An introduction to computers and computer systems

CCS_1

An introduction to computers and

computer systems

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An introduction to computers and computer systems

About this free course

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Contents
 Introduction
 Introduction
 Session 1: Computers and processors
 Introduction
 1 The first computers
 2 The parts of a computer
 3 The general purpose, programmable computer
 4 Computers and data
 5 Computers today
 6 Summary of Session 1
 Session 2: The components of a computer
 Introduction
 1 A Personal Computer
 2 Processors
 2.1 Multi-core processors
 2.2 Processors in ‘invisible’ computers
 3 Memory
 3.1 Memory in ‘invisible’ computers
 3.2 Memory beyond the computer
 4 Peripheral devices
 4.1 Input and output devices for physically
impaired users

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 5 Connecting the devices

 6 Computers as systems
 7 Summary of Session 2
 Session 3: Some facts about processors
 Introduction
 1 Processor statistics
 2 What does a processor look like?
 3 Moore’s law
 4 Summary of Session 3
 Session 4: Representing data and instructions inside a
computer
 Introduction
 1 Switches
 2 Representing data: bits
 3 Representing data: bytes
 4 An alternative to binary?
 5 Representing text in binary
 6 Representing numbers in binary
 7 Representing pictures and music in binary
 8 Representing images in binary
 9 Representing audio in binary
 10 This session’s quiz
 11 Summary of Session 4
 Session 5: Examples of computers
 Introduction

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 1 The personal computer

 2 Electronic kitchen scales
 3 Digital camera
 4 Summary of Session 5
 Session 6: Computer programs
 Introduction
 1 Software
 2 Operating systems
 3 Using flowcharts to describe a task
 4 Using flowcharts to describe a task 2
 5 Tasks for a typing tutor
 6 Developing an application program
 7 The language of the web
 8 Summary of Session 6
 Session 7: Networks of computers
 Introduction
 1 Technologies
 1.1 An example network
 1.2 Routers and switches
 1.3 Local Area network (LAN)
 1.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 1.5 Wireless networks
 2 The internet
 2.1 Out of this world
 3 The Internet of Things

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 4 Summary of Session 7
 Session 8: A look to the future
 Introduction
 1 Pervasive computing
 1.1 Ubiquitous computing
 1.2 Calm technology
 1.3 Ethical implications
 2 Green computing
 2.1 Carbon emissions
 2.2 Home working
 3 This session’s quiz
 4 Summary of Session 8
 5 Course summary
 Next steps
 Glossary
 References
 Acknowledgements
 Solutions

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Introduction

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Introduction
There is more to computers and processors than simply PCs. In
fact computers are ubiquitous in everyday life. This free course, An
introduction to computers and computer systems, challenges how we
view computers through the examples of processors in kitchen
scales and digital cameras, as well as examining the work of art
that, at heart, is a computer. You will also explore how computers
are connected together to achieve even more than when working
alone.

This course lasts 16 hours and is comprised of eight sessions,

which can be studied at your own pace. The eight sessions are
linked to ensure a logical flow through the course. They are:

1. Computers and processors

2. The components of a computer
3. Some facts about processors
4. Representing data and instructions inside a computer
5. Examples of computers
6. Computer programs
7. Networks of computers
8. A look to the future

Each session should take you around 2 hours. There are a number
of activities throughout the course where you are asked to note

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down your response. A text box is provided for you to do this,

however if you would prefer to record your answers in another way
that is fine. Your answers won’t be visible to anyone else.

After studying this course, you should be able to:

 recognise the fundamental hardware components that

make up a computer’s hardware and the role of each
of these components
 describe the difference between an operating system
and an application program, and what each is used for
in a computer
 understand something of the work involved in
designing an application program
 appreciate some of the core networking technologies
used to connect computers together
 reflect on some of the future directions for computers
and computer systems.

Moving around the course

In the ‘Summary’ at the end of each session, you will find a link to
the next session. If at any time you want to return to the start of the
course, click on ‘Full course description’. From here you can
navigate to any part of the course.

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It’s also good practice, if you access a link from within a course
page, to open it in a new window or tab. That way you can easily
return to where you’ve come from without having to use the back
button on your browser.

You can now go to Session 1.

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Session 1: Computers and

processors

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Introduction
Computers have become a vital part of everyday life. It is almost
inconceivable that you could spend a day without at least one
event being influenced by a computer. Perhaps the word
‘computer’ automatically conjures up the image of a personal
computer sitting on a desk, but in fact it is the computers you
cannot see that influence your life the most. Typical examples of
common products that may use these ‘invisible’ computers are:

1. mobile phones
2. cars
3. washing machines
4. bar-code reading systems
5. central-heating controllers
6. microwave ovens
7. games consoles.

This is a very short extract from a very long list, but even this
limited set of examples shows how significant the use of
computers has become. Without computers many everyday
products such as mobile phones would not exist, dramatic
progress in the development of products such as artificial
limbs could not have happened, and you would not have the luxury
of many conveniences now taken for granted, such as email.

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1 The first computers

The computers which form the basis of those used today were
mainly developed in the 1940s. The following quote taken from that
era shows how difficult it was to conceive of the way in which
computers would develop in the following decades.

I think there is a world market for maybe five computers.

(Thomas Watson, Chairman of IBM, 1943)

Even later on, in the mid 1970s, some still failed to comprehend
the size of the future computer market.

There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his

home.

(Ken Olsen, President of Digital Equipment

Corporation, 1977)

And although a diminution in size was anticipated, it was

considerably underestimated.

Where a calculator on the ENIAC is equipped with 18 000 vacuum

tubes and weighs 30 tons, computers in the future may have only
1000 vacuum tubes and perhaps weigh 1½ tons.

(Popular Mechanics, March 1949)

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Or, as this ABC News report from 1974 asserts: ‘One day, a
computer will fit on a desk’. Watch the report at the following link:

One day, a computer will fit on a desk

Figure 1 shows a picture of the ENIAC computer mentioned above.

You can see it is rather larger than the personal computer
available today! Completed in the US in 1945, it was one of the
earliest electronic computers. Its name stands for Electronic
Numerical Integrator And Calculator, and it was designed to
calculate ballistic firing tables in the Second World War. It could
perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, and it could find square roots and
compare two values for equality.

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Figure 1 The ENIAC computer.

View description - Figure 1 The ENIAC computer.

View description - Figure 1 The ENIAC computer.

As part of the ENIAC fiftieth anniversary celebrations, students and

staff at the University of Pennsylvania fabricated a version of this
computer using modern manufacturing processes. The component
at the heart of this later version measures 7.44 millimetres by 5.29
millimetres! A personal computer was connected to this component

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to provide the modern equivalent of the cable connections shown

on the left-hand side of Figure 1 and display the ENIAC’s outputs.

Computers like ENIAC were built because of the need for powerful
automatic calculators. Another famous series of early
programmable electronic computers were the Colossus machines
created and used at Bletchley Park in the UK dedicated to
breaking codes produced by the German cipher machines known
as Lorenz machines used in the Second World War. The
fundamental components of a computer have not changed since
these first room-sized machines.

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2 The parts of a computer

A computer is a machine that manipulates data following a list of
instructions that have been programmed into it. Input devices are
used to input data into a computer. Many of the earliest computers
read their input from paper tape adapted from existing ticker tape
technology. Figure 2 shows such a computer, Colossus 10.

Figure 2 Colossus 10 in Block H of Bletchley Park, now part of The National

Museum of Computing.

View description - Figure 2 Colossus 10 in Block H of Bletchley Park,

now part of The National Museum ...

View description - Figure 2 Colossus 10 in Block H of Bletchley Park,

now part of The National Museum ...

The large frame on the right of the picture with wheels attached is
the input device. It guides paper tape with the stream of characters

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from an intercepted message punched into it. The tape was read
into Colossus at 30 mph. Another existing technology, the electric
typewriter, was used as an output device to print out the results
from Colossus.

In the years since Colossus and ENIAC, many other technologies

have been adapted or created to use as input and output devices.
The keyboard of a personal computer, the scanner of a bar-code
reading system and the switches or buttons of a microwave oven
are some examples of input devices. There are many different
types of output device. The actuator that switches on a pump of a
computer-controlled central-heating system is one example; the
sound system that generates the beep of an electronic heart
monitor is another.

Sometimes the two types of device can be the same physical

device. The electric typewriter was adapted first as an output
device and later an input device. Today the touchscreen is widely
used for both input and output.

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3 The general purpose, programmable

computer
The list of instructions the computer follows to process input and
produce output is called a computer program. Computers are
programmable.

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

For example, a QR code reader on a mobile phone app sends the

name of a scanned bar-coded product and product details to the
phone. The app has been programmed with a set of instructions
that makes it:

 take in data via the QR-code scanner

 use the data from the QR-code scanner to look up the
name of the product in a list that cross references QR-
code data to product name
 generate a new form of data that is compatible with
showing the product name and image on the display.

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What is meant by the term programmable? You can think of a

program as a set of instructions, such as:

 add two numbers

 then divide the result by three.

The result will vary depending on which two numbers are inputted
into the program, which is useful. For example, if you input the
numbers 5 and 7, then the result given by the program is 4; if you
input 15 and 6, then the output is 7.

More significantly, you can change the set of instructions to do

something different, such as:

 subtract one value from the other

 then multiply the result by four.

This implies a level of versatility, since you can change the set of
instructions (the program) in order to produce different results. It’s
this ability to change the instructions that makes a machine
programmable.

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4 Computers and data

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

The word ‘data’ has been used several times now in the context of
the computer receiving input data, generating data and outputting
data. A computer can only work with information that is presented
to it in a very strictly controlled format. When information is in this
format it is called data. Quite simply, a computer cannot perform its
task if the information it needs has not been transformed into the
required data form. In the examples in the previous sections, the
data are the inputted numbers and those outputted by the
program. The word data is actually plural (datum refers to an item
of data), but is often used in the singular, e.g. ‘The data is …’. You

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will find both uses in this course, depending on the context. You
will find out more about the format of data a computer needs later
in this course.

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5 Computers today

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

Nowadays, a computer is just another item stocked in

supermarkets. And as computers have become cheaper and
smaller, they have been incorporated into a kaleidoscopic range of
devices that bear no resemblance to what was once thought of as
a computer. Powerful computers now sit at the heart of objects as
diverse as smartphones and games consoles, cars and vacuum
cleaners. The cost of computer power continues to decrease,
making it possible to incorporate computer technologies into
almost any object, no matter how small, cheap or disposable. And
these smart devices are ‘talking’ to one another – not just within a
single room or building, but across the world via the internet, using
the World Wide Web. Thus, even as the computer vanishes from
sight, it becomes vastly more powerful and ever-present – to use a
term you’ll become very familiar with, it is now ubiquitous.

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As computers have developed, a critical change in their role has

been their use in communication: many of the applications that run
on personal computers (PCs) and mobile phones help us
communicate with each other, and also with other computers.
Computer and telephone technologies have converged. The
following quote from Danny Hillis, a pioneer in the development of
some of the fastest and most powerful computers, gives some
insight into how computers can turn everyday objects into part of a
communication system.

I went to my first computer conference at the New York Hilton

about 20 years ago. When somebody there predicted the market
for microprocessors [these are the major component of all
computers] would eventually be in the millions, someone else said,
‘Where are they all going to go? It’s not like you need a computer
in every doorknob!’ Years later, I went back to the same hotel. I
noticed the room keys had been replaced by electronic cards you
slide into slots in the doors.

There was a computer in every doorknob.

(Danny Hillis, circa 1999)

Of course you do not know exactly the configuration of the

computers in the doorknobs of the Hilton; it could be that they
simply verified that the card should give the holder access to that

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particular room. Alternatively, the doorknob computer could

communicate with another computer, telling it that the occupant
had just entered the room. This second computer could then ring
the telephone to pass on any recorded messages, activate a
display showing if the occupant had received an email or perhaps
run the bath!

As you study this course you will find out how computers and the
components within them carry out their allotted tasks, and you will
also develop an understanding of how improvements in computer
technologies have allowed computers to become smaller, more
powerful and cheaper.

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6 Summary of Session 1
In this session you have had a brief introduction to computers from
their origins in large room-sized machines of eighty years to the
pocket devices of today. You have also seen that computers work
on data. In this course you will learn more about modern
computers and how they process data, and more about the
formatting of data so that computers can work with it as part of
useful computer systems.

In the next session you will learn more about the components of a
computer, its processor

You can now go to Session 2.

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Session 2: The components of a

computer

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Introduction
In this session, you will explore some of the many components,
such as processors and memory within a computer, and attached
devices (or peripherals as they are called) such as keyboards for
input and screens for output, that go towards making a fully
functional computer system.

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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1 A Personal Computer
Figure 1 shows an old advertisement for a laptop from about 2010.
The main features of the computer are listed in this advert. One
item on the list is ‘Processor: AMD E450 1.65 GHz’. So this
computer uses an AMD E450 processor, running at a speed of
1.65 GHz. A processor is an essential component of a computer; it
carries out, or executes, the instructions that make up the
computer program. PCs use one main processor and several other
‘supporting’ processors, and adverts for PCs often specify what
main processor they use. The speed of the processor (1.65 GHz in
this instance) is a measure of how fast the processor can carry out
each instruction. (Don’t worry if you don’t understand the term
‘GHz’ and other specialised terms used in the advert such as
‘Ram: 6gb DDR3’. These will be explained as the course
progresses.)

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Figure 1 An old advertisement for a personal computer.

View description - Figure 1 An old advertisement for a personal

computer.

View description - Figure 1 An old advertisement for a personal

computer.

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2 Processors

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

You may remember that the quote from Danny Hillis in Session 1
mentioned a microprocessor. The term microprocessor was
introduced when processors were first made on a single silicon
chip, with the prefix ‘micro’ emphasising their small size. Today,
however, the fact that a processor can be made on a single silicon
chip is taken for granted and the term ‘microprocessor’ is not so
often used. This course will generally use the term ‘processor’.

2.1 Multi-core processors

A multi-core processor is a ‘processor’ that contains two or more
independent processors called cores. Each core performs the
usual functions of loading data and instructions and executing the
instructions on the data but instructions can be shared between
each of the cores and run at the same time, increasing the overall

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speed of programs, provided that they are written in such a way to

allow for this to happen.

You may think that four cores all working simultaneously would
make a program run four times as fast. However, this is not the
case. Each core requires its share of the data and instructions to
be moved from the shared main memory into its local memory
where the instructions are executed on the data. The program has
to be written in such a way that a task can be split up into
independent sub-tasks, each of which can be completed by a core,
and then if necessary, reassembled into a final solution. This
process of coordination is a small additional task for the computer
to perform. Hence you do not get the full benefit of the extra cores.

2.2 Processors in ‘invisible’ computers

All computers, not just PCs, contain processors, so all those
‘invisible’ computers listed in Session 1 will contain a processor.
However, the processor they use will not necessarily be the same
as that used in a PC. For example, the processor used within a
central-heating controller would not be the same as the main
processor used in the personal computer you may be using to
study this course. The processor in the personal computer has to
carry out a much more complex set of tasks and execute its
instructions much more quickly than the processor in the central
heating controller. Consequently, the PC’s processor is likely to be

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physically larger and more costly. You will see later in the course
that the complexity and speed of operation of processors has
increased dramatically. As a result, the ‘simple’ processor in an
electronic central heating controller may be very similar to a
processor which was considered ‘state of the art’ a decade or two
previously.

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3 Memory

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

You should now be beginning to build up a picture of what a

computer is: you know it needs input and output devices to
communicate with the world outside and a processor to carry out
the instructions that are programmed into it. But where are these
instructions stored within the computer? The answer is that they
are stored within what is called the computer’s main memory,
along with any data needed to carry them out.

Figure 2 Computer main memory modules.

View description - Figure 2 Computer main memory modules.

View description - Figure 2 Computer main memory modules.

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This main memory is the ‘main’ place for storing instructions and
data while a program is being executed. It is also called random
access memory (RAM) from the way in which the processor
accesses its contents. Its size is measured in bytes, or larger
multiples of bytes such as gigabytes, a billion bytes, used in the
laptop advert you saw earlier in this session. You will learn more
about representing data in bits and bytes later in this course (in
Session 4).

