SECTION 2

Defining Heat SC.912.P.10.4, SC.912.P.10.5

Objectives
Key Term Explain heat as the energy
heat
transferred between substances
that are at different
Heat and Energy temperatures.

Thermal physics often appears mysterious at the macroscopic level. Hot Relate heat and temperature
objects become cool without any obvious cause. To understand thermal change on the macroscopic
processes, it is helpful to shift attention to the behavior of atoms and level to particle motion on the
molecules. Mechanics can be used to explain much of what is happening microscopic level.
at the molecular, or microscopic, level. This in turn accounts for what you
observe at the macroscopic level. Throughout this chapter, the focus will Apply the principle of energy
shift between these two viewpoints. conservation to calculate
changes in potential, kinetic,
What happens when you immerse a warm fruit juice bottle in a
container of cold water, as shown in Figure 2.1? As the temperatures of the and internal energy.
bottle and of the juice decrease, the water’s temperature increases slightly
until both final temperatures are the same. Energy is transferred from the
bottle of juice to the water because the two objects are at different
SC.912.P.10.4 Describe heat as the energy
temperatures. This energy that is transferred is defined as heat. transferred by convection, conduction,
and radiation, and explain the connection
The word heat is sometimes used to refer to the process by which of heat to change in temperature or states
energy is transferred between objects because of a difference in their of matter.
temperatures. This textbook will use heat to refer only to the energy itself. SC.912.P.10.5 Relate temperature to the
average molecular kinetic energy.

heat the energy transferred between

Energy is transferred between substances as heat. objects because of a difference in
From a macroscopic viewpoint, energy transferred as heat tends to move their temperatures
from an object at higher temperature to an object at lower temperature.
This is similar to the mechanical behavior of objects moving from a
higher gravitational potential energy to a lower gravitational potential
energy. Just as a pencil will drop from your desk to the floor but will not
jump from the floor to your desk, so energy will travel spontaneously from
an object at higher temperature to one at lower temperature and not the
other way around.

FIGURE 2.1

Energy Transfer as Heat Energy is

transferred as heat from objects with higher
temperatures (the fruit juice and bottle) to
those with lower temperatures (the cold
water).

Heat 307
 FIGURE 2.2 Metal atoms in can
Molecules in fruit juice Water molecules

Transfer of Particles’ Kinetic

Energy as Heat Energy is transferred
as heat from the higher-energy particles
to lower-energy particles (a). The net
energy transferred is zero when thermal
equilibrium is reached (b).
Twater = 5˚C Twater = 11˚C
Direction of Direction of
energy transfer (a) Tjuice = 45˚C energy transfer (b) T juice = 11˚C

The direction in which energy travels as heat can be explained at

the atomic level. Consider a warm can of fruit juice in cold water. At first,
the molecules in the fruit juice have a higher average kinetic energy than
do the water molecules that surround the can, as shown in Figure 2.2(a).
This energy is transferred from the juice to the can by the juice molecules
colliding with the metal atoms of the can. The atoms vibrate more
because of their increased energy. This energy is then transferred to
the surrounding water molecules, as shown in Figure 2.2(b).
As the energy of the water molecules gradually increases, the energy
of the fruit juice’s molecules and of the can’s atoms decreases until all of
the particles have, on the average, equal kinetic energies. In individual
collisions, energy may be transferred from the lower-energy water
molecules to the higher-energy metal atoms and fruit juice particles.
That is, energy can be transferred in either direction. However, because
the average kinetic energy of particles is higher in the object at higher
temperature, more energy moves out of the object as heat than moves
into it. Thus, the net transfer of energy as heat is in only one direction.

FIGURE 2.3 The transfer of energy as heat alters an object’s temperature.

