PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER

LESSON 1: EARTH IS SPHERE

Babylonian and Egyptian astronomers were the first to develop systems that became
the framework of Greek astronomy on the other hand, Americans, Chinese and Indians
developed their own. Starts played very important part in history and civilizations. They
developed unique systems for ordering and understanding what is seen above.

On the 5th century B.C Earth is considered shaped like a sphere but there are a lots
of misconceptions, ancient people thought that the earth was flat. This was simply not the
case. In the 5th century B.C, famous philosophers Empedocles and Anaxagoras offered
arguments for the spherical nature of the earth. They said that during a lunar eclipse,
when the earth is between the sun and moon, they Identified the shadow of the earth moves
across the moonand would create a clearly round shadow. This suggest that the earth is
really a sphere. Proving that the earth is not flat.

A lunar eclipse does not happen most of the time and not all people in the world can
witness the same sight depending on where that person i located in the world, another
evidence that the earth is sphere are the experiences of the sailor. This is often written in
elem books especially in Philippine history books during the expedition of magellan, one of
the events in history that proved that the earth is round. Usually when you are in a port when
a ship appears on the horizon it is the top of the ship that is visible first. A wide range of
astronomy texts over time use this to illustrate the roundness of the Earth. As the image
suggest this is exactly what one would expect on a spherical earth. If the earth was flat, it
would be expected that you would be able to see the entire ship as soon it became visible.

LESSON 2: CONTRIBUTION OF ARISTARCHUS & ERATHOSTHENES

Aristarchos of Samos
- He was an ancient Greek astronomer who lived in the 3rd century BCE
- He proposed that the Earth revolves around the sun, challenging the prevailing belief
that the Earth was the center of the universe.
- He observed the position of the sun during lunar eclipse, He noticed that the earth’s
shadow on the moon was curved, suggesting that the Earth shape was spherical.

Eratosthenes
- He was an ancient Greek mathematecian and geographer who lived in the 3rd
century BCE.
- He calculated the Earth’s circumference using simple geometry and observations.
- He noticed that on the summer solstice the sun cast no shadow at noon in
Syene( now Aswan, Egypt). At the same time in Alexandra, there was a noticeable
shadow.
LESSON 3: MOON PHASES, LUNAR & SOLAR ECLIPSE

MOON PHASES:
- Changes it’s appearance
- Happens within 29.5 days
- The basis of ancient calendar and lunar calendar

FIRST QUARTER
- The moon is one quarter of the way through its orbit, showing half its surface
illuminated

WAXING GIBBOUS
- More than half of the moon’s face is Illuminated, growing towards full moon.
FULL MOON
- The moon’s Earth- facing side is fully illuminated by the sun
WANING GIBBOUS
- The moon starts to decrease in illuminationafter the full moon, still more than half tilt.
THIRD QUARTER
- The moon is three quarters through its orbit, with half its surface illuminated, opposite
of the first quarter.
WANING CRESENT
- A slim, crescent shaped slice of the moon is illuminated, decreasing towards the new
moon.
NEW MOON
- The moon’s Earth-facing side is in complete shadow, not visible from earth.
WAXING CRESENT
- A slim, crescent-shaped slice of the moon is illuminated, increasing towards the first
quarter.

“Moon gets its light from the sun and the changing angle of sunlight falling on the Moon’s
surface determines the different phases we observed from Earth.”

LUNAR ECLIPSE
- The moon is being covered by a shadow.
SOLAR ECLIPSE
- The sun was fully blocked, creating a dark sunny day scene.
SUMMARY:
Moon Phases: Different shapes of the Moon as it orbits the Earth.
Lunar Eclipse: Earth’s shadow on the moon
Solar Eclipse: Moon blocks Sun’s light on Earth
LESSON 4: The motion of the Stars, Visibility of Planets, Supernova vs Comet landing
on Earth.

The Motion of the Stars:

-It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere that
rotates around an axis in one day. This axis intersects the celestial sphere at a point in the
northern sky and is presently close to the northern star, Polaris Also, the constellations’s
position in the night sky vary depending on the time of the year. That is why there are
constellations that cannot be seen of have changed its position when you look at the night
sky.

Visibility of Planets:
- Astronomers discovered that Mercury, Venus, mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are planets
because they have noticed that the stars are in a fixed position with respect to each other
(like how the constellations are always grouped). But there are very bright stars that change
positions periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any group of constellations in the sky.
Thus, they are called “wanderers” of planets in Greek terms. In today’s era one of the
occurrences and evidence that some of the planets of the Solar system can be seen from
earth is that phenomenon, there are times this bright things are not near the moon but since
they are following their own orbit this occurrence happens.

SUPERNOVA vs COMET LANDING ON EARTH

-Supernova has been part of our history from the creation of the elements to the
creation ogf bigger and heavier matter around us. Just recently, we can now see images of
an actual star explosion but we cannot see or observe thiswith our naked eye unlike the
landing of comets or asteroids or shootng stars. These phenomena can easily be seen.
Ancient people also witnessed this wonderful event without the aid of telescopes.