However, the main memory in computers like PCs is much too

small to hold all of the programs and associated data that their
users need. In addition, main memory does not hold onto its
contents when the computer is switched off. So, users must be
able to call up the programs they want, and also store and read
back the files they have generated with these programs, from
some form of capacious and retentive memory. This memory is
called secondary memory, and there are two types, removable
and permanent.

With removable secondary memory the user can store files and
then ‘remove’ them from the PC, either to ensure there are copies
if the computer fails, or to transport the files to another PC. New
software can be downloaded from the web or installed from
removable secondary memory. Removable secondary memory
includes memory cards and DVDs, and older media such as floppy

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disks and CD-ROMs that are little used now. In contrast,

permanent secondary memory is ‘permanently’ attached to the PC
and is usually only removed if the PC is undergoing some
maintenance or repair.

A typical example of permanent secondary memory is a

computer’s hard disk – so called because it consists of one or
more rigid magnetic disks rotating about a central axle. It is
common practice to copy the files stored on permanent secondary
memory onto some removable secondary memory as a backup in
case of disk failure.

Figure 3 A hard disk.

View description - Figure 3 A hard disk.

View description - Figure 3 A hard disk.

Note that the term ‘hard disk’ has been used here, but in the advert
in Figure 1 the term ‘hard drive’ is used to refer to the permanent
secondary memory. These terms are often used synonymously,

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though in fact there is a subtle difference which will be explained

later.

Increasingly, PCs are using a solid-state drive for secondary

memory. These drives use integrated circuits much like main
memory and have the advantages of containing no moving parts
and being much faster to access. However, they are a more
expensive form of secondary memory, so some computers now
have both solid-state drives and hard disks. The smaller solid-state
drive is often used to contain programs so that the computer may
access them quickly, while data is stored on the slower to access
hard disk.

3.1 Memory in ‘invisible’ computers

Although programs and associated data are stored in secondary
memory when not actually in use, both the programs and the data
must be copied into the computer’s main memory before the
processor can execute the instructions or use the data. Secondary
memory devices usually make up the bulk of the memory in
desktop, laptop and mainframe computers, and other devices such
as mobile phones or tablets, but may be completely absent in
embedded computer systems, such as control systems for
appliances like washing machines and microwave ovens.

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Figure 4 A central heating controller.

View description - Figure 4 A central heating controller.

View description - Figure 4 A central heating controller.

This means that while all computers have main memory, not all will
have secondary memory. In an embedded computer system, such
as the central-heating controller in Figure 4, the computer is
‘invisible’ and its software is already stored in the main memory
when the computer system is purchased. The software is said to
be already installed. The PC you are using on this course will have
come with some software already installed on it – the software the
PC needs to start up when you switch it on. But a key difference
between an ‘invisible’ computer like the one in the central-heating
controller and the PC is that users cannot install any additional
software on the ‘invisible’ computer, whereas they can and do
install their own choice of software onto a PC. They do this by
copying computer programs into the secondary memory. Such
programs are then taken into the main memory when the program
is run.

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Activity 1
What other secondary memory device or devices are used by the
PC in the advert shown in Figure 1? Make a note in the box below.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 1

3.2 Memory beyond the computer

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

So far you have looked at memory directly built into the computer,
be it main memory or secondary memory. Though some
secondary memory can be removed from the computer, the
hardware to access the stored data is part of the computer. Think
of DVDs and a DVD drive. This is very useful for offsite back-ups,
copies, of your data.

There is another form of offsite data storage, in the cloud. Cloud

providers such as Dropbox, Amazon Web Services, Microsoft and

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Google have built vast data centres to house thousands of special

computers and data storage devices to store your data. Access to
the data is made possible by the internet, which you will look at
later in this course.

You might think a cloud as an anonymous, unknown location that

is shared by many unrelated users. The location is owned,
managed and operated by a business, or academic or government
organisation, or some combination of these, and the hardware
infrastructure physically exists on one or more of the premises
owned by the cloud provider or one of their partners. This means
your data is always offsite, and issues such as back-up and
security of access, is managed for you by the cloud provider. This
form of data storage is increasingly used as devise using
computers become smaller, such as mobile phones. Avoiding the
need for local data storage and its hardware is an important
advantage.

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4 Peripheral devices

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

In Session 1 you saw some input and output devices, also known
as peripheral devices (or peripherals for short) that are connected
to the computer. Peripherals are used to load data and programs
into the computer and to get the results out again. These devices
include keyboards, screens, mice, printers, disk drives, sound
cards, video cards and cameras.

Activity 2
List as many input and output peripheral devices that you can think
of. State whether each is a device for input, output or both.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 2

As you saw in Session 1 early computers and most personal

computers use keyboards for input and screens for output.

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However, those with limited manual dexterity might find it difficult to

use a keyboard, and screens cannot be used by everyone with a
visual impairment. You’ll learn more about this in the next section.

4.1 Input and output devices for

physically impaired users
An increasing amount of research has gone into making computing
more accessible for people with disabilities. A user with limited
movement may be able to use a joystick or a trackball to navigate
a graphical user interface, and make input via programmable
buttons. Ergonomic keyboards or software that converts a screen
into a keyboard are now widely available.

Eye-tracker technology, which tracks the user’s eye movements

across a screen and controls input, has become steadily more
affordable. Also available is a ‘sip and puff’ switch that measures
air-pressure changes in a tube to convert ‘sipping’ (inhaling) and
‘puffing’ (exhaling) into signals that can be used to control a
mouse, joystick or keyboard.

For visually impaired users, software such as voice recognition

software and screen readers can be used for input and output, and
braille readers are available for tactile output to be read by users.

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In the next session you will be introduced to the concept of

computer systems, to help you understand how these components
actually work together.

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5 Connecting the devices

So far, you have been introduced to the major components of a
computer, namely a processor along with input and output devices,
plus main and secondary memory. Now you will explore three of
these components a little further, starting with input devices.

Input devices have to collect some information from outside the

computer and present it to the computer as data which is in a form
the processor can work with. It is useful to think of these as two
separate functions:

 ‘capturing’ the information

 ‘translating’ the information into a data form the
processor can use.

Sometimes these two functions are done by a single physical

entity; sometimes by two separate entities. When talking about
input functions the term ‘input device’ is used for whatever captures
the information and the term input subsystem for whatever does
the translation.

Similarly, output devices have to collect data from the processor in

the processor’s format and translate it into something that is
meaningful outside the computer, and again it’s useful to think of
these as two separate functions:

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 ‘translating’ the data from the form the processor uses

into information
 ‘presenting’ the information.

Again, when talking about output functions, the term ‘output device’
is used for whatever presents the information and the term output
subsystem for whatever does the translation.

In the case of secondary memory, there are also two functions,

though they are rather different. The secondary memory’s function
is simply to. hold stored data, and a secondary memory
subsystem is used to prepare the data for storage and get it stored
(when data is being sent to the memory) or to collect stored data
and prepare that data for use by the processor (when data is being
sent from the memory). Here is the subtle difference between ‘hard
disk’ and ‘hard drive’ that was mentioned earlier: the hard disk is
the secondary memory and the hard drive is the secondary
memory subsystem. But remember that many people use the two
synonymously (and hence ambiguously). Often the subtle
distinction doesn’t matter in a particular context, but it’s worth
being alert to the fact that the two terms are not strictly
synonymous.

The diagram in Figure 5 shows all the functional blocks of a

computer. That is, it shows all the functions performed within a
computer. Some of the components in any particular example of a

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computer may perform more than one of the functions shown in

Figure 5, so there may not always be a separate physical entity
associated with each function shown in the diagram. For example,
sometimes an output device and its associated output subsystem
are housed together; in some small computers the processor and
the main memory are even housed together. But, with the possible
exception of secondary memory, any computer will have the
functionality shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 A functional block diagram of a computer which also shows the flow
of data within the computer.

View description - Figure 5 A functional block diagram of a computer

which also shows the flow of data ...

View description - Figure 5 A functional block diagram of a computer

which also shows the flow of data ...

In Figure 5 the interconnecting lines show the data flows. The thick
line running vertically down the page from the processor
represents the computer bus. This is a data path that connects
the input and output subsystems and the secondary memory

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subsystem to the computer’s processor and main memory. It

allows data to be transmitted from one part of the computer to
another. Notice that this path has an arrow at each end, indicating
that data can travel in both directions along it. The arrows on the
other paths indicate that data can also travel both to and from the
secondary memory, but data only travels in from the input devices
and out to the output devices.

Box 1
Electrical signals and computers

The data that travels along the main computer bus does so in the
form of electrical signals which can have one of two possible
values: a near-zero voltage, known as ‘voltage low’, and a rather
higher voltage, known as ‘voltage high’.

(A couple of decades ago the high voltage was usually around 5

volts. When a predecessor to this course was written early in 2004,
the high voltage was around 3 volts. Since then systems have
used voltages near 2 volts and now even lower. Reducing the
voltage is important for saving energy, crucial when the computer
is battery powered such as a laptop of mobile phone. Saving
energy is also important for the environment. At the end of this
course in considering the future of computing you will look at green
computing.)

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Any electrical signal where the number of possible values that can
be used is limited is known as a digital signal. If the number of
possible values is limited to just two, as on the computer bus, then
the signal is known as a binary digital signal, or simply a binary
signal. (The ‘bi’ in ‘binary’ means ‘two’.)

So the electrical signals that travel along the computer bus, and
hence to the output subsystems and from the input subsystems,
are all binary signals. Unfortunately, the electrical signals produced
by input devices or needed by output devices are not necessarily
binary, or even digital. Hence an important task of the input and
output subsystems is to transform between the binary signals on
the computer bus and whatever signals are used by their particular
input or output device.

Figure 5 is an important diagram, and illustrates the fact that

computers, however complex and ‘clever’ they may seem, do only
the following tasks:

 receive data from the outside world via their input

devices
 store that data in their memory
 manipulate that data in their processor, probably
creating and storing more data while doing so
 present data back to the outside world via their output
devices.

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6 Computers as systems
As already mentioned, the functional blocks shown in Figure 5
relate very closely to, even though they are not necessarily
identical with, the computer’s physical components. The
computer’s physical components are normally known collectively
as the hardware. Software is a term often used to refer to a
computer program or a collection of computer programs which
enable a computer to carry out its tasks. As the course progresses
you will find out more about computer hardware and software,
including the processor and the programs it runs. Through this you
will gain an understanding of what form the data used by the
processor and memory must take, and hence understand the role
of the input and output subsystems.

Activity 3
For the PC shown in the advert in Figure 1 (in Section 1), write
down how the following items of hardware relate to the functional
blocks in Figure 5 (in the previous section). For simplicity, assume
that items that provide input functionality relate to input devices,
rather than input subsystems, and similarly items that provide
output functionality relate to output devices rather than output
subsystems.

 keyboard

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 display
 500 GB hard drive
 6 GB DDR3 RAM
 speakers
 touchpad
 SD reader.
Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 3

Activity 4
The laptop shown in Figure 1 contains a sound card and a network
card. What problem arises if you try to relate these two items to the
functional blocks of Figure 5?

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 4

The terms input-output device and input-output subsystem are

sometimes used where items have both input and output
functionality. Hence a sound card is an input-output subsystem.

Finally, just as you are just becoming familiar with all of the terms
that have been introduced, a word of caution. When you read
books or other literature about computers you may find some of
the terms used differently. This is not necessarily a problem, and is

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common when technical terms become part of everyday language.

However, throughout your study of this course you do need to
make sure that you use the terms as defined here.

One term not used here that you might come across is computer
system itself. Historically some people used the terms ‘computer’
and ‘computer system’ rather differently. The term computer was
focused on the processor and computer system referred to the
processor and its devices to make it a usable ‘system’. But that is
no longer the case, and nowadays the word ‘system’ tends to be
omitted. A good example is the use of the term ‘personal
computer’, which would several years ago have often been
described as a ‘personal computer system’ to cover the
combination of a box with the processor and memory, and
attached devices usually a screen, keyboard and mouse.

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7 Summary of Session 2
In this session you have had an introduction to the components of
a computer, starting with its processor, before moving on to look at
some of the input and output devices that connect to it to make a
useful computer system.

In the next session you will learn more about the heart of a
computer, its processor.

You can now go to Session 3.

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Session 3: Some facts about

processors

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Introduction
In this session of the course you will look more closely at
processors. As well as considering the fundamental question ‘what
is a processor?’ you will explore:

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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1 Processor statistics
In this section you are going to find out a little more about one of
the key components of a personal computer and so many other
devices: the processor. It is the processor that manipulates data
according to a list of instructions in a program.

Here is a mini-quiz which explores some facts about processors.

Activity 1
Question 1
Which of the numbers given below is closest to the number of
processors sold worldwide in 2000?

20 million

1 billion

40 million

125 million

View answer - Question 1

View discussion - Question 1

Question 2

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Which of the numbers given below is closest to the number of

processors sold worldwide in 2020?

12 billion

123 million

25 billion

1 billion

View answer - Question 2

View discussion - Question 2

Question 3
Which of the numbers given below is closest to the number of
Personal Computers sold worldwide in 2020?

250 million

25 million

1 million

1 billion

View answer - Question 3

View discussion - Question 3

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Perhaps you got all the answers to the quiz correct; perhaps all
your answers were wrong. It doesn’t matter. What is important is
that you now appreciate:

 the huge number of applications that can use

processors and hence how vast the processor market
is
 that the market for processors is not limited to
personal computers
 and that the market for processors used in personal
computers is very much smaller than that for
processors used in other applications.

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2 What does a processor look like?

So, what do these devices that are manufactured in such vast
quantities look like? Processors are manufactured as integrated
circuits. Essentially, they are electronic circuits, around the size of
a fingernail, which contain many millions of electronic components
manufactured as one very complex circuit. Figure 1 shows how a
processor manufactured as an integrated circuit is packaged so it
can be used as a component in an electronic circuit. The processor
is surrounded with pins to connect to the integrated circuit using
gold bonding wire. (Gold is most commonly used, but sometimes
aluminium is used instead.) Some of the pins are used to supply
the electrical power to the device, while signals are input to and
output from the processor via other pins.

Figure 1 A processor surrounded by gold connection pins.

View description - Figure 1 A processor surrounded by gold connection

pins.

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View description - Figure 1 A processor surrounded by gold connection

pins.

Figure 2 shows the packaged processor assembled with other

components on the motherboard of a computer. A motherboard is
the major circuit board inside a computer: it holds the processor,
the computer bus, the main memory and many other vital
components.

Figure 2 A processor assembled on a motherboard along with other circuit

components.

View description - Figure 2 A processor assembled on a motherboard

along with other circuit compone ...

View description - Figure 2 A processor assembled on a motherboard

along with other circuit compone ...

A processor is essentially a single integrated circuit that contains

the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. The CPU can be
thought of as the command centre of the computer; amongst other
functions, it interprets each program’s instructions and organises
the storage and retrieval of the data involved. Developing the CPU

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into a single component has considerable benefits, including

reduced manufacturing and running costs and the potential to
manufacture in very large numbers. The CPU can then be placed
on a single circuit board, the motherboard, along with other key
components such as memory. Bringing the components together
allows the computer to work more efficiently as well as bringing
down the cost of manufacture.

The processor runs at a set speed, its clock speed. This is

measured in gigahertz (GHz). Hertz is the number of cycles
(actions) per second, and the giga prefix multiplies that by a billion.
This means that a processor rated at 2.2 GHz, completes
2,200,000,000 cycles per second. This clock is the speed that
everything happens in your computer, such as performing a
calculation and retrieving data from your hard-drives, all controlled
and synchronized by your processor. Clock speed can be a very
important measure in some situations, for example in scientific
computing where there are many calculations for the processor to
perform. However, the processor speed will probably be less
critical on your laptop, for example, where the processor will spend
much time waiting for you to enter data via the keyboard, or to
retrieve a page from the internet.

Processors have been getting faster, but the real growth in

processor performance has been achieved by a different method.

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In the next section, you will look at a particular example of how

more and more components have been brought closer and closer
together to achieve greater overall computing performance.

