SECTION 3

Changes in SC.912.P.8.1, SC.912.P.10.2

Temperature Objectives

and Phase
Perform calculations with
specific heat capacity.

Interpret the various sections

of a heating curve.
Key Terms
specific heat capacity
calorimetry
phase change
latent heat SC.912.P.8.1 Differentiate among the four
states of matter.
SC.912.P.10.2 Explore the Law of
Conservation of Energy by differentiating
Specific Heat Capacity among open, closed, and isolated systems
and explain that the total energy in an
On a hot day, the water in a swimming pool, such as the one shown in isolated system is a conserved quantity.
Figure 3.1, may be cool, even if the air around it is hot. This may seem odd,
because both the air and water receive energy from sunlight. One reason FIGURE 3.1
that the water may be cooler than the air is evaporation, which is a Temperature Differences
cooling process. The air around the pool and the water
However, evaporation is not the only reason for the difference. in the pool receive energy from
Experiments have shown that the change in temperature due to adding sunlight. However, the increase in
or removing a given amount of energy depends on the particular temperature is greater for the air
substance. In other words, the same change in energy will cause a than for the water.
different temperature change in equal masses of different substances.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the energy
required to change the temperature of 1 kg of that substance by 1°C.
(This quantity is also sometimes known as just specific heat.) Every
substance has a unique specific heat capacity. This value tells you how
much the temperature of a given mass of that substance will increase
or decrease, based on how much energy is added or removed as heat.
This relationship is expressed mathematically as follows:

Specific Heat Capacity

Q
cp = _ specific heat capacity the quantity
m∆T of heat required to raise a unit mass of
homogeneous material 1 K or 1°C in a
specific heat capacity = ___
energy transferred as heat specified way given constant pressure
mass × change in temperature and volume

The subscript p indicates that the specific heat capacity is measured at

constant pressure. Maintaining constant pressure is an important detail
©Peter Anderson/Alamy

when determining certain thermal properties of gases, which are much

more affected by changes in pressure than are solids or liquids. Note that
a temperature change of 1°C is equal in magnitude to a temperature
change of 1 K, so ∆T gives the temperature change in either scale.

Heat 315
 FIGURE 3.2

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES

Substance cp (J/kg•°C) Substance cp (J/kg•°C) Substance cp (J/kg•°C)

aluminum 8.99 × 102 ice 2.09 × 103 silver 2.34 × 102

copper 3.87 × 102 iron 4.48 × 102 steam 2.01 × 103
glass 8.37 × 102 lead 1.28 × 102 water 4.186 × 103
gold 1.29 × 102 mercury 1.38 × 102

The equation for specific heat capacity applies to both substances that
absorb energy from their surroundings and those that transfer energy to
their surroundings. When the temperature increases, ∆T and Q are taken
to be positive—which corresponds to energy transferred into the sub-
stance. Likewise, when the temperature decreases, ∆T and Q are nega-
tive, and energy is transferred from the substance. Figure 3.2 lists specific
heat capacities that have been determined for several substances.

Calorimetry is used to determine specific heat capacity.

FIGURE 3.3 To measure the specific heat capacity of a substance, it is necessary to
measure mass, temperature change, and energy transferred as heat. Mass
A SimpleC10-003-009-A
Calorimeter and temperature change are directly measurable, but the direct measure-
A calorimeter allows the specific ment of heat is difficult. However, the specific heat capacity of water is
heat capacity of a substance to be known, so the energy transferred as heat between an object of unknown
determined. specific heat capacity and a known quantity of water can be measured.
Stirrer Thermometer
If a hot substance is placed in an insulated container of cool water,
energy conservation requires that the energy the substance gives up must
Lid equal the energy absorbed by the water. Although some energy is trans-
ferred to the surrounding container, this effect is small and will be
ignored. Energy conservation can be used to calculate the specific heat
capacity, cp,x , of the substance (indicated by the subscript x) as follows:
Insulated Water
outer energy absorbed by water = energy released by the substance
container
Qw = −Qx
cp,wmw ∆Tw = −cp,xmx ∆Tx
For simplicity, a subscript w will always stand for “water” in specific heat
capacity problems. The energy gained by a substance is expressed as a
positive quantity, and the energy released is expressed as a negative
quantity. The first equation above can be rewritten as Qw + Qx = 0, which
Inner
container
shows that the net change in energy transferred as heat equals zero. Note
Test substance that ∆T equals the final temperature minus the initial temperature.
This approach to determining a substance’s specific heat capacity is
calorimetry an experimental proce- called calorimetry, and devices that are used for making this measurement
dure used to measure the energy are called calorimeters. A calorimeter, shown in Figure 3.3, contains both a
transferred from one substance to
another as heat thermometer to measure the final temperature of substances at thermal
equilibrium and a stirrer to ensure the uniform mixture of energy.

