UNIT 2

SAMPLING METHODS- AND HYPOTHESIS

Sampling:

The act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for the purpose of
determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population

Sampling Design:

A sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It refers to the
technique or procedure of selecting some sampling units from which inferences about the population
are drawn.

Sampling Units:

Sampling units are the target population elements available for selection during the sampling process.
In a simple, single-stage sample, the sampling units and the population elements may be the same.

Sampling Frame:

After defining the target population, the researcher must assemble a list of all eligible sampling units,
referred to as a sampling frame. Some common sources of sampling frames for a study about the
customers are the customer list from credit card companies.

Sampling Errors:

In a sample survey only a small part of the universe or population is studied, as such there is every
possibility that its result would differ from each other. These differences constitute the errors due to
sampling and are known as sampling errors.

Population:

Population is an identifiable total group or aggregation of elements that are of interest to the
researcher and pertinent to the specified problem. In other words it refers to the defined target
population.

Element:

An element is a single member of the population. It is a person or object from which data/information
is sought.
PURPOSE OF SAMPLING:

There are several reasons for sampling. They are explained below:

1. Lower Cost: The cost of conducting a study based on a sample is much lesser than the cost
of conducting the census study.
2. Great accuracy of result: It is generally argued that the quality of a study is often better
with sampling data than with a census. Research findings also substantiate this opinion.
3. Greater speed of data collection: Speed of execution of data collection is higher with
the sample. It also reduces the time between the recognition of a need for information and the
availability of that information.
4. Availability of population elements: A census method cannot be resorted as it would
mean complete destruction of all materials. Sampling is the only process possible if the
population is infinite.

ESSENTIALS OFSAMPLING:

1. It must be representative: The sample selected should possess the similar characteristics
of the original universe from which it has been drawn.
2. Homogeneity: Selected samples from the universe should have similar nature and should
not have any difference when compared with the universe.
3. Adequate Samples: In order to have a more reliable and representative result, a good
number of items are to be included in the sample.
4. Optimization: All efforts should be made to get maximum results both in terms of cost as
well time as the efficiency cost . If the size of the sample is larger, there is better efficiency
and at the same more.

SAMPLING METHOD:

Sampling methods are the ways to choose people from the population to be considered in a sample
survey. Samples can be divided based on following criteria.

FEATURES OF SAMPLING METHOD:

1. Economy: Sampling technique brings about cost control of a research project as it requires.
much less physical resources as well as time than the census technique.
2. Reliability: In sampling technique, if due diligence is exercised in the choice of sample unit
and if the research topic is homogenous then the sample survey can have almost the same
reliability as that of census survey.
3. Detailed Study: An intensive and detailed study of sample units can be done since their
number is fairly small. Also multiple approaches can be applied to a sample for an intensive
analysis.
4. Scientific Base: As mentioned earlier this technique is of scientific nature as the underlined
theory is based on principle of statistics.
5. Greater Suitability in most Situations: It has a wide applicability in most situations as
the examination of few sample units normally suffices.
6. Accuracy: The accuracy is determined by the extent to which bias is eliminated from the
sampling. When the sample elements are drawn properly some sample elements
underestimates the population values being studied and others overestimate them.

STEPS IN DEVELOPING A SAMPLING PLAN:

1. Define the target population: The first task of a researcher is to determine and identify
the complete group of people or objects that should be included in the study. With the
statement of the problem and the objectives of the study acting as guideline the target
population should be identified on the basis of descriptors that represents characteristics
features of elements that makes target population frame:
2. Select the data collection method: Based on the problem definition, the data
requirements and the research objectives, the researcher should select a data collection
method for collecting the required data from the target population elements. The method of
data collection guides the researcher in identifying and securing the necessary sampling frame
for conducting the research.
3. Identify the sampling frames needed: The researcher should identify and assemble a
list of eligible sampling units. The list should contain enough information about each
prospective sampling unit so as to enable the researcher to contact them. Drawing an
incomplete frame decreases the likelihood of drawing a representative sample.
4. Select the appropriate sampling method: The researcher can choose between
probability and non-probability sampling methods. Using a probability sampling method will
always yield better and more accurate information about the target population's parameters
than the non-probability sampling methods. ZSEven chrecteristics considered are, research
objectives, degree of desired accuracy, availability of resources, time frame, advanced
knowledge of the target population, scope of the research and perceived statistical analysis
needs.
5. Determine necessary sample sizes and overall contact rates: The sample size is
decided based on the precision required from the sample estimates, time and money available
to collect the required data. While determining the sample size due consideration should be
given to the variability of the population characteristic under investigation, the level of
confidence desired in the estimates and the degree of the precision desired in estimating the
population characteristic.
6. Creating an operating plan for selecting sampling units: The actual procedure to be
used in contacting each of the prospective respondents selected to form the sample should be
clearly laid out. The instruction should be clearly written so that interviewers know what
exactly should be done and the procedure to be followed in case of problems encountered, in
contacting the prospective respondents.
7. Executing the operational plan: The sample respondents are met and actual data
collection activities are executed in this stage. Consistency and control should be maintained
at this stage.