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3 Moore’s law

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

Computers today are smaller, faster and cheaper than they have
ever been. This statement could have been made at pretty much
any time over the last 30 years and it would have been true; it’s
doubtful that any other product has maintained such rapid
development over such a long period of time. But just how fast has
computer development been? In 1965, Gordon Moore, the founder
of the giant Intel Corporation, wrote in Electronics magazine that he
expected the density of electronic components in an integrated
circuit on a silicon chip to double every year for at least the next
ten years.

Whether we look at the CPU or at memory, the fundamental

component of the computer is the transistor. The incorporation of
many transistors onto a single silicon chip, in the form of an
integrated circuit, started a process of miniaturisation that
continues to this day. More and more transistors are placed in a

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given space; as the distance between the transistors shrinks, so

the speed of communication between them increases and the cost
per transistor falls. When he made his prediction, Moore felt that
he could see how the technologies needed to achieve it would
evolve for the next five to ten years. In fact, the prediction was
slightly out, as the density of components has doubled every two
years rather than the year that was the rate in 1965, and it is this
rate of growth that is now associated with Moore. Nevertheless, it
is quite astonishing that development has continued at this rate for
more than 50 years after the initial prediction. In fact, behind this
lies a massive amount of investment to ensure that the trend
continues. At some point, Moore’s law, as it is called, moved from
being a prediction to being the target for an industry. Intel’s Core M
processor, released in 2015 fifty years after the prediction was
made, holds 1.3 billion transistors that each measure about 14
nanometers (nm) in size. To give you an idea of the scale: a flu
virus is 20 nm in diameter.

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4 Summary of Session 3
In this session you saw what a processor is, something of the vast
market for them, and how they have developed over time.

Now that we have a processor and its components assembled

together, in the next session you will learn something more about
how the data is interpreted and processed to produce useful
results.

You can now go to Session 4.

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Session 4: Representing data and

instructions inside a computer

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Introduction
In this session, you will explore how we can represent data and
instructions in a format that processors can handle. You will look
first at instructions for the processor, and then at the many forms of
data from plain text to sounds that computers can process.

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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1 Switches
You have seen in the previous session that a processor is made
up of millions of electronic components manufactured as one very
complex circuit. The majority of these components act as switches
that can exist in one of only two states, either on or off. The states
of certain switches tell the processor what instructions to carry out.
Also, when a processor is running a program it is altering the state
of other switches, switching them on and off many, many times a
second.

To represent more easily what is happening to the states of these

switches, the ‘off’ state is often referred to as 0, and the ‘on’ state
as 1.

Imagine eight switches in the following states:

on off off off on on on off

The states of these switches can be written down concisely as the

8-digit code 10001110, where the digit on the extreme left
represents the state of the leftmost switch and so on through to the
digit on the extreme right representing the state of the rightmost
switch.

If, for example, the state of these switches at any time represented
an instruction for a processor to execute, then 10001110 would

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cause one particular instruction to be executed and 10100001

another. (These instructions can also be represented in shorthand,
so a list of instructions doesn’t have to be tediously written down
as many 1s and 0s.)

The code 10001110 is made up of 8 digits. In computing

terminology, because each digit can only take one of two values
(either 1 or 0), each digit is referred to as a ‘binary digit’. This is
almost always abbreviated to bit. You can see that there are eight
bits in 10001110 and hence it is called an 8-bit code. As the code
is in binary it is also termed a binary code, so 10001110 is an 8-
bit binary code.

Three switches in the following states would represent the 3-bit

binary code 100:

on off off
Activity 1
Write down as many 2-bit binary codes as you can think of.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 1

This representation using 1s and 0s is very convenient. It makes it

possible to write down what conditions exist inside the processor
without having to deal with the complexities of the voltages and

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currents that exist to make the switches enter their on and off
states. (If you could peer inside a processor you would not see 1s
and 0s written down!)

Using binary codes is a very easy way to describe the state of the
switches inside the processor, and allows people to represent what
the electronic circuits that make up the processor are doing without
having to understand how such circuits operate.

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2 Representing data: bits

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

If all the data and computer instructions within a computer are

represented by 1s and 0s, how can this limited set of conditions be
used to represent, for instance, every letter of the alphabet that
might be typed into a computer from a keyboard? Activity 1
showed that there are four possible combinations of 1s and 0s in a
2-bit binary code. If you had only two bits available you could only
represent four different letters, e.g. ‘a’ could be represented by 00,
‘b’ by 01, ‘c’ by 10 and ‘d’ by 11. This shows that a 2-bit binary
code can only represent four items of data.

Activity 2
Write down all the possible combinations of a 3-bit binary code and
state how many items of data three bits can represent.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 2

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Interestingly, a pattern can be deduced for the relationship

between the number of bits and the number of items they
represent.

2 bits can represent 2 × 2 = 22 = 4 items

3 bits can represent 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 = 8 items and following on with

the same pattern

4 bits can represent 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 24 = 16 items.

Study note
If you are unsure of the use of the mathematical notation 22, 23
etc., you might find it helpful to refer to the following resource:
Using exponent notation.

You have seen that one binary digit of computer data is called a
bit, but when we talk about computer data we often use the term
byte. The next section takes you from bits to bytes.

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3 Representing data: bytes

A group of eight bits is called a byte, so an 8-bit binary code is 1
byte long, a 16-bit binary code is 2 bytes long and a 64-bit binary
code is 8 bytes long.

Activity 3
Answer the following questions:

1. How many bits are there in 4 bytes?

2. How many items of data can be represented by 1
byte?
Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 3

In general, computers that perform more complex tasks at higher

speeds use a larger number of bits to represent their data and
instructions. The very simple central heating controller, which only
has to do a limited amount of processing, may use an 8-bit
representation. More powerful computers will use 16-, 32- or 64-bit
representations.

When a computer is running a program a lot of data is being

passed around the various elements within the system. The data
received by the input subsystem(s) must be passed to the

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processor in a form it can use, and the processor in turn must

present data to the output subsystem(s) in the required format.
Even more fundamentally, the processor must be able to recognise
each instruction within the program and execute it.

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4 An alternative to binary?
Some very early computers, such as the ENIAC you saw in
Session 1, tried to represent data using our usual base-10 system.
So 0 volts was used to represent the digit 0, 1 volt to represent the
digit 1, and so on, all the way up to 9 volts to represent the digit 9.
However, having a range of different values caused problems:
voltage is not steady in a circuit, it varies as the circuit is switched
on or off, and it also varies as the electricity flows through
components. To cope with this, a lot of circuitry was needed just to
distinguish between the different voltages, which took up a lot of
space and generated a lot of heat.

The advantage of representing data in binary is that only two

ranges of voltage need to be detected. The actual voltage values
are defined in the specification of the electronic transistors used in
a processor. In a particular transistor, any voltage between, say, 0
and 1.3 V (‘low’ voltages) might be interpreted as the digit 0, and
any and any voltage above 1.7 V (‘high’ voltages) might be
interpreted as the digit 1. In this case, the circuit would be
designed to prevent voltages between 1.3 and 1.7 V. This gap
means that if there are any small random dips or increases in the
voltage (called noise), the two binary digits will still be
distinguishable.

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Figure 1 Representing 0s and 1s using high and low voltages.

View description - Figure 1 Representing 0s and 1s using high and low

voltages.

View description - Figure 1 Representing 0s and 1s using high and low

voltages.

This simple to implement and efficient method of representing

binary data with high- and low-voltages is the basis for
contemporary processors. However, we don’t think in binary digits
grouped into bytes. In the next section you will see how bytes can
be rendered as something we humans understand.

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5 Representing text in binary

Most modern systems for encoding text derive in part from ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange, pronounced
‘askee’), which was developed in 1963. In the original ASCII
system, upper-case and lower-case letters, numbers, punctuation
and other symbols and control codes (such as a carriage return,
backspace and tab) were encoded in 7 bits. As computers based
on multiples of 8 bits (or a byte) became more common, the
encoding system became an 8-bit system, and so could be
expanded to include more symbols.

When binary numbers were assigned to each character in the

original ASCII system, careful thought was given to choosing
sequences of values for the characters of the alphabet and
numerals that would make it easy for a computer processor to
perform common operations on them. (These encodings were
preserved in the 8-bit system by simply padding out the leftmost bit
with a 0.)

To illustrate, let’s look at the 8-bit encoding of some of the lower-

case and upper-case letters of the English alphabet, shown in
Table 1.

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Table 1

View description - Table 1

View description - Table 1

Notice that the ASCII values for corresponding upper-case and

lower-case characters always differ by one bit, shown in blue. This
means that converting from upper case to lower case (a very
common manipulation of text) is simply a matter of ‘flipping’ one
bit.

The original ASCII codes are suitable for representing North

American English, but do not allow for other languages that use
Latin characters with diacritics, nor for languages that do not use a
Latin alphabet at all. This was a major problem with the ever more
widespread use of computers and processors. It took a long time
for an acceptable international standard to emerge but since 2007,
the standard encoding system for characters has been Unicode
Transformation Format-8 (UTF-8) which uses a variable number of
bytes (up to 6) to encode characters in use across the world.

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However, in order to maintain backward compatibility, the original

127 ASCII codes are preserved in UTF-8.

In the next section, you will look at numbers.

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6 Representing numbers in binary

Now looking at the encoding for numerals in Table 2, we can see
how the characters 0–9 are represented in UTF-8.

Table 2 ASCII table for numerals

Binary code Character

0011 0000 0
0011 0001 1
0011 0010 2
0011 0011 3
0011 0100 4
0011 0101 5
0011 0110 6
0011 0111 7
0011 1000 8
0011 1001 9

Note, this is the character representation of the number to display

that number on a screen or to print in a document. It is not the
actual representation that a processor will use when preforming
numerical calculations!

Consider the number ‘11’. To print this number we use two

characters, a ‘1’ followed by another ‘1’. However, this is a very
inefficient way for a processor to handle numbers in a calculation.
Instead, the number eleven can be simply encoded in a byte as
00001011. That is one byte, not two, and in a form that instructions

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such as add and subtract can be directly applied to the bits for
efficient calculations. There are other special ways to encode
numbers for processing. They are beyond the scope of this course.

Modern computer programming languages such as Python handle

the conversion between the two representations of a number
automatically. However, in many languages it is for the
programmer to declare in the program whether a number is to be
used say for printing on a report, or for calculating the values to be
printed.

The logic of the program informs the processor how to handle each
byte, whether it represents a character or a number, or even
another data format altogether as you shall see in the next section.

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7 Representing pictures and music in

binary

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

You can see images and hear audio, but how does a processor do
this?

Activity 4
Make a note of the digital media you already use.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 4

In using and creating digital media, we are often representing part

of the real world in a digital form that can be stored, transmitted or
manipulated using information and communication technology.

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8 Representing images in binary

On a screen, images are generated by dividing the display into a
large number of tiny units called pixels (from ‘picture elements’).
Each pixel can, in general, be displayed in a number of different
colours and levels of light intensities or brightness. The greater the
number of pixels used for a given size of display, the more detail
can be displayed and the higher the quality of the image.

Now you’ll consider an artificially small-scale example: a display

using eight rows of sixteen pixels. In Figure 2 you can see how this
system could display a ‘triangle’.

Figure 2 Black-on-white ‘triangle’ on a 16 x 8 pixel display.

View description - Figure 2 Black-on-white ‘triangle’ on a 16 x 8 pixel

display.

View description - Figure 2 Black-on-white ‘triangle’ on a 16 x 8 pixel

display.

Activity 5

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What do you notice about the representation of the three sides of

the ‘triangle’?

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 5

Next time you use your computer, look at a photograph and ‘zoom
in’ as far as you can (usually an option under the View menu) to
examine it in detail. The number of pixels in the ‘zoomed in’ section
hasn’t changed, but each pixel has expanded in the display so that
it is possible to see each one as a discrete square. From normal
viewing distances, each pixel merges with its neighbour so that we
see a smooth image.

In other words, we have taken the smooth images we see around

us, and broken them into tiny units that can be represented in
binary to a processor, and when viewed appropriately, can still look
like a smooth image to us.

For the simple black and white triangle, we can represent the state
of each pixel with a bit, setting it to 0 for white and 1 for black. For
more colours, we will need to use more bits at each pixel. If we use
two bits at each pixel we can have four colours (remember 2 x 2 =
22 = 4) so that we could use 00 for white and 11 for black, and 01
for red and 10 for blue. As we use more bits at each pixel we can

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add more information and show a greater variety of colours as well

as other aspects of the picture such as how bright the pixel is.

Adding more detail to each pixel needs more bits to record that
detail. Consider a screen that has a resolution of 1920 by 1080
pixels. That means there are 2 073 600 pixels on the screen when
you look at it. If one byte is used to record the colour and so on of
each pixel (remember one byte is eight bits), that means 16 588
800 bits of data are needed to describe the screen.

In some professional video applications, three bytes (24 bits) are

used to store the data to be displayed at each pixel. That means
49 766 400 bits of data are needed to display one image
measuring 1920 x 1080 pixels.

You may have come across the term 4K, which is used to describe
an increasingly popular television and cinematography display
resolution. 4K UHD is the dominant standard (there are several 4K
standards!) and is four times the size of my monitor. In other
words, the display is 3840 x 2160 pixels, or 8 294 400 pixels.
Consider the number of bits needed to display an image of that
size if each pixel has one byte to record its colour and additional
detail such as brightness.

As file sizes increase so it is harder to process them (they simple

take longer to process because there are more individual data

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elements to work on and more memory is needed to store this data

while it is being processed). It becomes harder to use large files in
other ways too. Some are obvious: consider the time taken to
download an image or to stream a video over the internet; other
perhaps less so: consider the size of your backup files.

There has been much research into making image files easier to
handle producing a variety of standards depending on the
application, such as jpeg (defined by the Joint Photographic
Experts Group) which is particularly suited to photographs, gif
(Graphics Interchange Format) which is particularly suited to
simple graphics, and png (Portable Network Graphics) which is
particularly suited to online viewing.

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9 Representing audio in binary

Just as we see the world smoothly, not in steps, so too we hear the
world smoothly. However, to represent sound in binary we apply
the same technique and break sound up into tiny units we can
represent in binary.

If you shout, hit a piano key or drop a plate, then you set particles
of air vibrating – and any ears in the vicinity will interpret this
tremor as sound. The sounds we hear generally consist of small
rapid movements (changes, fluctuations) of the atmospheric air
pressure that surrounds us. Sound can also be transmitted through
other media, such as water, so not all sound consists of
fluctuations in air pressure. However, this course will only consider
sound in air.

A microphone is used to convert the changes in atmospheric

pressure wave into an electrical signal with a voltage that varies in
accordance with the pressure of the original signal. This electrical
signal needs to be converted into a digital representation.
However, there is no audio equivalent of a ‘pixel’ rather we talk of
sampling rate. Associated with each sample is its depth (how many
bits are used to record the data at that sample). For example, CD
audio samples are taken 44 100 times a second (which you may
see as 44.1 kHz), and each sample uses 16 bits for each stereo

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channel. Hence you will the quality of a recording determined by its

sampling rate sampling and depth.

As with image files, audio files can quickly become very large as
the sampling rate and depth increase. Similarly, there are many
standards to encode and compress audio files to make them more
manageable, such as MP3 (the third audio standard from the
Moving Pictures Expert Group) and flac (an open source format
from Xiph.Org Foundation), as well as many proprietary formats
such as Microsoft’s WMA (Windows Media Audio).

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10 This session’s quiz

You now have the opportunity to try a quiz in which you can test
your learning of the course so far.

Session 4 quiz

Open the quiz in a new tab or window and come back here when
you’ve finished.

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11 Summary of Session 4
You’ll end this session with a short activity.

Activity 6
In this session, you have looked at some examples of how data
can be represented in binary. However, for processors to work,
what else needs to be represented in binary?

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 6

In this session, you have seen how we can represent data in a

format that processors can handle. You will come back to how
processors handle data in Session 6, but before then, in the next
session, you will see some different examples of ‘computers’.

You can go to Session 5.

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Session 5: Examples of computers

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Introduction
In this session, you will look at three different examples of
computer systems: a PC, which is obviously a computer, and a set
of electronic kitchen scales and a digital camera, which are not so
obviously computers.