316 Chapter 9
 GO ONLINE

Calorimetry Interactive Demo

HMHScience.com
Sample Problem C A 0.050 kg metal bolt is heated to an
unknown initial temperature. It is then dropped into a calorimeter
containing 0.15 kg of water with an initial temperature of 21.0°C. HMHScience.com
The bolt and the water then reach a final temperature of 25.0°C.
If the metal has a specific heat capacity of 899 J/kg•°C, find the
initial temperature of the metal.

ANALYZE Given: mmetal = mm = 0.050 kg cp,m = 899 J/kg•°C

mwater = mw = 0.15 kg cp,w = 4186 J/kg•°C
Twater = Tw = 21.0°C Tfinal = Tf = 25.0°C
Unknown: Tmetal = Tm = ?
Diagram: Before placing hot sample After thermal equilibrium
in calorimeter has been reached

m m = 0.050 kg mw = 0.15 kg T f = 25.0° C

T w = 21.0° C

PLAN Choose an equation or situation:

The energy absorbed by the water equals the energy removed from
the bolt.
Qw = −Qm
cp,wmw∆Tw = −cp,mmm∆Tm
cp,wmw(Tf − Tw) = −cp,mmm(T
Tf − Tm)
Tips and Tricks
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown: Because Tw is less
cp,wmw(Tf − Tw) than Tf , you know
Tm = __ cp,mmm + Tf that Tm must be
greater than Tf .

SOLVE Substitute the values into the equation, and solve:

(4186 J/kg•°C)(0.15 kg)(25.0°C − 21.0°C)
Tm = ____ + 25.0°C
(899 J/kg•°C)(0.050 kg)

Tm = 81°C

CHECK YOUR Tm is greater than Tf , as expected.

WORK

Continued

Heat 317
 1. What is the final temperature when a 3.0 kg gold bar at 99°C is dropped into
0.22 kg of water at 25°C?
2. A 0.225 kg sample of tin initially at 97.5°C is dropped into 0.115 kg of water.
The initial temperature of the water is 10.0°C. If the specific heat capacity of tin
is 230 J/kg•°C, what is the final equilibrium temperature of the tin-water mixture?
3. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc. A 0.59 kg brass sample at 98.0°C is
dropped into 2.80 kg of water at 5.0°C. If the equilibrium temperature is 6.8°C,
what is the specific heat capacity of brass?
4. A hot, just-minted copper coin is placed in 101 g of water to cool. The water
temperature changes by 8.39°C, and the temperature of the coin changes
by 68.0°C. What is the mass of the coin?

Earth-Coupled Heat Pumps

A
s the earliest
cave dwellers
knew, a good
way to stay warm in
the winter and cool in
the summer is to go
underground. Now,
scientists and
engineers are using
An earth-coupled heat pump enables homeowners to
the same premise—and using existing technology in a
tap the temperature just below the ground to heat their
new, more efficient way—to heat and cool above-ground
homes in the winter or cool them in the summer. The
homes for a fraction of the cost of conventional systems.
system includes a network of plastic pipes placed in
The average specific heat capacity of earth is smaller trenches or inserted in holes drilled 2 to 3 m (6 to 10 ft)
than the average specific heat capacity of air. However, beneath the ground’s surface. To heat a home, a fluid
earth has a greater density than air does, which means circulates through the pipe, absorbs energy from the
that near a house, there are more kilograms of earth surrounding earth, and transfers this energy to a heat
than of air. So a 1°C change in temperature involves pump inside the house. Although the system can
transferring more energy to or from the ground than to function anywhere on Earth’s surface, it is most
or from the air. Thus, the temperature of the ground in appropriate in severe climates, where dramatic
the winter will probably be higher than the temperature temperature swings may not be ideal for air-based
of the air above it. In the summer, the temperature of the systems.
ground will likely be lower than the temperature of the air.

318 Chapter 9
 Heating Curve of Water FIGURE 3.4
E Heating Curve of Water
125
D This idealized graph shows the
100 temperature change of 10.0 g of ice as
it is heated from −25°C in the ice phase
Temperature (°C)

to steam above 125°C at atmospheric

C pressure. (Note that the horizontal scale of
50 Water
+ Steam the graph is not uniform.)
steam
A B Water
0
Ice + water
-25
0.522 3.85 8.04 30.6 31.1
Ice Heat (10 3J)

Latent Heat
Suppose you place an ice cube with a temperature of −25°C in a glass and
then you place the glass in a room. The ice cube slowly warms, and the
temperature of the ice will increase until the ice begins to melt at 0°C. The
graph in Figure 3.4 and data in Figure 3.5 show how the temperature of
10.0 g of ice changes as energy is added.
You can see that temperature steadily increases from −25°C to 0°C
(segment A of the graph). You could use the mass and the specific heat
capacity of ice to calculate how much energy is added to the ice during
this segment.
At 0°C, the temperature stops increasing. Instead, the ice begins to
melt and to change into water (segment B). The ice-and-water mixture
remains at this temperature until all of the ice melts. Suppose that you
now heat the water in a pan on a stovetop. From 0°C to 100°C, the water’s
temperature steadily increases (segment C). At 100°C, however, the
temperature stops rising, and the water turns into steam (segment D).
Once the water has completely vaporized, the temperature of the steam
increases (segment E).