METHOD OF SAMPLING PLANS/DESIGNS:

I. Probability Sampling: It is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection

of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have
an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.
a. Simple Random Sampling: as the name suggests, is an entirely random method of
selecting the sample. This sampling method is as easy as assigning numbers to the individuals
(sample) and then randomly choosing from those numbers through an automated process.

Implications-
i. It provides each elements in the population an equal probability chance of being chosen
 ii. It offers each possible sample combination an equal probability opportunity of being selected.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling:

• Easy to understand.
• Defined target with pre specified margin of error.
• Equal chance of being selected

Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling:

• Difficult to obtain accurate listing

• Expensive
• Suitable for small population

b. Systematic Random Sampling: It is when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part
of the sample. For example, you can select every 5th person to be in the sample.
Implications:
1. Natural order of the defined target population
2. Skip interval

Advantages of Systematic Random Sampling

• Simple and flexible

• List available at shorter time
• Economical

Disadvantages of Systematic Random Sampling:

• It has hidden pattern

• Units making population

c. Stratified Random Sampling: The population is first divided into subgroups (or strata)
who all share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the
measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure
representation from all the subgroups.
 Reason
1. To increase Sample’s statistical efficiently
2. To provide adequate data for analysing various sub population
3. To enable different research methods.
Involves
1. Determine the variables
2. Select proportionate or disproportionate stratification
3. Divide population into homgenious sub groups
4. Select random sampling
5. Combine samples

d. Cluster Sampling: In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the
sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as
clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the study.
 In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then included
in the study.
 In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is then
randomly selected for inclusion.
Advantages of Cluster Sampling
1. Cost effective and feasible
2. Requires fewer resources
Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling
1. Biased sample
2. High sample error

e. Sequential/multiphase Sampling: Multistage sampling and Sequential sampling are

two ways of collecting and analysing data and are used for different types of data.
Multistage sampling is used for mass sampling and sequential sampling is used on relatively
small size of samples.
f. Sampling with probability proportional to size: Probability proportional to size (PPS)
sampling is a method of sampling from a finite population in which a size measure is
available for each population unit before sampling and where the probability of selecting a
unit is proportional to its size.
II. Non-probability Sampling:
In non-probability sampling method, the elements in the population do not have any
probabilities attached to being chosen as sample subjects. This means that the findings of
the study cannot be generalized to the population.
1. Convenience Sampling:
Convenience sampling refers to the collection of information from members of population
who are conveniently available to provide it. Researchers or field workers have the freedom
to choose as samples whomever they find, thus it is named as convenience.
Advantages:
a. Convenient sampling allows a large number of respondents to be interviewed in a
relatively short time.
b. The main reasons for using convenient sampling in the early stages of
research.

Disadvantages:

a. The use of convenience samples in the development phases of constructs and scale
measurements can have a serious negative impact the overall reliability and validity of
those measures and instruments used to collect raw data.
b. The raw data and results are not generalizable to the defined target population with any
measure of precision. It is not possible to measure the representativeness of the sample,
because sampling error estimates cannot be accurately determined.
2. Judgment Sampling:
Judgment sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which participants are selected
according to an experienced individual's belief that they will meet the requirements of the
study.
Advantages:
a. The judgment of the researcher or expert is correct then the sample generated from the
judgment sampling will be much better than one generated by convenience sampling.

Disadvantages:

a. The representativeness of the sample cannot be measured. The raw data and information
collected through judgment sampling provides only a preliminary insight.
3. Quota Sampling:
The quota sampling method involves the selection of prospective participants according to pre
specified quotas regarding either the demographic characteristics (gender, age, education,
income, occupation etc.,) specific attitudes (satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied) or specific
behaviours (regular, occasional, rare user of product).
Advantages:
a. The greatest advantage of quota sampling is that the sample generated contains specific
subgroups in the proportion desired by researchers.
b. In those research projects that require interviews the use of quotas ensures that the
appropriate subgroups are identified and included in the survey.
c. The quota sampling method may eliminate or reduce selection bias.