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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1 The personal computer

You will find that all three of the examples match with the
functional block diagram of the laptop computer given in Figure 1
in Session 2, although the tasks they have to perform mean that
the individual components which perform the functions of the
blocks within the diagram are quite different.

You looked at how the components of a computer could be related

to the functional block diagram. Figure 1, which is a functional
block diagram for the laptop, shows the data flow between the
specific components of the laptop. Notice that in this diagram there
are the specific input and output devices and items of secondary
memory instead of the generic items seen previously in the
functional block diagram in Session 2. That diagram is a generic
for any computer; whereas Figure 1 below is its specific for the
laptop.

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Figure 1 Functional block diagram for a laptop.

View description - Figure 1 Functional block diagram for a laptop.

View description - Figure 1 Functional block diagram for a laptop.

Other PCs may have some additional input devices such as a

stylus, plus some additional output devices such as a printer.

The PC is a general-purpose computer. It can run different

software programs at the user’s request, and hence can be used
for a variety of different applications. Typical examples are word
processing, sending and receiving email, playing games, browsing
the web, and sound and image recording and playback.

The following quote from the book A Shortcut through Time, The Path
to Quantum Computing by George Johnson shows that even those
long familiar with the concepts of how PCs work can still find them
fascinating. (A register is a part of a processor and the term ‘disk
drive’ is often used to describe either a floppy disk or hard disk.)

With a modern PC we blithely double-click an icon on the desktop

summoning a flow of data from the disk drive – the pattern of bits
that configures thousands of little switches to act as a word
processor or a web browser or an MP3 player – temporary little
structures, virtual machines. They are allowed to exist only as long

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as they are needed. Then they are wiped away and replaced with
other structures, all built from 1s and 0s.

It is hard to believe sometimes how well this works. You can call
up a movie trailer in a window and drag the image around the
desktop, causing millions of bits to pour through the computer’s
hidden registers. It is overwhelming to try and imagine the precise
coordination going on behind the screen. Ultimately though it all
comes down to shuffling 1 s and 0s, flipping little switches on and
off.

(Johnson, 2004)

In Session 4 you looked at how data can be represented by bits –

two bits can represent four items, three bits eight items, four bits
sixteen items, etc. This is fine if, for example, you want to
represent a clearly defined set of data such as the letters of the
alphabet and numbers. You also saw how the images of the ‘movie
trailer’ in the above quote can be represented in your computer,
even though images are a more complex issue of data
representation. As you will see from the next two examples,
electronic kitchen scales and a digital camera, this issue of data
representation exists in all computers.

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2 Electronic kitchen scales

A set of electronic kitchen scales is shown in Figure 2. Their basic
operation is relatively simple. When they are switched on and, for
example, a 500-gram object is placed in the scalepan, the display
shows the digits 500 and the letter g. Using a bowl on the scales
allows for weighing many individual objects like the oats in Figure
2.

Figure 2 Set of scales showing a reading of 313 g.

View description - Figure 2 Set of scales showing a reading of 313 g.

View description - Figure 2 Set of scales showing a reading of 313 g.

It might be possible to think of these electronic kitchen scales as a

computer, in the sense that that they have hardware in the form of
a processor, memory, input devices and subsystems, output
devices and subsystems; and they have software in the form of
programs. But they are not normally thought of in such terms
because the fact that they are a computer is not of primary concern
to the user – it seems more natural to think of them as kitchen

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scales. The term embedded computer is sometimes used when a

computer is ‘invisible’ in this way. Objects like the kitchen scales
are said to ‘contain’ a computer, rather than to ‘be’ a computer –
the computer is thought of as being ‘embedded’ in the object.

For the electronic kitchen scales, a key input device is a sensor

placed beneath the scalepan. This sensor measures how far the
scalepan moves when an object is placed on it, and then
generates a signal to represent this change of position. The
sensor’s subsystem then converts this signal into binary coded
data (that is, a pattern of 1s and 0s) that the processor can read
and manipulate.

The seven-segment display on the scales is an output device. Its

subsystem takes binary coded data from the processor and
manipulates it into another binary form that will make the correct
digits and letter appear on the display.

The processor in this system is performing a very simple task.

Whenever the scales are switched on the program installed in the
computer’s main memory at manufacture runs. This program first
instructs the processor to pick up the data placed on the computer
bus by the input subsystem. The program then tells the processor
to use this data, plus some data stored in main memory, to
generate some further data. This new data is then taken from the
bus by the output subsystem.

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The computer is essentially taking a signal in one format from the

sensor and translating it into another format which enables the
display to show the correct digits and letter. It is important that it
does this in a time-span acceptable to the user.

Activity 1
Using the information about the scales given above, create a
functional block diagram for the kitchen scales. Note that these
scales have no secondary memory.

View discussion - Activity 1

In products such as these electronic kitchen scales the capabilities

of the processor can be used to implement additional features. In
this case the scales have a count-down timer so they can be used
as a kitchen timer, and they can measure in imperial units (pounds
and ounces) as well as metric units. They also implement an add-
and-weigh function which allows the user to set the scales’ display
to zero when there are some ingredients in the scalepan, making it
possible to weigh the next ingredient without having to perform any
mental arithmetic to add its weight to that of the ingredients already
in the scalepan.

Activity 2

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How might the input and output devices of the scales have to
change if a countdown timer, a choice of measuring units and an
add-and-weigh feature are all to be implemented? How would this
change the diagram you drew for Activity 1?

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 2

Figure 4 shows three photos of the scales’ display, each illustrating

a different use. The top figure shows the display giving a reading in
ounces; note that it displays fractions of an ounce. The middle
figure shows the clock display; note that a colon is used in addition
to the standard set of digits from 0 to 9. The bottom figure shows a
weight displayed as a negative value. It may seem strange to have
a ‘negative weight’, but it can occur when the add-and-weigh
facility is used. Imagine that some ingredients are placed on the
scalepan and the display reads 49 g. The user then invokes the
add-and-weigh facility, so the display changes to 0 g. If the
ingredients are then removed from the pan the display will read−49
g.

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Figure 4 Three photos of the kitchen scales’ display: (top) with the scales
weighing in imperial units; (middle) with the timer function in operation;

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(bottom) negative values can be displayed for weights if the add-and-weigh

facility is being used.

View description - Figure 4 Three photos of the kitchen scales’ display:

(top) with the scales weighing ...

View description - Figure 4 Three photos of the kitchen scales’ display:

(top) with the scales weighing ...

To implement these additional features the scales’ computer has to

represent all the additional data that could be output on the display
by predetermined codes consisting of 1s and 0s. It has to
represent fractional data, negative numbers, a digital clock format
and patterns to illuminate lb’ and ‘oz’ as well as ‘g’.

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3 Digital camera
The last computer to look at in this session is the embedded
computer in a digital camera.

Figure 5 shows a picture of a digital camera. Inside the camera

there is a memory card within the camera. This memory card is not
the camera computer’s main memory, nor is it the secondary
memory used to hold the computer’s program; it is a form of
removable secondary memory where the computer stores the
images taken. The memory card can be removed from the camera
and another memory card inserted.

Figure 5 A digital camera.

View description - Figure 5 A digital camera.

View description - Figure 5 A digital camera.

When the user presses the button to take a picture with a digital
camera, its shutter opens, and the lens system focuses light from
the image being photographed onto a light sensitive sensor. Two

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forms of light sensitive sensors are in common use: a charge-

coupled device or CCD and complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor or CMOS sensors.

The two types of device work in the same way. They consist of a
two-dimensional array of tiny light-sensitive cells that convert light
into electrical charge. Figure 6 shows this array of cells and how
the sensor is located behind the camera lens. The brighter the light
that hits a cell, the greater the electrical charge that accumulates at
that site. Once the camera shutter has closed, the information
stored in the form of electrical charge at each cell is converted into
a binary code and stored in the form of 1s and 0s in the camera’s
memory, and this forms the image captured by the camera. To
collect colour information a system of colour filters is placed over
the cells of the sensor.

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Figure 6 A representation of a light sensor array in a camera.

View description - Figure 6 A representation of a light sensor array in a

camera.

View description - Figure 6 A representation of a light sensor array in a

camera.

This stored raw data representing the image is then processed.

The colour is reconstructed and adjusted, and techniques are used
to sharpen the fine detail. The result of this process is a picture
ready to be stored as a file in the camera’s secondary memory. To

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reduce the amount of stored data, the file is usually compressed –

that is, the number of bits used to represent the image is reduced.
In some cameras the user can select options to choose the type of
compression carried out. The process of compression is described
later in this block.

In the example here, we follow the practice of most users and have
the computer in the camera to do the image processing.
Professional and serious enthusiast photographers will often take
the raw image from the camera and process it in a far more
powerful PC with a large monitor attached. This allows them
greater control of the image processing process, with the ability to
see fine detail as they make changes directly.

Figure 7 shows the actions that the digital camera performs when
taking a picture. Note that this diagram is not a functional block
diagram of the camera but shows the actions that must occur to
take and store the picture, in the order in which they must happen.
The digital camera shown in Figure 7 has some buttons that allow
the user to set particular conditions when taking a picture. In
addition to the button to take a picture, there are buttons to set the
flash, control the preview of the stored images on the screen and
control the zoom lens and so on. As there is a flash facility, there
must also be a light-level meter incorporated into the camera; the

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level of light falling on the meter determines whether the flash will
operate.

Figure 7 Diagram showing, in order, the processes that occur when taking a
picture with a digital camera.

View description - Figure 7 Diagram showing, in order, the processes that

occur when taking a picture ...

View description - Figure 7 Diagram showing, in order, the processes that

occur when taking a picture ...

As with the PC and the electronic kitchen scales, a specific form of

functional block diagram can be created for this digital camera.

Activity 3
Using the information about the digital camera given above, draw
the specific functional block diagram for this camera.

View discussion - Activity 3

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4 Summary of Session 5
You have seen that although the three products you have looked
at are very different types of computer, they all embody the same
basic functionality and a version of a functional block diagram can
be drawn for each product to illustrate this.

One feature of the PC is the range of forms of secondary memory

it can use, and also the variety of input and output devices which
the user can choose. The kitchen scales’ embedded computer is
relatively simple with no secondary memory and relatively few
input and output devices. The computer within the camera has a
processor which needs to implement several complex processes to
manipulate the image, has secondary memory and has many input
and output devices.

Having considered the various forms data can take in Session 4

and the various forms computers can take in this session, you will
next look at how we bring these together and control the
processing of data by computers when you start to look at
programs. That is the topic of the next session.

You can now go to Session 6.

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Session 6: Computer programs

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Introduction
In this session, you will explore how a processor is given
instructions to perform a defined function. The instructions are
known as software. There are two broad classes of software:
operating systems and applications, though these can be called by
different names. You will be introduced to one technique that is
used to organise the instructions for a computer to understand.
Finally, you will look at some special purpose instructions targeted
at web browsers, which will lead into the next session on the
Internet.

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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1 Software
The instructions are brought together in software. Software is a
collection of the instructions that tell the computer how to work. In
contrast, the physical hardware from which the system is built and
actually performs the work is called hardware.

Software can be split into two categories, application software and

operating systems. Application software is the name given to
programs which enable a computer to perform specific tasks. The
program that processes the image in the digital camera is one
example; a word processor running on a PC is another.

In computers that are running several application programs, the

programs may well be sharing some of the computer’s resources,
such as its display or its hard disk. If this is the case then an
operating system provides general-purpose software that controls
the sharing of resources amongst the various programs, making
sure that they are not competing for the same resource. The
operating system on a PC makes it possible for, say, information
about incoming email to appear on the screen whilst a word
processor is running and a document is printing. The operating
systems you are most likely to be familiar with in business and in
schools is Windows®. There are however many other operating
systems, such as macOS on Apple Macs, and iOS on Apple

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smartphones. The majority of other smartphones use Android as

their operating system. Google developed of Android from UNIX,
an operating system that is far older than Windows and very
popular for back office functions that run at scale and require
excellent reliability. For example, UNIX is used on nearly all
internet servers.

Very simple computers, such as the one in the kitchen scales,

have only one program running and consist of a modest set of
resources. In such simple systems the distinction between the
operating system and the application program is not clearly
defined, and it is not customary to distinguish between them. This
is typical of embedded computers, but then they are dedicated to
deliver one task. In more complex computers an operating system
becomes useful, and in something as complex as a PC it is a
crucial component.

In the next section you will look a little more closely at operating
systems. Then you will be introduced to how application programs
are developed. Finally, you will see a little of a special form of
application programming, and how to program for the internet.

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2 Operating systems
You have already seen that operating systems organise the
sharing of resources. But they do much more than this; they
ensure the efficient running of a computer by:

 loading application programs from secondary memory

into main memory and managing their execution
 supporting application programs by managing their
use of the computer’s resources
 managing the storage of programs and data in
secondary memory
 accepting inputs from and supplying outputs to the
user.

Next, you will examine each of these four aspects of an operating

system in turn, using the PC as an example.

Unless an application program has been recently used and hence

is already stored in main memory, the operating system will need
to find the program in secondary memory, transfer it into main
memory and arrange for the processor to execute it. If the user is
running more than one application program, say a word processor
and a drawing package, the operating system will need to manage
execution of both in order to ensure that these two programs do
not interfere with each other. When the user closes down an

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application program, the operating system has to manage this

process and ensure that the computer can continue to operate
normally.

Application programs make use of the computer’s resources. For

example, they send data to the display. Rather than the application
program containing the instructions to perform tasks like this, they
call on the operating system to perform the tasks on their behalf.
This makes application programs easier to write.

In addition to organising the transfer of application programs from

the secondary memory to the main memory, the operating system
has to manage the process of storing application programs in
secondary memory when the user first installs them. It also has to
organise the storage of files that users create while they are
running application programs. For example, with a word processor
the operating system organises saving a newly created file to a
folder specified by the user. On request, it also organises the
retrieval of a previously saved file. Less obvious is the equally
important task of storing and organising the temporary data
generated by the word processor while it is running.

Accepting inputs from the user and generating outputs for the user
are important functions of the operating system, and ones that can
make a difference between a computer being easy to use or
difficult. In the early days of PCs, users had to type text commands

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in order to get their computers to perform tasks, and all information

from the computer came in the form of text. This was because the
operating system of those days, DOS, did not have the ‘graphical
user interface’ that everyone takes for granted today. There were
no icons or menus on the screen, and pointing and clicking with a
mouse was not an option. To a very large extent, it is the operating
system, rather than the hardware, of a PC that influences how
easy users find it to use.

In brief, the operating system in a PC not only controls the PC’s

resources but also hides many of the complexities of using a
computer from the user, making the user’s task easier.

In the next section you will look at some of the programs making
demands on the PC’s resources, application programs.

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3 Using flowcharts to describe a task

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

Application programs are designed to perform specific tasks.

These tasks range from the relatively simple to the extremely
complex. In this section you will look at what is involved in planning
a program to perform some simple tasks.

There are many ways of writing an application program. However,

one common starting point is to break down the overall task, or
objective of the program, into smaller tasks. One technique to
achieve this is to draw a flowchart, showing each of these smaller
steps on the way to delivering the task.

In order to write a program, the task the program will perform has
to be first written as a list of actions. The actions have to be given
in an order that will ensure the task is carried out successfully.

Activity 1

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Write down, in order, the list of actions you would have to carry out
to boil some water in an electric kettle.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 1

Consider a very simple set of electronic scales. These scales have

an on/off switch, but no other input buttons, and a display to show
the weight of the object in the scalepan in grams.

Activity 2
Write down, in order, the list of actions that the computer inside the
scales has to carry out in order to show an object’s weight on the
display.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 2

The list of actions in the comment to Activity 2 can be shown

diagrammatically in a type of diagram called a flowchart. Figure 1
shows how you could write this sequence of actions as a
flowchart.

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Figure 1 Flowchart of the tasks performed by simple electronic scales.

View description - Figure 1 Flowchart of the tasks performed by simple

electronic scales.

View description - Figure 1 Flowchart of the tasks performed by simple

electronic scales.

The shapes of the symbols used in flowcharts are significant.

Flowcharts are a common language used to communicate
processes and it is important to be consistent in their use. This
flowchart uses three different symbols to show:

 the start/end points of the process

 data input or output
 a process to be carried out.

