cycle time in minutes is given by 0,0 Gycletime (in min) = B+ B+ D = Haul distance in metres F = Forward speed in meters/minute R= Reverse speed in meters/minute G = Gear shifting time in minutes (0.15 minute to 0.30 minutes) 6.3.3 PowerShovel * Power shovels are used predominantly for hard digging above track level and for leading units, * They are capable of excavating all classes of earth, except the solid rock without prior loosening, ‘* ‘The size of a shovel is indicated by the size of bucket of dipper, expressed in cubic meters. MADE ERSYMADE EASY Engineering Equipments | g3 soeenemnns Putiontlons ie ‘Size of power showel indicated by the size of dipper generally expressed in cubic metres. You ? B41 ge i B18 40 Know@ Thevareavallableinsizes, 5.5.5.1. 13. the category of standard power shovels. Larger size may be available on special order 1 1 15 »2and 25 cubic meter which come under 6.3.3.1 Basic Parts and Operation of Power Shovel * First step is to release hoist to bring the dipper down and move the stick in a vertical plane. + Now the dipper is moved forward and downward with the cutting teeth pointing towards the face to. be excavated + The downward force is applied to the tipof the dipper through the dipper stick. The depth of cut and angle of digging is controlled by the job conditions, + When the dipper is filled with the load, the next step is to pull outthe dipper by applying the required tension through the hoisting line and also to hoist it til the machine can be swung around for dumping + During swinging the position of the dipper is so adjusted that it comes in most suitable dumping position + Toemply the dipper, the door is opened by unlatching it through the trip arrangement. The ycleis thus repeated again and again. Dipper stick Fig. 6.2 A typical power shovel Selection of Type and Size of Power Shovel: Best type and best size of a power shovellis decided after considering various techno-economic factors, job location and site conditions, etc. But in any case economy is the most important criterion for the selection. 6.33.2 Choice of Type of Shovel However, in selecting the type of shovel i.e. whether one should go for crawler-mounted shovel or wheel- ‘mounted shovel, the following factors must be considered: (a) Job Location 1. For numerous small jobs located at different places, rubber-tyred to its mobility 2. For concentration of large job at a particular location, mobility will be of less importan the crawier- mounted shovel will be more desirable. el will be @ better choice due and there (b) ‘Type of Footing + Sometimes the type of footing on which the shovel operates becomes the deciding factor. I the {ground surface is of very soft and muddy soil having large undulations, the crawler-mounted shovel will be the only choice. - MADE EASY94 Civil Engineering @ Construction Practice, Planning & Management MADE EASY gin sweet snares Publications 6.3.3.3 Choice of Size of Shovel For selecting the best sizeof the shovel for the given job, the following factors must be examined: (2) The cost per cubic meter of output (©) The job/site conditions (a) The Cost of per cubic Meter of Output The best size of the shovel is one which offers the minimum cost per cubic meter of output, In estimating the cost per cubic meter, the following factors must be taken into account 1. Size of job : Larger job may justify the higher cost of a large size. 2. Cost of transportation: Larger size will have higher cost of transportation 3, Depreciation rate ; The depreciation rate for a farge shovel be higher than for a small one and the large size also may cause difficulties in its disposal. 4. Down time cost : The cost of downtime will be more for large shovels owing to increased delays in obtaining spare parts of the large shovel 5. Cost of wage : The cost of wages per cubic meter will be less for a large shovel than for a small one. 6. The combined cost of drilling, blasting and excavating of rock : Bigger size shovel should need less expenditure on these costs as they themselves can handle bigger rocks and thus saves the cost of criling and blasting. (b)__Job/site Conditions The following job conditions should be looked into while selecting the size of a shovel 1. For high lifts to dump earth from basement into trucks will require long boom of a large shovel. 2. For excavating blasted rocks, large size dipper will easily handle bigger sizes, 3. For excavating hard and tough bed of sol, the dipper of large shovel which can exert greater downward pressure will be more suitable Ifthe project time is such that it needs high hourly oufput, large shovel must be preferred, ize of hauling unit may determine the size of shovel. For smaller hauling units, smaller size shovel and for large hauling units, larger size shovel should be used. 6. The conciition of existing highways and bridges imposing restrictions over moving maximum load ‘may restrict the size of the shovel De ‘The optimum depth of cut is that depth which produces the greatest output and at which the ou ? dipper comes up with full load without excessive downward pressure and tension, This depth Know@ —_Y2"5 with the type of the soil and the sizeof the dipper 6334 Shovel Production Tnere are four elements in the production of shovel 1. Load bucket (7-9sec) 2. Swing with load (4-6 sec) 3. Dump load (2-4sec) 4. Return swing (4-5 sec) Total cycle time = 36 sec (Average) The actual production of a shovel is affected by numerous factors, including the following ones:MABE ERSY Engineering Equipments | QS cae ' 1. Class of Material Production decreases with increase in hardness of material. 