Disadvantages:

a. An inherent limitation of quota sampling is that the success of the study will be
dependent on subjective decisions made by the researchers.
b. As a non-probability method, it is incapable of measuring true representativeness of the
sample or accuracy of the estimate obtained.
c. The data results beyond those respondents who were sampled and interviewed become
very questionable and may misrepresent the given target population.
4. Snowball Sampling:
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which a set of respondents are
chosen who help the researcher to identify additional respondents to be included in the study.
This method of sampling is also called as referral sampling because one respondent refers
other potential respondents. This method involves probability and non-probability methods.
Advantages:
a. Snowball sampling enables to identify and select prospective respondents who are small
in number, hard to reach and uniquely defined target population.
b. It is most useful in qualitative research practices.
c. Reduced sample size and costs are the primary advantage of this sampling method.

Disadvantages:

a. The chance of bias is higher.

b. If there is a significant difference between people who are identified through
snowball sampling and others who are not then, it may give rise to problems.
c. The results cannot be generalized to members of larger defined target population.
SAMPLING DESIGN:
Sampling design refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher adopts for selecting
items for the sample from the population or universe. A sample design helps to decide the
number of items to be included in the sample, i.e., the size of the sample.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGOOD SAMPLE DESIGN:

(a) The sample design should yield a truly representative sample;
(b) The sample design should be such that it results in small sampling error;
(c) The sample design should be viable in the context of budgetary constraints of the
research study;
(d) The sample design should be such that the systematic bias can be controlled; and
(e) The sample must be such that the results of the sample study would be applicable, in
general, to the universe at a reasonable level of confidence.

ELEMENTSOF SAMPLING DESIGN:

1. Type of universe: The first step involved in developing sample design is to clearly
define the number of cases, technically known as the Universe, to be studied. A universe
may be finite or infinite. In a finite universe the number of items is certain, whereas in the
case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite (i.e., there is no idea about the
total number of items).
2. Sampling Unit: Prior to selecting a sample a decision has to be made about the
sampling unit. A sampling unit may be a geographical area like a state, district, village,
etc. or a social unit like a family, religious community, school etc. or it may also be an
individual.
3. Source List: Source list is also known as the 'sampling frame', from which the sample is
to be selected. The source list consists of names of all the items of a universe. The
researcher has to prepare a source list when it is not available. The source list must be
reliable, comprehensive, correct and appropriate.
4. Size of the Sample: Size of the sample refers to the number of items to be chosen from
the universe to form a sample. The size of sample must be optimum. An optimum sample
may be defined as the one that satisfies the requirements of representativeness, flexibility,
efficiency, and reliability.
SAMPLE SIZE:
Sample size is the number of observations used for calculating estimates of a given
population.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLE SIZE:

i) Size of the universe: The large the size of the universe, the bigger should be the
sample
ii) Availability of Resources: If the resources available are vast, a large sample size
could be taken. However, in most cases resources constitute a big constraint on sample
iii) Degree of accuracy or precision desired: The greater the degree of accuracy
desired larger should be sample size.
iv) Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the Universe: If the universe consists of
homogeneous units, a small sample may serve the purpose but if the universe consists of
heterogeneous units, a large sample may be required.
v) Nature of the study: For an intensive and continuous study a small sample may be
suitable. But for studies which are not likely to be repeated and are quite extensive in
nature, it may be necessary to take larger sample size.
vi) Method of sampling adopted: The size of samples is also influenced by the type
of sampling plan adopted. For example, if the sample is simple random sample it may
necessitate a bigger sample size. However, in a properly drawn stratified sampling plan,
even a small sample may give better results.
vii) Nature of respondents: Where it is expected a large number of respondents will
not cooperate and send back the questionnaires, a larger sample should be selected.
 SAMPLING ERRORS:
A) Biased Errors
B) Unbiased Errors
A) Biased Errors: The errors that occur due to a bias of prejudice on the part of the
informant or enumerator in selecting, estimating measuring instruments are called
biased errors. Suppose for example, the enumerator used the deliberate sampling
method in the place of simple random sampling method, then it is called biased
errors.
B) Unbiased Errors: Errors which occur in the normal course of investigation or
enumeration on account of chance are called unbiased errors. They may arise
accidentally without any bias or prejudice

NON-SAMPLING ERRORS:

a. Inadequate and inconsistent data specification

b. Faulty method of interviews and observations.
c. Lack of experience and training of investigators.
d. Errors in data processing operations.
e. Errors in tabulation and classification of data.