Figure 2 defines these symbols. It also defines an additional

symbol that shows a decision being made, and another for
showing connectors.

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Figure 2 Flowchart symbols

View description - Figure 2 Flowchart symbols

View description - Figure 2 Flowchart symbols

In flowcharts, lines are used to connect symbols together, and

arrows on these lines indicate the order in which tasks are carried
out. You can see this in Figure 1.

The next example incorporates a decision box. It involves a slightly

more complex set of electronic scales: they have one additional
button on the front that allows the user to select whether the weight
is displayed in grams or in pounds and ounces. A flowchart
incorporating this choice of display format is shown in Figure 3. It
uses the decision box to make a choice about which piece of the
program will be run. There are two exit routes from the decision
box; each route is called a branch. If the user has requested that
the weight should be displayed in grams, the Yes branch is
followed so that the sensor data can be transformed to gram
format. If the user has requested that the weight should be

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displayed in pounds and ounces, the No branch is followed to

transform the sensor data to pounds and ounces instead. Note that
once the translation to the selected output format is complete the
branches of the flowchart come together again and the ‘send to
display’ part of the task is run regardless of which branch was
taken earlier in the program.

Figure 3 Flowchart for electronic scales with metric/imperial selector button

View description - Figure 3 Flowchart for electronic scales with

metric/imperial selector button

View description - Figure 3 Flowchart for electronic scales with

metric/imperial selector button

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4 Using flowcharts to describe a task 2

Now consider what happens when you are weighing, for example,
flour on a set of scales. You slowly add more flour to the scalepan
until you reach the desired weight. As you do this the display
constantly changes, showing the weight increasing as you add
more flour. To do this, the scales’ computer must repeatedly
examine the input and update the display each time it does so. The
flowcharts in Figures 1 and 3 do not implement this. They simply
take one reading and need to be re-started to take another.

The flowchart can be changed so that the input is repeatedly

examined and the output repeatedly displayed by means of what is
called a loop. A loop allows a certain part of a flowchart to be
carried out as many times as necessary depending on the results
of a decision. In this instance, after every ‘send to the display’, the
flowchart in Figure 4 shows a loop back to examine the sensor
again, provided the scales have not been switched off. Note that a
loop has to start as a branch from a decision box. Spend a few
moments examining the loop in Figure 4; make sure that you
understand how this flowchart differs from the one in Figure 3 and
why it would enable the scales to display an increasing weight as,
for example, flour was slowly added to the scalepan.

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Figure 4 Flowchart for electronic scales incorporating a loop

View description - Figure 4 Flowchart for electronic scales incorporating

a loop

View description - Figure 4 Flowchart for electronic scales incorporating

a loop

Having seen how flowcharts can be useful to help understand the

individual steps that make up a task, in the section, you will think
about a more complicated example.

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5 Tasks for a typing tutor

Now here’s an example of a task that an application program
called a typing tutor needs to perform. A typing tutor checks how
accurately the user types certain groups of letters at the computer
keyboard. For example, the group ‘asdf might have to be typed ten
times as follows ‘asdf asdf asdf …’. As the user types at the
keyboard, the program checks that the correct letters have been
typed in each group, using space characters to define where a
group ends. When the program has counted that ten groups have
been entered it displays how many correct and how many incorrect
groups have been typed.

The flowchart to describe this task is rather complex, so you will

work through it step by step. One helpful step would be to write
down a list of actions in the same manner as you did for boiling the
kettle.

Activity 3
Starting with the two actions given below, write, in order, the list of
actions that need to be carried out to complete the task of the
typing tutor.

 Read in a group of letters from the keyboard

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 If the letters are asdf then count this as a good entry

and …
Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 3

Activity 4
Use the answer to Activity 3 to help you to produce a flowchart for
implementing the task of the typing tutor. (Hint: you will not be able
to use exactly the words shown above in some of the boxes of
your flowchart. In particular, think carefully about how you will
implement the sentences beginning with ‘if’ in the flowchart.)

Figure 5 Flowchart for Typing Tutor

View description - Figure 5 Flowchart for Typing Tutor

View description - Figure 5 Flowchart for Typing Tutor

The flowchart is given in Figure 5. Did you realise that the

sentences that begin with ‘if’ need to be implemented as decision

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boxes? One of these starts two branches (depending on whether

‘asdf’ has been typed correctly) and the other a loop (to ensure
that ten groups of letters are examined).

You have now seen several examples of how flowcharts can be

used to describe tasks carried out by computers. Drawing such
flowcharts is just one stage in the process of developing an
application program. You will look at this in the next section.

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6 Developing an application program

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

The process of developing any software starts with an analysis of

the task or tasks to be performed by the computer, an analysis
designed to tease out how the computer is to behave under every
possible circumstance. The software development process may
continue through the drawing of flowcharts like the ones you have
seen, or the software developers may prefer other means of
arriving at an understanding of each individual element of the task
and how these elements fit together. In either case, however, the

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next step will be to write the computer program. This will take the
various elements of the task and convert them into a program by
use of a programming language, which is a structured language
with a limited set of words and symbols and which can be used to
tell a computer how to perform a task. Finally, the program must be
‘debugged’ (made free of errors) through extensive testing, and
also documented to facilitate any future work on it.

After this there may be more forms of testing, from user evaluation
of the ‘user experience’ of using the software to the more dramatic,
literally pulling the plug on the computer part way through
executing the program to see ensure the program fails gracefully.
Important if your program if your program is running a bank’s teller
machine and fails part way through a user withdrawing money;
potentially vital if your program is monitoring a safety critical
system.

There may be yet more steps before your program can be used,
such as user training in complicated applications. The computer
hardware and its programs are just the first steps towards
delivering an effective system.

Before you finish this session, you are going to take a short look at
a special form of application programming: programming for the
web.

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7 The language of the web

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

Making the web appear in your web browser may be thought of as

a special form of application programming. Typically, modern web
sites divide this programming into three parts: content, style and
behaviour.

The content of a web page is put together using hypertext markup

language (HTML), the language of the web, which your browser
understands. A browser needs a set of codes to identify the
various parts of the web page: the headings, lists, paragraphs and
so on. These codes are called tags in HTML and they make it
possible for a web page to be displayed in a browser. HTML tags
are standardised so that they can be interpreted by different
browsers. HTML describes the structure of a web page, but how
about formatting the page?

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Well-designed web page presentation is vital for readability and

appeal. The appearance of a page is greatly simplified by the use
of stylesheets. A stylesheet is code used to format a page in a
desired way: the presentation information goes in special <style>
tags, often as a separate page of code. Indeed, Cascading
Stylesheets (CSS) can control the layout of multiple web pages all
at once and thus save a lot of work. A style can be added to HTML
elements in three ways:

 Inline – literally inline with the HTML, hence formatting

and describing the page contents at the same time, all
mixed together.
 Internal – by grouping all the formatting commands in
to one part of the HTML document into a stylesheet.
This simplifies applying the same style across a
document, because you need only define it once.
 External – by using an external CSS file, to which each
page can link. Now you can apply a common style to
all the documents in your website.

Just as we can separate content (or structure) and formatting (or

presentation) by putting the CSS in a separate file from the HTML
web page, you can separate content from how the page behaves,
how it responds to the user. Actions, such as validating a user
email, is generally performed using the JavaScript programming

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language. You can use flowcharts to design a JavaScript program.

Just as stylesheets can be linked to from HTML pages, so can
JavaScript files. Hence, the one script can serve on many pages,
which means you need only write the code to check for a valid
email address once and then call it whenever you need it from any
page in your website.

There are several other special application languages, such as

Structured Query Language for working with databases. You will
encounter these if you choose to take your study of computer
programming further.

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8 Summary of Session 6
In this session, you have looked at how a processor is given
instructions. There are two broad categories of computer
programs: application software that enables a computer to perform
specific tasks, and operating systems that manage the sharing of
resources amongst the various programs.

In flowcharts, you saw one common technique of capturing the

breakdown of a large task into smaller steps that can be written as
a computer program.

Finally, you were introduced to a couple of special purpose

computer languages in HTML and CSS, that are used by web
browsers.

In the next session, you will look some more at the internet.

You can now go to Session 7.

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Session 7: Networks of computers

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Introduction
In this session, you will explore how we can progress beyond
individual computers and join them together to form networks of
computers. You will look at some of the technologies that make
this possible, how computers have been linked together to form the
internet, and how the internet itself is developing especially
through wireless technology to become the ‘internet of things’.

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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1 Technologies
In the following short sub-sections, you will be introduced to
network technologies. Firstly, you will be introduced to the building
blocks that are used to create a network, and then at how various
networks can be built from them ranging in size from a small one
such as have in your own home to the global world wide web.

1.1 An example network

The internet provides the backbone for worldwide communication.
You will look specifically at the internet and the technology that
makes it work in Section 2. The term internet derives from the fact
that the internet is itself made up of many other joined-together
networks. But the internet is not the only player in providing
communication. For example, there are the suppliers of
broadband, the internet service providers, mobile phone operators,
Wi-Fi access points and local area networks at work, to name most
of the important ones. It is the joining together of all these different
networks belonging to these service providers that allows us to
access our workplace or browse the web seamlessly – that is,
without being aware of the underlying networks that support the
service.

Case study: A home office set up

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Figure 1 shows one possible representation of the joining together

of networks. In this example, a home network, a campus network
and a branch office network are all joined together using the
internet.

Figure 1 Home-to-office network.

View description - Figure 1 Home-to-office network.

View description - Figure 1 Home-to-office network.

This is a representation of my own home-to-workplace set-up. At

home, I have a laptop and iPad which both connect to my home
hub using Wi-Fi. My printer is plugged into the hub using an
Ethernet port. The hub was provided to me as part of my contract
with my broadband supplier and connects from my home to fibre-
optic broadband. My broadband link will eventually get me to my
internet service provider (ISP), where I will be connected to the
internet through a router, called a gateway router in this location as
it acts a gateway between two networks – in this case, the ISP and
the internet. A connection is established across the internet to get

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me to another gateway router at the edge of the Open University

network.

In this example, I wish to access a server at my office, which is

shown at the bottom of the diagram. I have to pass through a
hierarchy of network devices (routers and switches) to reach the
server as the OU network supports over 3000 staff and many
thousands of students. I would follow a similar pathway if I wanted
to exchange emails with a colleague. Connections can be made in
a similar way to a branch office. At both the University and the
branch office, the collection of networking equipment is joined
together using a Local Area Network (LAN). As an alternative to
using the internet, the part in the middle of the diagram, which
connects the university to the regional office, can be provided over
privately leased links, when it then is referred to as a Wide Area
Network (WAN).

In summary, my connection from home to office (university) has

been made possible by joining together my home network, a WAN
and a LAN: a network of networks.

Now you’ll look in more detail at these technologies.

1.2 Routers and switches

Routers and switches are specialised computers that handle
communications over networks.

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As a broad generalisation, routers connect together networks,

switches connect together end devices.

As routers handle connections between networks they are

commonly found in the internet, whereas switches handle
connections in LANs. (LANS are explained in the next section.)
They both have the same function of passing on your data to
another device, but they do that function on different levels.

Sometimes the distinction is not always so clear. Your home hub is

an example of a router. It manages the connection outside your
house to a local cabinet, a roadside box, which is part of the larger
telecommunications network.

Figure 2 A local cabinet.

View description - Figure 2 A local cabinet.

View description - Figure 2 A local cabinet.

Yet your home hub also connects devices within your home, such
as a printer in the previous case study, and hence is also acting as
a switch. In this case, the two types of connections are combined

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in the one physical box. As the main purpose of the box is to

connect outside your home to the internet, it is generally referred to
as a ‘router’.

In large organisations however, when many thousands of devices

need to be connected such as on the Open University’s campus,
the switches and routers are distinct devices. Indeed, there are so
many devices to connect, local networks within the University, that
there are rooms full of switches and routers stacked into cabinets
as can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Plugged-in cables.

View description - Figure 3 Plugged-in cables.

View description - Figure 3 Plugged-in cables.

In Figure 3 the pink and green cables connect devices to the

switches. The grey cables are connected to the routers. Typically,

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switches can connect many devices, while routers connect a few

networks. This figure shows you the different number of ports
available to plug in cables in the two types of device.

Let’s look at the types of networks that switches and routers

connect.

1.3 Local Area network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that connects
devices within a limited area such as a house, school, university or
office. Ethernet and wi-fi are the two most common technologies
used in LANs nowadays.

It is possible that an organisation is so big that it will have many

LANs in its buildings.

Activity 1
Why might an organisation want more than one local area
network?

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 1

Devices have a network interface card that allows them to connect

to a LAN. The term ‘devices’ can include computers as well as

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specialised input devices, such as scanners, and output devices

such as printers.

1.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Organisations of all sorts – commercial as well as academic and
governmental – have LANs on their premises, and many of them
connect their LANs together to create an organisation-wide
network referred to as a wide area network (WAN).

Connecting an organisation’s LANs across many sites will involve

leased telecommunication lines, in the same way as you lease as
a line to connect to the internet from your home hub router.

There are many related acronyms that have been devised over the
years to describe various network configurations. One such
example is Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), in which a city or
district, has a network within its boundaries to provide connectivity.
However, whatever acronym is used, they are only variations on
either a LAN or a WAN. In the example of a MAN, that is a WAN,
one usually operated by the local government of the city or district
to enhance the business opportunities in its area.

You should be aware that when we say ‘wires’ when discussing

networks, the ‘wire’ may not be wire at all! For the short distances
involved in LANS, generally copper wire is used, but for WANS to
meet the challenges of greater distance and the greater amounts

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of data they have to transmit, other technologies are used, such as

optical fibres. These technologies are hidden from the user. One
network technology, however, is not, and that’s the absence of
wires altogether.

1.5 Wireless networks

Wireless networks are increasingly taking over from wired
networks. Similar connecting devices are still needed, it is only the
data transmission that is changed.

The change to wireless communication has been driven by the

development of the technology for mobile phone networks, and the
evolution of the phone into the smartphone. A smartphone is a
very portable computer, and that is why you can check your email
or watch videos on your smartphone as easily as you can on a PC.

Sometimes wireless communication is used even where no

mobility is required, because it is generally easier and quicker to
install a wireless link than to install cables, and/or because there
are specific obstacles that make it difficult to install a cable.
Thinking back to the home hub mentioned earlier in this session,
that is a wireless transmitter, as well as a switch connecting your
devices into a home network, and it is also a router connecting
your home network and devices to the internet; all without you
have to recable your house.

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The advantages of wireless communication are not confined to the

home. In cities, for example, fixed microwave links are sometimes
used for WANs and MANs, because they can be created by
installing two antennas pointing at each other instead of having to
dig up the streets in order to lay a cable.

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2 The internet
The internet has probably had more impact on our daily lives than
any other technology emerging from the information age. Most
people, however young or old, will have heard of and used the
internet, although it may mean different things to different people.
For some, it is the means of accessing the web; for others, an
essential part of their work; for some, an important tool for keeping
in touch with friends or relatives; and for some, something not well
understood and even to be feared.

The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used
interchangeably. It is common to speak of ‘going on the Internet’
when using a web browser to view web pages. However, the World
Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet
services.

The World Wide Web is a global collection of documents, images,

multimedia, applications, and other resources, connected by
hyperlinks, and each with a unique Uniform Resource Identifier
(URI), which provide a global system of named references. URIs
identify services, databases, documents and resources.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of

the World Wide Web. Web services also use HTTP for
communication between software systems for sharing and

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exchanging data. It is one of many protocols that can be used for

communication on the Internet.

Other uses of the internet are email, data transfer and even
telephony. Each requires their own standard to operate, such as
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for data transfer.

The Internet itself is a global network that comprises many

voluntarily interconnected networks. It deliberately has no central
server. This means the internet has no single point of failure, but
will keep working should any of the connected networks or devices
fail.

The underlying technology and main protocols are governed the

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). This is an international
non-profit organization that anyone may associate with by
contributing technical expertise.

Other bodies ensure standards such as Internet Corporation for

Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) which administers the
principal name spaces of the Internet. ICANN is governed by an
international board of directors drawn from relevant technical,
business, academic, and other interested communities.

2.1 Out of this world

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The internet is a global wide area network. However, that is not the
limit of humanities ambitions.