Thermal equilibrium may be understood in terms of energy exchange
Equilibrium At thermal
between two objects at equal temperature. When the can of fruit juice
equilibrium, the net energy exchanged
between two objects equals zero. and the surrounding water are at the same temperature, as depicted in
Figure 2.3, the quantity of energy transferred from the can of fruit juice to
Energy
transferred
the water is the same as the energy transferred from the water to the can
into can of juice. The net energy transferred between the two objects is zero.
from water
This reveals the difference between temperature and heat. The
atoms of all objects are in continuous motion, so all objects have some
internal energy. Because temperature is a measure of that energy, all
objects have some temperature. Heat, on the other hand, is the energy
Twater transferred from one object to another because of the temperature
= 11C difference between them. When there is no temperature difference
between a substance and its surroundings, no net energy is transferred
Twater = 11C
as heat.
Energy transfer as heat depends on the difference of the temperatures
Energy
transferred of the two objects. The greater the temperature difference is between two
out of can objects, the greater the rate of energy transfer between them as heat
into water
(other factors being the same).

308 Chapter 9
 For example, in winter, energy is transferred as heat from a car’s surface FIGURE 2.4
at 30°C to a cold raindrop at 5°C. In the summer, energy is transferred as
heat from a car’s surface at 45°C to a warm raindrop at 20°C. In each case, Rate of Energy Transfer The
the amount of energy transferred each second is the same, because the energy transferred each second as heat
substances and the temperature difference (25°C) are the same. from the car’s surface to the raindrop is
the same for low temperatures (a) as
See Figure 2.4.
for high temperatures (b), provided the
The concepts of heat and temperature help to explain why hands held temperature differences are the same.
in separate bowls containing hot and cold water subsequently sense the
temperature of lukewarm water differently. The nerves in the outer skin T raindrop = 5C
of your hand detect energy passing through the skin from objects with
temperatures different from your body temperature. If one hand is at
thermal equilibrium with cold water, more energy is transferred from the (a)
outer layers of your hand than can be replaced by the blood, which has a
temperature of about 37.0°C (98.6°F). When the hand is immediately
placed in water that is at a higher temperature, energy is transferred from
the water to the cooler hand. The energy transferred into the skin causes Tcar = 30C
the water to feel warm. Likewise, the hand that has been in hot water T raindrop = 20C
temporarily gains energy from the water. The loss of this energy to the
lukewarm water makes that water feel cool.
(b)
Heat has the units of energy.
Before scientists arrived at the modern model for heat, several different Tcar = 45C
units for measuring heat had already been developed. These units are still
widely used in many applications and therefore are listed in Figure 2.5.
Because heat, like work, is energy in transit, all heat units can be
converted to joules, the SI unit for energy.
Just as other forms of energy have a symbol that identifies them
(PE for potential energy, KE for kinetic energy, U for internal energy,
W for work), heat is indicated by the symbol Q.

FIGURE 2.5

THERMAL UNITS AND THEIR VALUES IN JOULES

Heat unit Equivalent value Uses

joule (J) ( )
m2
equal to 1 kg• _
s2
SI unit of energy

non-SI unit of heat; found especially in older works of

calorie (cal) 4.186 J
physics and chemistry

kilocalorie (kcal) 4.186 × 103 J non-SI unit of heat

Calorie, or dietary Calorie 4.186 × 103 J = 1 kcal food and nutritional science

English unit of heat; used in engineering, air conditioning,

British thermal unit (Btu) 1.055 × 103 J
and refrigeration

therm 1.055 × 108 J equal to 100 000 Btu; used to measure natural-gas usage

Heat 309
 Thermal Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

If you were to hold a metal pan filled with water over a flame, the metal
handle would initially feel comfortable to the touch. After a few minutes,
however, the handle would become too hot to touch without a cooking
mitt, as shown in Figure 2.6. The handle is hot because energy was trans-
ferred from the high-temperature fire to the pan. The added energy
increased the temperature of the pan and its contents. This type of energy
transfer is called thermal conduction.

FIGURE 2.6 The rate of thermal conduction depends on the

substance.
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation Heat Thermal conduction can be understood by the behavior of
energy is transferred by multiple mechanisms. atoms in a metal. As the pan is heated, the atoms nearest to
the flame vibrate with greater energy. These vibrating atoms
Convection Conduction jostle their less-energetic neighbors and transfer some of
their energy in the process. Gradually, atoms farther away
from the fire gain more energy.