2 Height of cut + Aloose, flowing material wil fila digging bucket in shorter sweep up the embankment than will a chunky material + Ifthe depth offal from which a shovel is excavating material is too shallow, cycle time increases & it will be dificult or impossible to fill the bucket in one pass up the face, consequently the production is reduced. * Ifthe height of the face is greater than the minimum required for filing the bucket, the operator is having three options: 1. The depth of bucket penetration into the face may be reduced in order to fil the bucket in one full stroke, This will increase the time for a cycle. 2, The operator may maneuver the bucket so as to bring digging above the base of the face, and then remove the lower portion of the face later. 3. The bucket may be run up the full height of the face and the excess earth is allowed to spill down to the bottom, This spillage will have to be picked up later. + The choice of any one of the procedures will result in lost ime, based on the time required to fil the bucket when digging at optimum height, fs ‘Optimum height of cut ranges from 30 to 50% of maximum digging height, with the lower You > percentage being representative of easy-to-load materials, such as loam, sand, or gravel. Know@ — * Hard-1o-load materials, sticky clay or blasted rock, necessitate @ greater optimum height, in the range of 80% of the maximum digging height value. 5 + Common earth would require slightly less than 40% of the maximum digging height. 3. Angle of Swing + Theangle of swing of a shovel is the horizontal angle, expressed in degrees, between the position of the bucket when it is excavating and the position where it discharges the load * The total time in a cycle includes digging, swinging to the dumping position, dumping, and returning to the digging position + if the angle of swing is increased, the time for a cycle will be increased, whereas if the angle of swing is decreased, the time for a cycle will be decreased * Ideal production of a shovel is based on operating at 90° swing and optimum height of cut. The ideal production should be multiplied by the proper conversion factor to correct the production for any given height and swing angle. * Proper planning can control the necessary angle of swing for the shovel’s excavation cycle. * For example, if a shovel that is digging at optimum depth has the angle of swing reduced from 90° 10.60, the production will be increased by 16%, 4 Operator's Skill 5. Condition of the Shovel MADE EASY634 | Civil Engineering © Construction Practice, Planning & Management —TMRDE GAS! Haul Unit Exchange + Haul-unit exchange refers to the total time required for a loaded truck to clear its loading position under the excavator and for the next empty truck to be positioned for loading. Size of Hauling Units * Size of hauling units like trucks affect the output of a shovel, for optimum output, size of hauling Units should be governed by size of a power shovel ‘* Ifthe shovel used is of smaller size, the size of hauling units also must be small while for a large shovel, hauling units must be of larger size. Handling of Oversize Material ‘+ When handling shot rock, carefully evaluate the amount of oversize material to be moved. A machine with a bucket whose bite wicth and pocket are satisfactory for the average-size pieces may spend too much time handling individual oversize pieces. + Alarge ucket, ora larger machine, or changing the blasting pattem should be considered when there is a large percentage of aversize material Output of Power Shovel: + The output of power shovel is expressed in cubic meter per hour based on bank-measure volume. + The capacity of a dipper is based on struck volume but in case of certain soils the dipper may exceed the struck volume. * _Inevery situation, the bank measure volume of the dipper must be obtained as the average loose volume divided by 1 plus the swell, expressed as a fraction. + Next, requires the accurate estimation of one cycle time which includes time required for digging, swinging, dumping and coming back * Ifo allowance is made for any lost time, then 3600 4 Output of shovel = Bank measure capacity of dipper x yale time in eeCOs Thr) In general cases, ial ime in secondsfhr seconds Output of shovel x Efficiency Output is expressed in cubic meter/hr. Dragline * Since the basic character of the machine is dragging the bucket against the material to be dug, itis called as dragline. * Adragline is used to excavate the earth and load itinto hauling units such as trucks or tractor pulled wagons or to deposit it into dams/embankments or spoil tanks near the pit from which it is excavated. ‘Advantages of Dragiine over Power Shovel: 1. Adragline usually does not have to go into a pit or hole for excavating the earth. It may operate on halural firm ground, Therefore, itis more useful when the earth is removed from a ditch, canal or pit containing water.