The interplanetary internet is a network in space. It is intended to

connect devices on other planets, orbiters and landers, to each
other and back to Earth. Once on Earth, the data can be shared as
any other data over the internet.

A major problem with interplanetary communication is the delay

caused by interplanetary distances. Hence, a new set of protocols
and technology that can tolerate these delays, as well as the
increased rate of transmission errors and frequent disconnections,
are required.

The next section brings you back closer to home.

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3 The Internet of Things

Definitions of the Internet of Things (IoT) vary, but generally they
express the idea of devices exchanging information with other
devices, usually but not always over the internet. At its heart, the
Internet of Things is about machine-to-machine communication.

Figure 4 Who needs cash when you have a credit card reader and the shop
has a credit card reader that will talk to your bank and to their bank?

View description - Figure 4 Who needs cash when you have a credit card
reader and the shop has a credit ...

View description - Figure 4 Who needs cash when you have a credit card
reader and the shop has a credit ...

Some IoT applications are already well established. Credit-card

readers in shops are very familiar. A more recent example is the
so-called smart meter, such as an electricity meter that uploads its
own readings to an electricity company, removing the need for a
meter reader to call occasionally.

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IoT is expected to become really innovative only when it is

supported by automated, ‘intelligent’ processes. With the addition
of automated intelligent processes, IoT could transform
manufacturing, commerce and home life – according to some of its
more zealous proponents. In fact, the term ‘Internet of Things’ is
often shorthand for a new era of technological progress in which
familiar objects and services, such as household utensils and
appliances, cars, public transport, refuse collection, and so on,
become ‘smart’.

Whether the Internet of Things turns out to be as transformative as

is sometimes claimed remains to be seen, but the concept of IoT
has provoked a lot of interest in the worlds of research and
business.

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4 Summary of Session 7
In this session, you have explored some of the technologies that
enable computers and computer systems to connect, and at the
networks built on those technologies. This session concluded with
a glimpse at two emerging technologies, the interplanetary internet
and the Internet of Things.

The next and final session of this course, will look at some other
future developments affecting the world of computing.

You can now go to Session 8.

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Session 8: A look to the future

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Introduction
In this session, you will explore something of the future of
computer systems. The future is a very wide topic, so you will
focus on just two aspects. In the first you will look at the increasing
use of computers in all manner of ways in our daily lives. In the
second, you will look at the impact of computers on the world at
large.

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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1 Pervasive computing
You’ll begin by thinking about to what extent computers impact on
your day-to-day life.

Activity 1
Before you go any further, think back to what you did yesterday
and spend a few minutes making a brief list of any computers you
interacted with.

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 1

Next you’ll look some more at these pervasive computers.

1.1 Ubiquitous computing

The term ubiquitous computing describes the idea that computers
are becoming pervasive – that is, they are integrated into the world
around us. The term was coined by Mark Weiser at the Xerox Palo
Alto Research Center (better known as Xerox PARC).

Ubiquitous computing names the third wave in computing, just now

beginning. First were mainframes, each shared by lots of people.
Now we are in the personal computing era, person and machine
staring uneasily at each other across the desktop. Next comes

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ubiquitous computing, or the age of calm technology, when

technology recedes into the background of our lives.

(Weiser, 1996)

In other words, we each find ourselves interacting with a number of

computers, each of which may itself interact with other people and
other computers. Often we are not even aware of where data is
coming from or where it is stored – and more than this, we’re often
unaware that we are interacting with computers at all. Ubiquitous
computing is clearly already with us. It is in the background of our
lives, or as Weiser says, it’s calm technology.

1.2 Calm technology

Calm technology is really about technology not being intrusive,
thus allowing us to relax (feel calm) in its presence. This doesn’t
mean the technology has to be invisible, but it shouldn’t give (or
ask for) more information than is necessary. However, if we don’t
want our daily lives to be constantly interrupted, then we have to
be prepared to allow data exchange to take place – and this may
have consequences, not least for data security. Some people
would be very happy for technology to be almost invisible, but this
does imply a certain loss of control; the technology has to make
decisions that would otherwise have been yours.

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1.3 Ethical implications

As computers recede into the background of our lives, it is possible
to forget about their existence. But think back to the opening
activity in this session. Perhaps you left a digital trail of your
movements and actions as you interacted with those computers.
Where did you shop? Where did you go? How did you travel?
Companies want to harvest that data to target their sales to you.
Perhaps you give them explicit permission to do that, sometimes
that permission is implicit just by choosing to use their service.
Who else might access that data? And to what purpose?

The ethical aspects of computing and computing systems are far

beyond this introductory course, but increasingly the question of
how we use computer systems is becoming the focus of ‘computer’
research in place of examining computer technology itself.

The social consequences of computing technology on us is not the

only concern about the increasing use of computer systems. In the
next section, you’ll look at another consequence, that on our world
at large.

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2 Green computing

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

Green computing is the environmentally responsible and eco-

friendly use of computers and their resources. It is concerned with
all aspects of computing: the design, manufacturing and disposing
of hardware; software and hardware that is designed to be run
efficiently to cut down on processing power; and working practices.
Though there is a growing focus on the energy needed to power
the ever-increasing number of computers.

Some understanding of computing’s energy consumption can be

found in the 2017 report ‘Clicking Clean: Who is Winning the Race to
Build a Green Internet’ which was produced by Greenpeace. Here is
their take on the comparative demands of different areas of the IT
sector in 2012 and in 2017.

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Figure 1 Main components of electricity consumption for the IT sector.

View description - Figure 1 Main components of electricity consumption

for the IT sector.

View description - Figure 1 Main components of electricity consumption

for the IT sector.

Figure 1 shows that within the IT sector, the fraction of energy

consumed by individual devices is less in 2017 than 2012, as is the
fraction of energy used to manufacture IT hardware. However, the
percentage of energy consumed by data centres and networks is
greater in 2017 than 2012. We can’t be sure that this is as a result
of the move to making more us of online services hosted in data
centres, but it seems reasonable to assume that this is an
important factor. The report also points out that the IT sector
accounted for 7% of global electricity demand in 2012, but could
be as high as 12% in 2017.

Activity 2

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Find the current figures for the power consumption of computers

and computer systems. Compare them with these historic figures.

Have the trends between 2012 and 2017 continued? Has the
proportion of energy spent on manufacture continued to decline,
while the proportion of energy consume by data centres continued
to increase?

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 2

In the following section, you will look more closely at one aspect of
green computing.

2.1 Carbon emissions

A particular concern of green computing is the carbon footprint
arising from the energy demands of computing. As you saw earlier,
one of the claimed environmentally friendly benefits for cloud
computing is that it reduces your carbon footprint because you only
use the services when you need them. You can share the
computing resources as you don’t need them all of the time. While
that may be true, it is also important to know what powers cloud
computing’s data centres.

Greenpeace produce a regular report that gives IT companies a

mark for their commitment to green energy. Figure 2 shows the

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entry for Amazon in 2017, which records that they received a

‘could do better’ grade of C. This is not only based on the mix of
energy sources they are using (17% renewable, 30% coal, 24%
natural gas and 26% nuclear energy), but also on factors such as
how transparent they are about their energy use, their commitment
to renewable energy sources and their overall efficiency in terms of
total energy consumption and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Figure 2 The proportion of different energy sources used by Amazon Web

Services.

View description - Figure 2 The proportion of different energy sources

used by Amazon Web Services.

View description - Figure 2 The proportion of different energy sources

used by Amazon Web Services.

There are many other factors to take into account with data centres
energy efficiency beyond how much energy they consume and
where the energy comes from. You can read find out more for
yourself about this topic, such as the importance of keeping the
large number of servers and telecoms equipment cool. Here are
two useful search terms that you may not think of: ‘power usage
effectiveness’ and ‘water usage effectiveness’.

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Box 1
Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) is the ratio of the total amount
of energy used by a computer data centre facility to the energy
delivered to computing equipment. A high PUE indicates that a
large proportion of the power supplied to the data centre is being
used for non-computational purposes, such as cooling and lighting,
rather than being used directly to power the IT equipment.

Water Usage Effectiveness (WUE) is the ratio of the annual water

consumption (in litres) to the energy delivered to computing
equipment (in kWh). The higher the WUE value, the more water is
needed in order to cool the IT equipment, and the less efficient the
data centre is in terms of water usage.

Finally in this section, the discussion will be brought closer to

home.

2.2 Home working

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

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Please note that this course was written before sufficient research
was published on the effects of homeworking due to the COVID-19
pandemic and enforced lockdowns.

An argument can be made that if your businesses’ computer

systems have been moved to the cloud then the individual workers
can access those computer systems as easily from home as they
can from the office, and that will reduce the businesses’ carbon
footprint.

Activity 3
While working from home can reduce a business’ carbon footprint,
does it really reduce the overall amount of carbon emissions?
What do you think? What are the effects of working from home on
carbon emissions?

Provide your answer...

View discussion - Activity 3

Box 2
There is more to say on green computing and the changing nature
of the services delivered by data centres in which more of their
work is directed at storage and internet traffic than in computing
power, and on the improving efficiency of all technology in data
centres and its effects on power usage in the future. However, the

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latter paper was published in February 2020, just as COVID-19

spread around the world. With the dramatic changes in working
practices and demands on data centres, previous assumptions
about future trends are no longer valid. We await with interest
future research that will follow up articles such as ‘Microsoft,
Google, Slack, Zoom et al struggling to deal with a spike in remote
tools thanks to coronavirus’ and ‘We analysed electricity demand
and found coronavirus has turned weekdays into weekends’. Until
we are able to revise the course to include this future research,
you may want to search for more articles on ‘green computing’ to
bring yourself up to date with this important topic.

Resources

1. Cisco, ‘Cisco Global Cloud Index: Forecast and

methodology, 2016–2021 white paper’ (Cisco,
document 1513879861264127, 2018).
2. Masanet, E., Shehabi, A., Lei, N., Smith, S. and
Koomey, J. ‘Recalibrating global data center energy-
use estimates’, Science, 367 (6481), pp. 984–6.
3. Microsoft, Google, Slack, Zoom et al struggling to deal with
a spike in remote tools thanks to coronavirus
4. We analysed electricity demand and found coronavirus has
turned weekdays into weekends

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3 This session’s quiz

You now have the opportunity to try another quiz in which you can
test your learning.

Session 8 quiz

Open the quiz in a new tab or window and come back here when
you’ve finished.

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4 Summary of Session 8
In this session, you have looked at two of the issues confronting
our use of computers into the future. In the first you looked at
pervasive computing and the increasing use of computers in our
daily lives. In the second, you looked at green computing, and the
demands that our use of computers make on resources.

You’ve now come to the end of this course. Thank you for coming
this far. The next section is a short wrap up of the material you
have covered

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5 Course summary
Congratulations on completing the course. You should now be able
to:

 visualise the room-filling early computers and

appreciate how the technology has changed to
achieve the computers of today
 consider how many computers there are in the world
today, how they pervade our lives, and how computer
systems come in many different forms
 understand how computers can be networked together
to provide additional functionality
 identify the components of a computer, from its
processor to its input and output devices
 understand how the world we live in with text,
numbers, images and sound can be represented as
data for a computer to process
 begin to see how instructions can be written for a
computer to process data
 consider the energy implications of the increasing use
of computers.

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Next steps
If you have enjoyed this course you can find more free resources
and courses on OpenLearn.

Why not find out more about studying and gaining qualifications at
The Open University? Visit the OU prospectus for more information.

At the OU, you can study for a qualification on the BSc (Honours)
Computing and IT, which includes the following introductory
courses:

 Introduction to computing and information technology 1

(TM111)
 Introduction to computing and information technology 2
(TM112)
 Technologies in practice (TM129)

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Glossary
Computer
A machine that manipulates data following a list of instructions that have been
programmed into it.
Computer program
The list of instructions the computer follows to process input and produce
output.
Input device
A component that can function both as an input and as an output device.
Internet
A global network of connected networks.
Output device
Components that present data from a processor.
Smart devices
Devices that can communicate directly with other devices.
World Wide Web
A global collection of resources accessible over the internet.
Binary
A system limited to having just two values.
Computer bus
The internal data connections across the input and output subsystems and the
secondary memory subsystem to the computer’s processor and main memory.
Computer system
Formally a processor and its associated devices to make a usable ‘system’, but
often the complete system, is referred to as a ‘computer’.
Digital
In our context, it means systems using discrete rather than continuous values.
In the larger contest of computers in society, there is also the social and
marketing use of ‘digital’, where it represents a way of engaging with people.
Embedded computer system
Specialised processors acting as controllers for devices such as washing
machines and microwave ovens.
Hard disk
A form of secondary memory consisting of one or more rigid magnetic disks
rotating about a central axle. Also known as a hard drive.
Hardware
The physical components of a computer or computer system.
Input-output device
A component that can function both as an input and as an output device.
Input-output subsystem

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The components of a computer system responsible for the retrieving,

transforming and presenting the data used by a processor, functioning as both
an input subsystem and an output subsystem.
Input subsystem
The components of a computer system responsible for the entry of external
data and its transformation into a form the processor can use.
Main memory
Where a processor stores instructions and associated data for execution.
Microprocessor
Was introduced when processors were first made on a single silicon chip, with
the prefix ‘micro’ emphasising their small size
Output subsystem
The components of a computer system responsible for the transforming and
presenting the data used by a processor into a form for use outside the
computer system.
Secondary memory
Holds programs and data that will persist after the computer is switched off.
Secondary memory subsystem
The components of a computer system that prepare data for and retrieve data
from secondary storage.
Software
The program, or collection of programs, that enable a computer to carry out its
tasks.
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange, pronounced ‘askee’, a
method of encoding text in binary digits.
binary code
The representation of an item of data using only two values
bit
A binary digit, which can be either one or zero.
byte
A group of eight bits.
Embedded computer
Computers that are part of another device dedicated to delivering one task.
Application software
The program that enables a computer to perform certain tasks.
Embedded computer
Computers that are part of another device dedicated to delivering one task.
Flowchart
A diagram showing a sequence of actions using specifically shaped symbols.
Operating system
Software that controls the resources and software using a computer.
Internet

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A global network of connected networks.

Internet of things
Devices exchanging data directly with each other over the internet.
Local Area Network (LAN)
Connects devices within a limited in one network.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Connects LANs into a larger network.
World Wide Web
A global collection of resources accessible over the internet.
Calm technology
When technology recedes into the background of our lives so that it does not
impinge on us when we interact with it.
Green computing
Is the environmentally responsible and eco-friendly use of computers and their
resources.
Pervasive computers
Embedded microprocessors in day-to-day objects, allowing them to
communicate data, often used interchangeably with ubiquitous computing.
Ubiquitous computing
Or ‘ubicomp’ describes when computing is anytime and everywhere, in
contrast to desktop computing.

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References
Johnson, G. (2004) A Shortcut through Time, The Path to Quantum
Computing, London, Vintage Publishing.

Carbon Trust (2014) ‘Homeworking: helping businesses cut costs

and reduce their carbon footprint’. Available at:
https://www.carbontrust.com/news-and-events/insights/could-
homeworking-save-money-and-cut-carbon-emissions-for-your-business
(Accessed: 12 June 2021).

Weiser, M. (1996) ‘Ubiquitous Computing’. Formerly available at:

www.ubiq.com/hypertext/weiser/UbiHome.html (no longer
available).

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Acknowledgements
This free course was written by David King.

Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and
conditions), this content is made available under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Licence.