Radiation Radiation The rate of thermal conduction depends on the properties

of the substance being heated. A metal ice tray and a card-
board package of frozen food removed from the freezer are at
the same temperature. However, the metal tray feels colder
than the package because metal conducts energy more easily
and more rapidly than cardboard does. Substances that
rapidly transfer energy as heat are called thermal conductors.
Substances that slowly transfer energy as heat are called
thermal insulators. In general, metals are good thermal
conductors. Materials such as asbestos, cork, ceramic,
cardboard, and fiberglass are poor thermal conductors (and
therefore good thermal insulators).

Convection is another mechanism through which heat energy is

Did YOU Know? transferred directly.
Convection involves the movement of cold and hot matter, such as the
Cooking oil is useful for transferring
energy uniformly around the surface of water circulating in the pan in Figure 2.6. This mechanism does not
the food being cooked. When popping involve heat alone. Instead, it uses the combined effects of pressure
popcorn, for instance, coating the differences, conduction, and buoyancy. In the case of the water in the
kernels with oil improves the energy pan, the water is heated through particle collisions (conduction), causing
transfer to each kernel, so a higher it to expand and its density to decrease. The warm water is then displaced
percentage of them pop. by denser, colder water, which will be heated in turn. Thus, the flame
heats the water faster than by conduction alone. The air surrounding a
fire is also subjected to convection. The current of air that rises after being
heated and then cools and falls is called a convection current. Such
currents are important beyond the circulation of air around a fire or in a
room. Convection currents that extend over Earth’s surface play an
important role in the formation of global wind patterns.

310 Chapter 9
 Radiation transfers heat energy over a distance.
The other principal energy transfer mechanism is electromagnetic
radiation. Unlike convection, energy moved in this form does not
involve the transfer of matter, and in contrast to conduction, there is no
direct transfer of energy between vibrating atoms. Instead, objects
reduce their internal energy by giving off electromagnetic radiation of a
particular wavelength. The waves in Figure 2.6 indicate electromagnetic
radiation leaving the fire. If that radiation contacts the skin of the person
holding the pot, the energy of those waves will be absorbed, increasing
the internal energy and, thus, the temperature of the skin. Because
radiation does not depend upon the movement of matter, it can take
place even in a vacuum. This property makes it possible for energy from
the sun to travel through space and warm Earth.

Heat and Work

Hammer a nail into a block of wood. After several minutes, pry the nail
loose from the block and touch the side of the nail. It feels warm to the
touch, indicating that energy is being transferred from the nail to your
hand. Work is done in pulling the nail out of the wood. The nail encounters
friction with the wood, and most of the energy required to overcome this
friction is transformed into internal energy. The increase in the internal
energy of the nail raises the nail’s temperature, and the temperature
difference between the nail and your hand results in the transfer of energy MATERIALS
to your hand as heat. • 1 large rubber band about
7–10 mm wide
Friction is just one way of increasing a substance’s internal energy.
In the case of solids, internal energy can be increased by deforming their SAFETY
structure. Common examples of this deformation are stretching a rubber To avoid breaking the
rubber band, do not stretch
band or bending a piece of metal. it more than a few inches.
Do not point a stretched
rubber band at another
Total energy is conserved. person.
When the concept of mechanical energy was introduced, you discovered
that whenever friction between two objects exists, not all of the work WORK AND HEAT
done appears as mechanical energy. Similarly, when objects collide Hold the rubber band between
inelastically, not all of their initial kinetic energy remains as kinetic your thumbs. Touch the middle
energy after the collision. Some of the energy is absorbed as internal section of the rubber band to
energy by the objects. For this reason, in the case of the nail pulled from your lip and note how it feels.
the wood, the nail (and if you could touch it, the wood inside the hole) Rapidly stretch the rubber
feels warm. If changes in internal energy are taken into account along band and keep it stretched.
with changes in mechanical energy, the total energy is a universally Touch the middle section of
conserved property. In other words, the sum of the changes in potential, the rubber band to your lip
kinetic, and internal energy is equal to zero. again. Notice whether the
rubber band’s temperature has
changed. (You may have to
Conservation of Energy
repeat this procedure several
∆PE + ∆KE + ∆U = 0 times before you can clearly
the change in potential energy + the change in kinetic energy + distinguish the temperature
the change in internal energy = 0 difference.)