MERITS OF SAMPLING:

1. It saves time: Sampling method of data collection saves time because fewer items are
collected and processed. When the results are urgently required, this method is very
helpful.
2. It reduces cost: Since only a few and selected items are studied in sampling, there is
reduction in cost of money and reduction in terms of man hours.
3. More reliable results can be obtained: Through sampling, more reliable results can
be obtained because
(a) there are fewer chances of sampling statistical errors. If there is sampling error, it is
possible to estimate and control the results.
(b) Highly experienced and trained persons can be employed for scientific processing
and analyzing of relatively limited data and they can use their high technical knowledge
and get more accurate and reliable results.

4. It provides more detailed information: As it saves time, money and labor, more
detailed information can be collected in a sample survey.

5. Dependency on Sampling method: Some times it so happens that one has to depend
upon sampling method along because the population under study is finite
6. Administrative convenience: The organization and administration of sample survey
are easy and convenient for the researcher.

7. More scientific: Since the methods used to collect data are based on scientific theory and
results obtained can be tested, sampling is a more scientific method of collecting data.

LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING:

1. Less Accuracy: In comparison to census technique the conclusions derived from

samples are more liable to error. Therefore, sampling technique is less accurate than the
census technique.
2. Changeability of Units: If the units in the field of survey are liable to change or if
these are not homogenous the sampling technique will be very hazardous. It is not
scientific to extend the conclusions derived from one set of sample to other sets which are
dissimilar or are changeable.
3. Misleading Conclusions: If due care is not taken in the selection of samples or if they
are arbitrarily selected, the conclusions derived from them will become misleading if
extended to all units. For example, in assessing the monthly expenditure of university
students we select a sample study of only rich students, our results will be highly
erroneous if extended to all students.
4. Need for Specialized Knowledge: The sample technique can be successful only if a
competent and able researcher makes the selection. If this is done by an average
researcher, the selection is liable to be wrong.
5. Situational Impact: Under certain circumstances it is very difficult to use the sampling
technique. If the time is very short and it is not possible to make selection of the sample,
the technique cannot be used. Besides, if we need 100% accuracy the sampling technique
cannot be used. It can also not be used if the material is of heterogeneous nature.
6. Sample not representative: To make the sample representative is a difficult task. If a
representative sample is taken from the universe, the result is applicable to the whole
population. If the sample is not representative of the universe the result may be false and
misleading.
7. Complicated Process: Sometimes the sampling plan may be complicated and requires
more money, labor and time than a census method.
8. Personal bias: There may be personal biases and prejudices with regard to the choice
of technique and drawing of sampling units on the part of the researcher.
 HYPOTHESIS
Meaning:
Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures used by statisticians to accept
or reject statistical hypotheses. It is an assumption about a population parameter.
This assumption may or may not be true.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS:
(i) Hypothesis must be conceptually clear: The concepts used in the
hypothesis should be clearly defined, operationally if possible.
Such definitions should be commonly accepted and easily communicable among
the research scholars.
(ii) Hypothesis should have empirical referent: The variables contained in
the hypothesis should be empirical realities. In case these are not empirical
realities then it will not be possible to make the observations. Being handicapped
by the data collection, it may not be possible to test the hypothesis. Watch for
words like ought, should, bad.
(iii) Hypothesis must be specific: The hypothesis should not only be specific
to a place and situation but also these should be narrowed down with respect to its
operation. Let there be no global use of concepts whereby the researcher is using
such a broad concept which may all-inclusive and not may be able to tell
anything.
(iv) Hypothesis should be related to available techniques of research:
Hypothesis may have empirical reality; still we are looking for tools and
techniques that could be used for the collection of data. If the techniques are not
there then the researcher is handicapped. Therefore, either the techniques are
already available or the researcher is in a position to develop suitable techniques
for the study.
(v) Hypothesis should be related to a body of theory: Hypothesis has to
be supported by theoretical argumentation. For this purpose the research may
develop his/her theoretical framework which could help in the generation of
relevant hypothesis. For the development of a framework the researcher shall
depend on the existing body
of knowledge.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:
1. Descriptive Hypothesis: Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable
thereby it is also called as univariate hypothesis. Descriptive hypotheses
typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable. The
first hypothesis contains only one variable. It only shows the distribution of
the level of commitment among the officers of the organization which is
higher than average. Such a hypothesis is an example of a Descriptive
Hypothesis.
2. Relational Hypothesis: These are the propositions that describe a
relationship between two variables. The relationship could be non- directional
or directional, positive or negative, causal or simply correlational. While
stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive,
negative, more than or less than are used then such hypotheses are directional
because the direction of the relationship between the variables
(positive/Negative) has been indicated.
3. Null Hypothesis: It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the
researcher. Researchers treat evidence that supports a hypothesis differently
from the evidence that opposes it. They give negative evidence more
importance than to the positive one. It is because the negative evidence
tarnishes the hypothesis. It shows that the predictions made by the hypothesis
are wrong. The null hypothesis simply states that there is no relationship
between the variables or the relationship between the variables is "zero." That
is how symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as "HO". For example: H0 =
There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level
efficiency.
4. Alternative Hypothesis: The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply
states that there is a relationship between the variables under study. In our
example it could be: there is a relationship between the level of job
commitment and the level of efficiency. Not only there is an association
between the two variables under study but also the relationship is perfect
which is indicated by the number "1". Thereby the alternative hypothesis is
symbolically denoted as "H1". It can be written like this: H1: There is a
relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and their
level of efficiency.
5. Research Hypothesis: Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis
formulated by the researcher which may also suggest the nature of relationship
i.e. the direction of relationship.

STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTS:

Step 1: State the hypothesis: This involves stating null and alternative
hypothesis The hypothesis is stated in such a way that they are mutually
exclusive.
Step 2: Formulate an analysis Plan: The analysis plan describes how to
use sample data to evaluate the null hypothesis. The evaluation often focuses
around a single test statistic.
Step-3: Analyses sample data: Find the value of the test statistic (mean
score, proportion, t-score, z-score, etc.) described in the analysis plan.
Step-4: Interpret results: Apply the decision rule described in the analysis
plan. If the value of the test statistic is unlikely, based on the null hypothesis,
reject the null hypothesis.

SOURCE OF HYPOTHESIS:
1. Previous Study: Previous study is also a source of developing a
concrete hypothesis. If a researcher uses previous knowledge about a
phenomenon for a particular place, then another researcher followed his
techniques and formulates his own.
2. Personal Experience: On the basis of his personal experience, he uses
his mind and suggests some points for the eradication of a social problem
through developing a good hypothesis. Greater the researcher experience
led to higher degree of formation.
3. Imagination and Thinking: Creative thinking and imagination of a
researcher sometimes help in formulating a good hypothesis. Personal
ideas and the thinking capabilities of a researcher would lead to greater
number of hypothesis formulation as well as control over the problem.
 4. Observation: In consideration and undertaking a research problem,
observation is necessary. The collection of previous facts and current facts
related to the problem lead to the formulation of a good hypothesis.
5. Scientific Theory: Theory is capable in explaining all the facts relating
to the problem. Scientific theory is fertile source of hypothesis
formulation. The theory which is used by a researcher may satisfy needs of
making it, because theory explains the known facts.
6. Culture: Culture is the accumulation of ways of behaving and adoption in
a particular place and time, While formulating a hypothesis for a problem,
culture should be studied. If we want to study trend towards female
education in a particular area, for this purpose we will study, traditions,
family system, Norms, Values, region and education system of that area.

ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS:
A type I error is detecting an effect that is not present, while a type II error
is failing to detect an effect that is present. The terms "type I error" and
"type II error" are often used interchangeably with the general notion of
false positives and false negatives in binary classification, such as medical
testing, but narrowly speaking refer specifically to statistical hypothesis
testing.

Two types of errors can result from a hypothesis test:

1. Type I error: A Type I error occurs when the researcher rejects a null
hypothesis when it is true. The probability of committing a Type error
is called the significance level. This probability is also called alpha,
and is often denoted by á.
2. Type Il error: A Type Il error occurs when the researcher fails to
reject a null hypothesis that is false. The probability of committing a
Type II error is called Beta, and is often denoted by The probability of
not committing a Type II error is called the Power of the test.
STANDARD ERROR:

Standard error is a statistical term that measures the accuracy with which a
sample represents a population. In statistics, a sample means deviates from
the actual mean of a population, this deviation is the standard error.