The material acknowledged below is Proprietary and used under

licence (not subject to Creative Commons Licence). Grateful
acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission
to reproduce material in this free course:

Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any

have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased
to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

Introduction
Images
Course image: © New Africa; Shutterstock.com

Week 1
Images
Figure 1: © US Federal Government

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Figure 2: © Good, Jack; Michie, Donald; Timms, Geoffrey (1945)

General Report on Tunny: With Emphasis on Statistical Methods, UK
Public Record Office HW 25/4 and HW 25/5

Section 3 figure: © geralt; Pixabay

Section 5 figure: © Oscar Wong; Getty Images

Week 2
Images
Introduction figure: © CreativeCore; Shutterstock.com

Section 2 figure: © MirageC; GettyImages

Section 3 figure: © carlos castilla; Shutterstock.com

Figure 2: © AddyTsl; Shutterstock.com

Figure 3: © patruflo; Shutterstock.com

Figure 4: © MartinPrescott; GettyImages

Section 3.2 figure: © ESB Professional; Shutterstock.com

Section 4 figure: © Daniel Krason; Shutterstock.com

Week 3

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Images
Introduction figure: © Sashkin; Shutterstock.com

Figure 1: © ka_ru; GettyImages

Figure 2: © Anzay; Shutterstock.com

Section 3 figure: © photoinnovation; Shutterstock.com

Week 4
Images
Introduction figure: © Sashkin; Shutterstock.com

Section 2 figure: © extradeda; Shutterstock.com

Section 7 figure: © JAKKRIT SAELAO; Shutterstock.com

Week 5
Images
Introduction figure: © Den Rozhnovsky; Shutterstock.com

Figure 2: © Anton Belo; Shutterstock.com

Figure 5: © jeafish Ping; Shutterstock.com

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Week 6
Images
Section 3 figure: © goffkein.pro; Shutterstock.com

Section 6 figure: © WOCinTech Chat;

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Section 7 figure: © atm2003; Shutterstock.com

Week 7
Images
Introduction figure: © Jackal Pan; GettyImages

Figure 2: © Keith Ryall; Shutterstock.com

Figure 3: courtesy of Nicky Moss

Figure 4: © Javier Zayas Photography; GettyImages

Week 8
Images
Introduction figure: krisanapong detraphiphat; GettyImages

Section 2 figure: MirageC; GettyImages

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Figure 1: Taken from: https://green.googleblog.com/2013/08/the-

latest-on-our-carbon-footprint.html

Figure 2: ‘Clicking Clean: A Guide to Building the Green Internet’

(May 2015) Greenpeace Inc.

Section 2.2 figure: fizkes; Shutterstock.com

Don't miss out

If reading this text has inspired you to learn more, you may be
interested in joining the millions of people who discover our free
learning resources and qualifications by visiting The Open
University – www.open.edu/openlearn/free-courses.

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Solutions
Activity 1
Discussion
The list of ‘extras’ shows that the laptop also uses SD cards as
removable secondary memory.

Back to - Activity 1

Activity 2
Discussion
Here are some common input/output devices:

Device Input Output

screen X
speakers X
printers X
touchscreen X X
interactive whiteboard X X
CD/DVD drive X X
external hard drive X X
virtual reality glasses X X
digital camera X
webcam X
scanner X
keyboard X

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mouse X
barcode reader X
joystick X
microphone X
electronic stylus X

Back to - Activity 2

Activity 3
Discussion
The keyboard and mouse relate to input devices. The display and
speakers relate to output devices.

To decide whether the 500 GB hard drive relates to the secondary

memory, to the secondary memory subsystem or to the
combination of both you need to make an intelligent guess about
what those who wrote the advert meant. In this case they probably
meant the combination of the two.

The 6 GB DDR3 RAM relates to main memory.

The SD reader relates to secondary memory.

Back to - Activity 3

Activity 4
Discussion
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The two items can function both as input and as output devices.

Back to - Activity 4

Activity 1
Question 1
Answer
Right:

1 billion

Wrong:

20 million

40 million

125 million

Back to - Question 1

Discussion
The processor market is vast; it is estimated that around 1 billion
processors were sold in 2000.

Back to - Question 1

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Question 2
Answer
Right:

25 billion

Wrong:

12 billion

123 million

1 billion

Back to - Question 2

Discussion
If the processor market was vast in 2000, consider how it has
grown in the twenty years since then.

Back to - Question 2

Question 3
Answer
Right:

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250 million

Wrong:

25 million

1 million

1 billion

Back to - Question 3

Discussion
In 2020, the same year that about 25 billion processors were sold,
about 250 million Personal Computers were sold.

In other words, only one in a hundred processors were used in a

Personal Computer. The other processors found their way in other
devices.

Back to - Question 3

Activity 1
Discussion
There are four possible 2-bit binary codes: 00, 01, 10 and 11.

Back to - Activity 1

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Activity 2
Discussion
The possible combinations of a 3-bit binary code are 000, 001,
010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111. Hence the three bits can represent 8
items of data.

Back to - Activity 2

Activity 3
Discussion
1. Four bytes contain 4 × 8 = 32 bits.
2. Since one byte contains 8 bits, the number of items
that can be represented by one byte is 28 = 256.
(Note that if you had to work out the number of items
that eight bits could represent by writing down all
possible combinations of 8 bits it would be very
tedious and there would be a strong possibility of
making an error. Using the calculation 28 = 256 is
much easier way of finding the answer, as would be
216 = 65 536 for the number of combinations of a 16-
bit binary code.)

Back to - Activity 3

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Activity 4
Discussion
Perhaps you are a ‘consumer’ of media, and you like to watch
television, listen to the radio, listen to music and look at pictures
online. Do you also look at photographs and videos shared by my
friends and colleagues on social networking sites?

Possibly you are also a media ‘creator’, and take photographs on

your camera and share them electronically later. On short visits to
places and events, many people use their smartphone to record
some of the things they see and hear and post directly to social
networking sites.

Back to - Activity 4

Activity 5
Discussion
The horizontal side is a perfect straight line, since all the pixels are
lined up along the row. The other sides have a stepped
appearance, and only approximate a straight line. You may have
noticed this effect on old mobile phone displays, which often used
only a small number of pixels compared with, say, a computer
display or the screen on a contemporary smartphone.

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Back to - Activity 5

Activity 6
Discussion
We need to represent the instructions that a processor applies to
data.

You will learn more about this in Session 6.

Back to - Activity 6

Activity 1
Discussion
Here is an example answer:

Figure 3 Functional block diagram for the kitchen scales.

View description - Figure 3 Functional block diagram for the kitchen

scales.

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View description - Figure 3 Functional block diagram for the kitchen

scales.

Back to - Activity 1

Activity 2
Discussion
The user would need some way of setting the timer, of telling the
system whether measurements have to be displayed in metric or
imperial, and of switching on and off the add-and-weigh feature.
Input buttons would be needed for each of these tasks: to set the
timer, change the system between metric and imperial and operate
the add-and-weigh function.

A beeper would be needed, to sound when the timer has counted

down to zero. The output display would have to have additional
functionality; for instance, it would have to show ‘oz’ and ‘lb’ for
ounces and pounds when operating in imperial mode as well as ‘g’
for grams when operating in metric mode metric.

Additional input and output devices and their subsystems would

have to be added to the diagram to represent the buttons used to
set up the new features (inputs) and the beeper (output).

Back to - Activity 2

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Activity 3
Discussion
This computer has main memory and also two items of secondary
memory: the removable memory card and the internal secondary
memory. The input devices are the light sensor plus the buttons to
take a picture, preview the stored images, set the flash and so on.
The light meter is also an input device. The output devices are the
camera’s screen, the flash mechanism, the zoom and the control
to open and shut the shutter. (If you are a camera enthusiast you
may also have thought of the various controls for the shutter
aperture, the focus etc., but as these are not explicitly mentioned
them in the text they are not included in the answer.)

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

View description - Uncaptioned Figure

Back to - Activity 3

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Activity 1
Discussion
You may have come up with the following list of actions:

 take lid off kettle

 turn on tap
 fill kettle with water
 monitor water level and turn off tap when correct
 put lid on kettle
 plug kettle in
 switch on kettle.

Your list may be different from this one. For example, you may
pour the water into the spout without taking the lid off, or the
method of supplying power to the kettle might not use a switch.
This doesn’t matter. What is important is that you can see how
even a very simple task can be described as a series of actions,
and that these actions must be given in a particular order for the
task to be carried out successfully. In my answer, for example, it
would be impossible to carry out the action to put the lid on the
kettle if it hadn’t been taken off earlier in the sequence of actions.

Back to - Activity 1

Activity 2
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Discussion
The computer has to:

 accept data from the sensor that measures the

displacement of the scalepan
 transform the data from the sensor into data for the
display
 send the display-formatted data to the display.

Back to - Activity 2

Activity 3
Discussion
A suitable list of actions would be:

 Read in a group of letters from the keyboard

 If the letters are asdf then count this as a good entry
and add 1 to the total of good entries
 If the letters are not asdf then count this as a bad entry
and add 1 to the total of bad entries
 Add 1 to the number of groups received
 If 10 groups have been received then send the data
about performance to the display
 If 10 groups have not been received then get another
group of letters

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Back to - Activity 3

Activity 1
Discussion
There are several possible answers. One very large network might
not even be possible, because there are simply too many devices
to connect. However, even if it is possible to connect many
devices, large networks can be hard to manage. Typically
networks will either match an organisation’s structure with one LAN
per department, or match the buildings physical structure with one
LAN per floor. There may be particular requirements too so that
the additional security for departments handling sensitive
information is easier to apply or laboratories generating large
amounts of test data do not overload the normal business network.

Back to - Activity 1

Activity 1
Discussion
By now, you should be thinking of computers as more than the
typical machine equipped with a monitor, keyboard, and so on.
Your mobile phone is a computer that supports making phone
calls, as well as many other functions. Your TV is a computer
specialised for the display of audio and video programmes. Usually

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these programmes are broadcast, but perhaps your TV is a Smart

TV and connected directly to the internet to stream programmes.
You might think that not so different from the idea of a ‘typical
computer’.

If you went out, did you pay for any purchases with a cashless
card? Or use a swipe card to enter a building or access a service.

If you stayed in, did you cook something in your microwave oven?
Or wash clothes in your washing machine?

All the machines listed above are controlled by computers. There

are computers all around us as we saw earlier in this course, they
are embedded computers, and integrated into this world around
us. In that sense, they are pervasive computers. They pervade
everything we do.

Back to - Activity 1

Activity 2
Discussion
It is assumed that even if individual computers are more efficient,
because there are more computers, the overall demand for energy
has increased. Is this right?

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Have the trends in changing energy consumption between sectors

continued? Would you say that they are changing at the same rate,
or faster, or slower?

Back to - Activity 2

Activity 3
Discussion
The Carbon Trust (2014) points out that it is not always true that
working on the cloud from home reduces overall carbon emissions.
Although the carbon footprint of the business may decrease,
overall carbon emissions might increase because individuals
working at home use more total energy in lighting and heating than
the same number of people working in an office. This increase in
emissions may be compensated for by the fact that these
individuals are not travelling to the office, but as the graph in
Figure 3 shows, the ‘tipping point’ depends on how a person
commutes to the office, and how far.

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Figure 3 Home working does not always reduce carbon emissions according
to the Carbon Trust.

View description - Figure 3 Home working does not always reduce

carbon emissions according to the Carbon ...

Back to - Activity 3

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Figure 1 The ENIAC computer.

Description
This is a black-and-white photograph of the ENIAC computer with two people
standing next to it.

Back to - Figure 1 The ENIAC computer.

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Figure 2 Colossus 10 in Block H of

Bletchley Park, now part of The
National Museum of Computing.
Description
This is a black-and-white photograph of the Colossus 10.

Back to - Figure 2 Colossus 10 in Block H of Bletchley Park, now part of

The National Museum of Computing.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a mobile phone displaying a QR code.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A screenshot of data on a computer screen.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a person taking a photo using their phone.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A diagram showing the components of a personal computer.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 An old advertisement for a

personal computer.
Description
This is an advert for a laptop. It contains an image of an open laptop and the following
text: The new K53u-Sx297v laptop. Ideal for work or play, the perfect back to school
essential. The top specs: long batter life, a massive 500gb of storage, 6gb of memory,
Windows 7 HP. The tech spec: Display - 15.6 inch LED HD 1080p. OS - Windows 7
Home Premium. Processor - AMD E450 1.65hz. Number of cores - 2. Hard drive -
500gb 540 Rpm. Ram - 6gb DDR3 (max 8gb). Extras - built in webcam, SD card
reader, Office 2010. 1 year warranty including 5 years free support. Our price £317.

Back to - Figure 1 An old advertisement for a personal computer.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A computer chip on the tip of a finger.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A pile of CD/DVDs.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 2 Computer main memory

modules.
Description
This is a photograph of computer memory modules on a white background.

Back to - Figure 2 Computer main memory modules.

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Figure 3 A hard disk.

Description
This is a photograph of a hard disk on a white background.

Back to - Figure 3 A hard disk.

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Figure 4 A central heating

controller.
Description
This is a photograph of a person using a smart central heating controller.

Back to - Figure 4 A central heating controller.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An illustration of data servers resting on clouds.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A laptop with accessories including as headphones, a mouse and a USB stick.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 5 A functional block diagram

of a computer which also shows the
flow of data within the computer.
Description
This is a functional block diagram with the following connected icons: Processor;
Main memory; Secondary memory subsystem; Secondary memory; Input
subsystem(s); Input device(s); Output subsystem(s); Output device(s).

Back to - Figure 5 A functional block diagram of a computer which also

shows the flow of data within the computer.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a computer processor.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 A processor surrounded by

gold connection pins.
Description
This is a photograph of a processor surrounded by gold connection pins.

Back to - Figure 1 A processor surrounded by gold connection pins.

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Figure 2 A processor assembled on

a motherboard along with other
circuit components.
Description
A processor assembled on a motherboard along with other circuit components.

Back to - Figure 2 A processor assembled on a motherboard along with

other circuit components.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An artistic concept of a processor.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a computer processor.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An illustration of binary code.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Representing 0s and 1s

using high and low voltages.
Description
This is a graph showing 0s and 1s using high and low voltages. The top square wave
rises to a height of 1 for one unit of time, from a base of 0. It then drops to 0 for one
unit of time, rises to 1 for one unit of time, drops to 0 for two units of time, rises to 1
for one unit of time, finally dropping to 0. Two dotted horizontal lines run at 1/3 and
2/3 of the height of the wave. The distance between the top line and the maximum
height of the square waves is labelled “high voltages, 1”. The distance between the
bottom line and the base line is labelled “low voltages, 0”. The distance between the
two lines is labelled “gap”.

Back to - Figure 1 Representing 0s and 1s using high and low voltages.

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Table 1
Description
The headings of the columns are “Binary”, Character”, “Binary”, “Character”. The
first column contains the binary numbers 0100 0001 to 0100 1010 (inclusive). In each
case the third binary digit (which is always a 0) is in blue. The second column
contains the upper case characters A to J (inclusive). The third column contains the
binary numbers 0110 0001 to 0110 1010 (inclusive). In each case the third binary
digit (which is always a 1) is in blue. The sixth column contains the lower case
characters a to j (inclusive).

Back to - Table 1

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A graphic representation of an equaliser.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 2 Black-on-white ‘triangle’ on

a 16 x 8 pixel display.
Description
This shows a black-on-white ‘triangle’ on a 16 x 8 pixel display.

Back to - Figure 2 Black-on-white ‘triangle’ on a 16 x 8 pixel display.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a personal computer.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Functional block diagram

for a laptop.
Description
This is a functional block diagram with the following labels: Processor; Main
memory; Hard disk; Secondary memory subsystem (hard drive); SD card reader;
Secondary memory subsystem; Keyboard; Keyboard input subsystem; Mouse; Mouse
input subsystem; Monitor; Monitor output subsystem; Speakers; Speakers output
subsystem (sound card).

Back to - Figure 1 Functional block diagram for a laptop.

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Figure 2 Set of scales showing a

reading of 313 g.
Description
This is a photograph of a set of scales with a bowl of food, showing 313g.

Back to - Figure 2 Set of scales showing a reading of 313 g.

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Figure 3 Functional block diagram

for the kitchen scales.
Description
This is a functional block diagram with the following labels: Processor; Main
memory; Sensor; Sensor input subsystem; Seven segment display; Output
subsystem(s).

Back to - Figure 3 Functional block diagram for the kitchen scales.

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Figure 4 Three photos of the kitchen

scales’ display: (top) with the scales
weighing in imperial units; (middle)
with the timer function in operation;
(bottom) negative values can be
displayed for weights if the add-
and-weigh facility is being used.
Description
There are three photos of kitchen scales showing different weights.

Back to - Figure 4 Three photos of the kitchen scales’ display: (top) with
the scales weighing in imperial units; (middle) with the timer function in
operation; (bottom) negative values can be displayed for weights if the
add-and-weigh facility is being used.