FIGURE 3.5

CHANGES OCCURRING DURING THE HEATING OF 10.0 g OF ICE

Segment of Type of change Amount of energy Temperature range
graph transferred as heat of segment

A temperature of ice increases 522 J −25°C to 0°C

B ice melts; becomes water 3.33 × 103 J 0°C

C temperature of water increases 4.19 × 103 J 0°C to 100°C

D water boils; becomes steam 2.26 × 104 J 100°C

E temperature of steam increases 500 J 100°C to 125°C

Heat 319
 When substances melt, freeze, boil, condense, or sublime (change from
a solid to vapor or from vapor to a solid), the energy added or removed
changes the internal energy of the substance without changing the sub-
phase change the physical change stance’s temperature. These changes in matter are called phase changes.
of a substance from one state (solid,
liquid, or gas) to another at constant
temperature and pressure Latent heat is energy transferred during phase changes.
To understand the behavior of a substance undergoing a phase change,
you need to consider the changes in potential energy. Potential energy is
present among a collection of particles in a solid or in a liquid in the form
of attractive bonds. These bonds result from the charges within atoms
and molecules. Potential energy is associated with the electric forces
between these charges.
Phase changes result from a change in the potential energy between
particles of a substance. When energy is added to or removed from a
substance that is undergoing a phase change, the particles of the sub-
stance rearrange themselves to make up for their change of energy. This
rearrangement occurs without a change in the average kinetic energy of
the particles. The energy that is added or removed per unit mass is called
latent heat the energy per unit mass latent heat, abbreviated as L. Note that according to this definition, the
that is transferred during a phase energy transferred as heat during a phase change simply equals the mass
change of a substance
multiplied by the latent heat, as follows:
Q = mL
During melting, the energy that is added to a substance equals the
difference between the total potential energies for particles in the solid
and the liquid phases. This type of latent heat is called the heat of fusion.
During vaporization, the energy that is added to a substance equals the
difference in the potential energy of attraction between the liquid par-
ticles and between the gas particles. In this case, the latent heat is called
the heat of vaporization. The heat of fusion and the heat of vaporization
are abbreviated as Lf and Lv , respectively. Figure 3.6 lists latent heats for a
few substances.

FIGURE 3.6
LATENT HEATS OF FUSION AND VAPORIZATION
AT STANDARD PRESSURE
Substance Melting Lf (J/kg) Boiling Lv (J/kg)
point (°C) point (°C)

nitrogen −209.97 2.55 × 104 −195.81 2.01 × 105

oxygen −218.79 1.38 × 104 −182.97 2.13 × 105

ethyl alcohol −114 1.04 × 105 78 8.54 × 105

water 0.00 3.33 × 105 100.00 2.26 × 106

lead 327.3 2.45 × 104 1745 8.70 × 105

aluminum 660.4 3.97 × 105 2467 1.14 × 107

320 Chapter 9
SECTION 3 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Main Ideas
1. A jeweler working with a heated 47 g gold ring must lower the ring’s tem-
perature to make it safe to handle. If the ring is initially at 99°C, what mass
of water at 25°C is needed to lower the ring’s temperature to 38°C?
2. How much energy must be added to a bowl of 125 popcorn kernels in
order for them to reach a popping temperature of 175°C? Assume that
their initial temperature is 21°C, that the specific heat capacity of popcorn
is 1650 J/kg•°C, and that each kernel has a mass of 0.105 g.
3. Because of the pressure inside a popcorn kernel, water does not vapor-
ize at 100°C. Instead, it stays liquid until its temperature is about 175°C,
at which point the kernel ruptures and the superheated water turns into
steam. How much energy is needed to pop 95.0 g of corn if 14 percent of a
kernel’s mass consists of water? Assume that the latent heat of vaporiza-
tion for water at 175°C is 0.90 times its value at 100°C and that the kernels
have an initial temperature of 175°C.

Critical Thinking
4. Using the concepts of latent heat and internal energy, explain why it is
difficult to build a fire with damp wood.
5. Why does steam at 100°C cause more severe burns than does liquid water
at 100°C?

Interpreting Graphics
6. From the heating curve for a 15 g sample, as shown in Figure 3.7, estimate
the following properties of the substance.
a. the specific heat capacity of the liquid
b. the latent heat of fusion
c. the specific heat capacity of the solid
d. the specific heat capacity of the vapor
e. the latent heat of vaporization

FIGURE 3.7
Heating Curve for 15 g of an Unknown Substance

400
Gas
300
Temperature (°C)

200
Solid
100
Solid + liquid Liquid Liquid + gas
0
1.27 8.37 15.8 795 796
Heat (kJ)

Heat 321