Heat 311
 Conservation of Energy

Sample Problem B An arrangement similar to the one used

to demonstrate energy conservation is shown at right. A vessel
contains water. Paddles that are propelled by falling masses turn
in the water. This agitation warms the water and increases its
internal energy. The temperature of the water is then measured,
giving an indication of the water’s internal-energy increase.
If a total mass of 11.5 kg falls 1.3 m and all of the mechanical
energy is converted to internal energy, by how much will the
internal energy of the water increase? (Assume no energy is
transferred as heat out of the vessel to the surroundings or
from the surroundings to the vessel’s interior.)

Joule’s Apparatus
ANALYZE Given: m = 11.5 kg
h = 1.3 m
PHYSICS
g = 9.81 m/s2 Spec. Num
Boston Gr
Unknown: ∆U = ? 617.523.1

PLAN Choose an equation or situation:

Use the conservation-of-energy equation, and solve for ∆U.
∆PE + ∆KE + ∆U = 0
Tips and Tricks
Don’t forget that a change in
any quantity, indicated by the (PEf − PEi) + (KEf − KEi) + ∆U = 0
symbol ∆, equals the final
value minus the initial value. ∆U = −PEf + PEi − KEf + KEi
Because the masses begin at rest, KEi equals zero. If we assume that KEf
is small compared to the loss of PE, we can set KEf equal to zero also.

KEf = 0 KEi = 0
Because all of the potential energy is assumed to be converted to
internal energy, PEi can be set equal to mgh if PEf is set equal to zero.

PEi = mgh PEf = 0

Substitute each quantity into the equation for ∆U:

∆U = 0 + mgh + 0 + 0 = mgh

SOLVE Substitute the values into the equation, and solve:

Calculator Solution
∆U = (11.5 kg)(9.81 m/s2)(1.3 m)
Because the minimum number of
significant figures in the data is two, the
∆U = 1.5 × 102 J
calculator answer, 146.6595 J, should
be rounded to two digits.

Continued
312 Chapter 9
Conservation of Energy (continued)

CHECK The answer can be estimated using rounded values for

YOUR WORK m and g. If m ≈ 10 kg and g ≈ 10 m/s2, then ∆U ≈ 130 J,
which is close to the actual value calculated.

1. In the arrangement described in Sample Problem B, how much would the

water’s internal energy increase if the mass fell 6.69 m?

2. A worker drives a 0.500 kg spike into a rail tie with a 2.50 kg sledgehammer.
The hammer hits the spike with a speed of 65.0 m/s. If one-third of the
hammer’s kinetic energy is converted to the internal energy of the hammer
and spike, how much does the total internal energy increase?

3. A 3.0 × 10−3 kg copper penny drops a distance of 50.0 m to the ground.

If 65 percent of the initial potential energy goes into increasing the internal
energy of the penny, determine the magnitude of that increase.

4. The amount of internal energy needed to raise the temperature of 0.25 kg

of water by 0.2°C is 209.3 J. How fast must a 0.25 kg baseball travel in order
for its kinetic energy to equal this internal energy?

SECTION 2 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas
1. Use the microscopic interpretations of temperature and heat to explain
how you can blow on your hands to warm them and also blow on a bowl
of hot soup to cool it.

2. If a bottle of water is shaken vigorously, will the internal energy of the

water change? Why or why not?

3. At Niagara Falls, if 505 kg of water falls a distance of 50.0 m, what is the

increase in the internal energy of the water at the bottom of the falls?
Assume that all of the initial potential energy goes into increasing the
water’s internal energy and that the final kinetic energy is zero.

Critical Thinking
4. A bottle of water at room temperature is placed in a freezer for a short
time. An identical bottle of water that has been lying in the sunlight is
placed in a refrigerator for the same amount of time. What must you
know to determine which situation involves more energy transfer?

5. Popcorn is routinely cooked by any of three different methods, each of

which relies predominantly on a different mode of heat transfer (conduc-
tion, convection, or radiation). Find three methods for cooking popcorn,
and identify the types of heat transfer that are critical for each.

Heat 313