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Figure 5 A digital camera.

Description
This is a photograph of a digital camera.

Back to - Figure 5 A digital camera.

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Figure 6 A representation of a light

sensor array in a camera.
Description
This is an illustration of a digital camera.

Back to - Figure 6 A representation of a light sensor array in a camera.

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Figure 7 Diagram showing, in order,

the processes that occur when
taking a picture with a digital
camera.
Description
This is a diagram with the following labels: Capture image with CMOS light sensors;
Convert image to digital form; Manipulate image data to enhance image; Compress
image data; Store image data as compressed file.

Back to - Figure 7 Diagram showing, in order, the processes that occur

when taking a picture with a digital camera.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
This is a diagram with the following labels: Processor; Main memory; Internal
secondary memory; Secondary memory subsystem; Removable memory subsystem;
CMOS; CMOS input subsystem; Shutter button; Shutter input subsystem; Preview
input button; Preview input subsystem; Flash input button; Flash input subsystem;
Light meter; Light meter input subsystem; Screen; Screen output subsystem; Flash
input button; Flash input subsystem; Zoom controller; Zoom output subsystem;
Shutter controller; output subsystem.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
This shows a screenshot of code on a computer screen.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A photograph of a kettle on a worktop.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Flowchart of the tasks

performed by simple electronic
scales.
Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start - Accept data from sensor - Transform
sensor data to display data format - Send display data to display - End.

Back to - Figure 1 Flowchart of the tasks performed by simple electronic

scales.

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Figure 2 Flowchart symbols

Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start/End - The start or end of the sequence;
Input/Output - Data input or output; Process - General description of what happens at
this point in the task; Decision - Describes a test to perform and shows the alternative
routes; Connector - Used to link sequences together; matching symbols are placed in
the circles to indicate matching connectors.

Back to - Figure 2 Flowchart symbols

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Figure 3 Flowchart for electronic

scales with metric/imperial selector
button
Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start; Accept data from sensor; Examine
metric/imperial button; Is weight to be shown in grams? For yes: ‘Transform sensor
data to display gram format and for no: Transform sensor data to display in pounds
and ounces format; Send data to display; End.

Back to - Figure 3 Flowchart for electronic scales with metric/imperial

selector button

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Figure 4 Flowchart for electronic

scales incorporating a loop
Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start; Accept data from sensor; Examine
metric/imperial button; Is weight to be shown in grams? For yes: ‘Transform sensor
data to display gram format and for no: Transform sensor data to display in pounds
and ounces format; Send data to display; Examine on/off button; Should scales be
switched off? For yes: End and for no: Back to the start.

Back to - Figure 4 Flowchart for electronic scales incorporating a loop

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Figure 5 Flowchart for Typing Tutor

Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start; Read in group of letters from
keyboards; Is group ‘asdf’? If yes: Add 1 to tally of good entries and if no: Add 1 to
tally of bad entries; Add 1 to tally of groups received; If yes: Have 10 groups been
received? Send data about performance to display; End and if no: back to the start.

Back to - Figure 5 Flowchart for Typing Tutor

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A person using a laptop and a second screen.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A screenshot of a web browser showing the text ‘http:..www.’.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a number of cables coming from a computer.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Home-to-office network.

Description
This is a diagram showing a home-to-office network: Home - Internet - University
LAN - Branch office LAN.

Back to - Figure 1 Home-to-office network.

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Figure 2 A local cabinet.

Description
This is a photograph of a local cabinet on a residential street.

Back to - Figure 2 A local cabinet.

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Figure 3 Plugged-in cables.

Description
This is a photograph of plugged-in cables.

Back to - Figure 3 Plugged-in cables.

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Figure 4 Who needs cash when you

have a credit card reader and the
shop has a credit card reader that
will talk to your bank and to their
bank?
Description
This is a photograph of a contactless debit card being used for payment.

Back to - Figure 4 Who needs cash when you have a credit card reader
and the shop has a credit card reader that will talk to your bank and to
their bank?

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of someone using a chip and pin machine to pay.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a green circuit board.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Main components of

electricity consumption for the IT
sector.
Description
Two pie charts, one labelled 2012 and the other labelled 2017. The first pie chart
indicates that in 2012, the percentages of electricity consumption for the IT sector
were as follows: Devices 47%, Networks 20%, Data centres 15%, Manufacturing
18%. The second pie chart indicates that in 2017, the percentages of electricity
consumption for the IT sector were as follows: Devices 34%, Networks 29%, Data
centres 21%, Manufacturing 16%.

Back to - Figure 1 Main components of electricity consumption for the IT

sector.

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Figure 2 The proportion of different

energy sources used by Amazon
Web Services.
Description
A line from a table, where “Amazon.com web services” is shown to have a rating of
C, followed by icons representing the source of its energy as follows green energy
(17%), coal energy (30%), natural gas energy (24%) and nuclear energy (26%).

Back to - Figure 2 The proportion of different energy sources used by

Amazon Web Services.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A photograph of a person working from home using a laptop.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 The ENIAC computer.

Description
This is a black-and-white photograph of the ENIAC computer with two people
standing next to it.

Back to - Figure 1 The ENIAC computer.

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Figure 2 Colossus 10 in Block H of

Bletchley Park, now part of The
National Museum of Computing.
Description
This is a black-and-white photograph of the Colossus 10.

Back to - Figure 2 Colossus 10 in Block H of Bletchley Park, now part of

The National Museum of Computing.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a mobile phone displaying a QR code.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A screenshot of data on a computer screen.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a person taking a photo using their phone.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A diagram showing the components of a personal computer.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 An old advertisement for a

personal computer.
Description
This is an advert for a laptop. It contains an image of an open laptop and the following
text: The new K53u-Sx297v laptop. Ideal for work or play, the perfect back to school
essential. The top specs: long batter life, a massive 500gb of storage, 6gb of memory,
Windows 7 HP. The tech spec: Display - 15.6 inch LED HD 1080p. OS - Windows 7
Home Premium. Processor - AMD E450 1.65hz. Number of cores - 2. Hard drive -
500gb 540 Rpm. Ram - 6gb DDR3 (max 8gb). Extras - built in webcam, SD card
reader, Office 2010. 1 year warranty including 5 years free support. Our price £317.

Back to - Figure 1 An old advertisement for a personal computer.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A computer chip on the tip of a finger.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A pile of CD/DVDs.

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Figure 2 Computer main memory

modules.
Description
This is a photograph of computer memory modules on a white background.

Back to - Figure 2 Computer main memory modules.

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Figure 3 A hard disk.

Description
This is a photograph of a hard disk on a white background.

Back to - Figure 3 A hard disk.

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Figure 4 A central heating

controller.
Description
This is a photograph of a person using a smart central heating controller.

Back to - Figure 4 A central heating controller.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An illustration of data servers resting on clouds.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A laptop with accessories including as headphones, a mouse and a USB stick.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 5 A functional block diagram

of a computer which also shows the
flow of data within the computer.
Description
This is a functional block diagram with the following connected icons: Processor;
Main memory; Secondary memory subsystem; Secondary memory; Input
subsystem(s); Input device(s); Output subsystem(s); Output device(s).

Back to - Figure 5 A functional block diagram of a computer which also

shows the flow of data within the computer.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a computer processor.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 A processor surrounded by

gold connection pins.
Description
This is a photograph of a processor surrounded by gold connection pins.

Back to - Figure 1 A processor surrounded by gold connection pins.

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Figure 2 A processor assembled on

a motherboard along with other
circuit components.
Description
A processor assembled on a motherboard along with other circuit components.

Back to - Figure 2 A processor assembled on a motherboard along with

other circuit components.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An artistic concept of a processor.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a computer processor.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An illustration of binary code.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Representing 0s and 1s

using high and low voltages.
Description
This is a graph showing 0s and 1s using high and low voltages. The top square wave
rises to a height of 1 for one unit of time, from a base of 0. It then drops to 0 for one
unit of time, rises to 1 for one unit of time, drops to 0 for two units of time, rises to 1
for one unit of time, finally dropping to 0. Two dotted horizontal lines run at 1/3 and
2/3 of the height of the wave. The distance between the top line and the maximum
height of the square waves is labelled “high voltages, 1”. The distance between the
bottom line and the base line is labelled “low voltages, 0”. The distance between the
two lines is labelled “gap”.

Back to - Figure 1 Representing 0s and 1s using high and low voltages.

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Table 1
Description
The headings of the columns are “Binary”, Character”, “Binary”, “Character”. The
first column contains the binary numbers 0100 0001 to 0100 1010 (inclusive). In each
case the third binary digit (which is always a 0) is in blue. The second column
contains the upper case characters A to J (inclusive). The third column contains the
binary numbers 0110 0001 to 0110 1010 (inclusive). In each case the third binary
digit (which is always a 1) is in blue. The sixth column contains the lower case
characters a to j (inclusive).

Back to - Table 1

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A graphic representation of an equaliser.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 2 Black-on-white ‘triangle’ on

a 16 x 8 pixel display.
Description
This shows a black-on-white ‘triangle’ on a 16 x 8 pixel display.

Back to - Figure 2 Black-on-white ‘triangle’ on a 16 x 8 pixel display.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a personal computer.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Functional block diagram

for a laptop.
Description
This is a functional block diagram with the following labels: Processor; Main
memory; Hard disk; Secondary memory subsystem (hard drive); SD card reader;
Secondary memory subsystem; Keyboard; Keyboard input subsystem; Mouse; Mouse
input subsystem; Monitor; Monitor output subsystem; Speakers; Speakers output
subsystem (sound card).

Back to - Figure 1 Functional block diagram for a laptop.

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Figure 2 Set of scales showing a

reading of 313 g.
Description
This is a photograph of a set of scales with a bowl of food, showing 313g.

Back to - Figure 2 Set of scales showing a reading of 313 g.

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Figure 3 Functional block diagram

for the kitchen scales.
Description
This is a functional block diagram with the following labels: Processor; Main
memory; Sensor; Sensor input subsystem; Seven segment display; Output
subsystem(s).

Back to - Figure 3 Functional block diagram for the kitchen scales.

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Figure 4 Three photos of the kitchen

scales’ display: (top) with the scales
weighing in imperial units; (middle)
with the timer function in operation;
(bottom) negative values can be
displayed for weights if the add-
and-weigh facility is being used.
Description
There are three photos of kitchen scales showing different weights.

Back to - Figure 4 Three photos of the kitchen scales’ display: (top) with
the scales weighing in imperial units; (middle) with the timer function in
operation; (bottom) negative values can be displayed for weights if the
add-and-weigh facility is being used.

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Figure 5 A digital camera.

Description
This is a photograph of a digital camera.

Back to - Figure 5 A digital camera.

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Figure 6 A representation of a light

sensor array in a camera.
Description
This is an illustration of a digital camera.

Back to - Figure 6 A representation of a light sensor array in a camera.

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Figure 7 Diagram showing, in order,

the processes that occur when
taking a picture with a digital
camera.
Description
This is a diagram with the following labels: Capture image with CMOS light sensors;
Convert image to digital form; Manipulate image data to enhance image; Compress
image data; Store image data as compressed file.

Back to - Figure 7 Diagram showing, in order, the processes that occur

when taking a picture with a digital camera.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
This is a diagram with the following labels: Processor; Main memory; Internal
secondary memory; Secondary memory subsystem; Removable memory subsystem;
CMOS; CMOS input subsystem; Shutter button; Shutter input subsystem; Preview
input button; Preview input subsystem; Flash input button; Flash input subsystem;
Light meter; Light meter input subsystem; Screen; Screen output subsystem; Flash
input button; Flash input subsystem; Zoom controller; Zoom output subsystem;
Shutter controller; output subsystem.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
This shows a screenshot of code on a computer screen.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A photograph of a kettle on a worktop.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Flowchart of the tasks

performed by simple electronic
scales.
Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start - Accept data from sensor - Transform
sensor data to display data format - Send display data to display - End.

Back to - Figure 1 Flowchart of the tasks performed by simple electronic

scales.

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Figure 2 Flowchart symbols

Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start/End - The start or end of the sequence;
Input/Output - Data input or output; Process - General description of what happens at
this point in the task; Decision - Describes a test to perform and shows the alternative
routes; Connector - Used to link sequences together; matching symbols are placed in
the circles to indicate matching connectors.

Back to - Figure 2 Flowchart symbols

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Figure 3 Flowchart for electronic

scales with metric/imperial selector
button
Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start; Accept data from sensor; Examine
metric/imperial button; Is weight to be shown in grams? For yes: ‘Transform sensor
data to display gram format and for no: Transform sensor data to display in pounds
and ounces format; Send data to display; End.

Back to - Figure 3 Flowchart for electronic scales with metric/imperial

selector button

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Figure 4 Flowchart for electronic

scales incorporating a loop
Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start; Accept data from sensor; Examine
metric/imperial button; Is weight to be shown in grams? For yes: ‘Transform sensor
data to display gram format and for no: Transform sensor data to display in pounds
and ounces format; Send data to display; Examine on/off button; Should scales be
switched off? For yes: End and for no: Back to the start.

Back to - Figure 4 Flowchart for electronic scales incorporating a loop

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Figure 5 Flowchart for Typing Tutor

Description
The steps in the flowchart are as follows: Start; Read in group of letters from
keyboards; Is group ‘asdf’? If yes: Add 1 to tally of good entries and if no: Add 1 to
tally of bad entries; Add 1 to tally of groups received; If yes: Have 10 groups been
received? Send data about performance to display; End and if no: back to the start.

Back to - Figure 5 Flowchart for Typing Tutor

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A person using a laptop and a second screen.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A screenshot of a web browser showing the text ‘http:..www.’.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a number of cables coming from a computer.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Home-to-office network.

Description
This is a diagram showing a home-to-office network: Home - Internet - University
LAN - Branch office LAN.

Back to - Figure 1 Home-to-office network.

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Figure 2 A local cabinet.

Description
This is a photograph of a local cabinet on a residential street.

Back to - Figure 2 A local cabinet.

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Figure 3 Plugged-in cables.

Description
This is a photograph of plugged-in cables.

Back to - Figure 3 Plugged-in cables.

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Figure 4 Who needs cash when you

have a credit card reader and the
shop has a credit card reader that
will talk to your bank and to their
bank?
Description
This is a photograph of a contactless debit card being used for payment.

Back to - Figure 4 Who needs cash when you have a credit card reader
and the shop has a credit card reader that will talk to your bank and to
their bank?

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of someone using a chip and pin machine to pay.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
An image of a green circuit board.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 1 Main components of

electricity consumption for the IT
sector.
Description
Two pie charts, one labelled 2012 and the other labelled 2017. The first pie chart
indicates that in 2012, the percentages of electricity consumption for the IT sector
were as follows: Devices 47%, Networks 20%, Data centres 15%, Manufacturing
18%. The second pie chart indicates that in 2017, the percentages of electricity
consumption for the IT sector were as follows: Devices 34%, Networks 29%, Data
centres 21%, Manufacturing 16%.

Back to - Figure 1 Main components of electricity consumption for the IT

sector.

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Figure 2 The proportion of different

energy sources used by Amazon
Web Services.
Description
A line from a table, where “Amazon.com web services” is shown to have a rating of
C, followed by icons representing the source of its energy as follows green energy
(17%), coal energy (30%), natural gas energy (24%) and nuclear energy (26%).

Back to - Figure 2 The proportion of different energy sources used by

Amazon Web Services.

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Uncaptioned Figure
Description
A photograph of a person working from home using a laptop.

Back to - Uncaptioned Figure

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Figure 3 Home working does not

always reduce carbon emissions
according to the Carbon Trust.
Description
A bar chart entitled “Tipping points” with a subtitle: “Home working is only green for
commuters who travel this far daily”. There are three horizontal bars, labelled on the
vertical axis (from the bottom upwards) “By car”, “By bus” and “By train”. The bars
increase in length in this same order. The horizontal axis is labelled “miles” and runs
between 0 and 35, at intervals of 5. The bar representing “By car” extends to a value
that is approximately 8. The bar representing “By bus” extends to a value that is
approximately 14. The bar representing “By train” extends to a value that is
approximately 32.

Back to - Figure 3 Home working does not always reduce carbon

emissions according to the Carbon Trust.

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