LESSON 5: Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe
-Was a Danish astronomer, nobleman and writer born in the Danish Peninsula of
Scania and is known for his accurate observations of the movement of celestial bodies. He
worked in an observatory built for him by King Fredrick II of Denmark in 1576. He invented
different astronomical instruments, with the help of his assistants, and made an extensive
study of the solar system. He together with his assistants were able to determine the position
of 777 fixed stars accurately.
LESSON 6: Johannes Kepler and his 3 Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes kepler
-A german astronomer, mathematecian, and astrologer moved to Prague in 1599
where he was supported by Emperor Rudolf II. He then worked as an imperial
mathematecian and worked as an assistant of Tycho Brahe at the age of 27. Kepler was
born to a poor German family and studied as a scholar at the University of Tubingen in 1589.
He considered the key figure in the 17th Century scientific revolution. He was known for his
Laws of Planetary Motion and published books.
-In 1609, He published his book named “ Astronomiaa Nova”, Outlining his
discoveries, which are now called “ Kepler’s First Two Laws of Planetary Motion”. In this
book, He explained how all the planets in the solar system followed certain laws to move
around the sun.

Keplers Law of Planetary Motion:

The Law of Ellipses

- Describe that the actual path followed by the planets was elliptical, not circular, with
the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

The Law of Equal Areas

- States that when an imaginary lineis drawn from the center of the Sun to the center
of a planet, the line will sweep out an equal area of space in equal time Intervals.
-
The Law of Harmonies
- Describe that the square of a planet’s orbital period (T2)is proportional to the cube of
a planet’s average distance from the sun (R3). It states that the ratio of the squares of
the periods of two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of the average distances
of these two planets from the sun. - T2=R3
-
LESSON 7: Aristotelian conceptions of vertical, horizontal, and projectile motion.

-Aristotle is one of the most influential Greek Philosophers whose ideas were the
basis for many concepts that time. His view on motion was based on his observations, which
made his ideas acceptable and stood for many years.

Vertical Motion: According to aristotle vertical motion refers to the movement of objects in a
straight line either upward or downward, such as the motion of a falling object or the ascent
of a projectile.

Horizontal Motion: An object moving motion requires push or pull to maintain horizontal
motion. Motion continues only so long as there is an applied force of an object. Aristotelian
classified any motion that required a force as “violent motion”. Violent Motion is imposed
caused by pushing or pulling.
Projectile Motion: Aristotle described projectile motion as the combination of both vertical
and horizontal motion, where an object is projected into the air and follows a curved path
due to the influence of gravity. And believed that the projectile motion of an object is parallel
to the ground until it is the object’s time to fall back into the ground.
-Aristotle viewed projectile motion as natural and motion he said that heavy object
fall faster than lights one’s.

LESSON 8: Galilean conceptions of Vertical, Horizontal and Projectile Motion

-The real name of the Galilean commonly lknown as Galileo Galilei. He was an
Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician who made significant contributions to the
fields of observational astronomy, physsics, and the scientific method.

Vertical Motion: Vertical Motion refers to the movement of an object in the up and down
direction, influenced by gravity.

Example: He said if the ball and a feather were drop in the same time from a height they will
reach the ground in the same time, this according to him will happen in the absence of a
resistance object would fall not depending on their weight but in the time of fall.

Horizontal Motion: An object in motion, if unimpedeed, will continue to be in motion, and an

external force is not necessary to maintain the motion. If the earth’s surface is very flat and
extended infinitely, objects that are pushed will not be impeded. Thus, the object will
continue to move.

Example: If there is no interference, a moving object will keep moving in a straight line
forever. There is no need to push, piull or apply force of any kind. For example, a ball rolling
on a horizontal plane would neither speed up nor slow down.

Projectile Motion: He believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the

horizontal direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction. If it is not
impeded, It willl continue to move even without an applied force.

Example: When you shoot a ball in a basketball ring, the ball does not need a force to keep
it moving.

LESSON 9: Galileo’s View of Motion

- Is an italian mathematecian, astronomer, physicist,and engineer, sometimes
described as a polymath.
- Discredited Aristotelian view of motion.

- For years, people erroneously thought that heavier objects fall faster than lighter
ones. It was not until Galileo studied the motion of falling objects that it became clear that, in
the absenceof air resistance gravity causes all objects to fall at the same rate.
- Object in the vacuum will fall at the same time. Because, in a vacuum, there is
nothing. Since there is no air or anything in space, objects that are heavy or light will fall at
the same time.
LESSON 10: Distinction of the Law of Inertia & Galileo’s Assertion

Isaac Newton- was an english polymath active as an mathematician, physicist, astronomer,

alchemist, theolegian, and author who was described in his time as a natural philosopher.
He was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment that followed.

Newton’s 1st law of motion ( law of inertia) Assertion

- States that an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force. This law emphasizes theconcept of inertia, which is the
tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion.

Galileo Galilei Assertion

- Was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineern sommetimes described

polymath. He was born in the city of Pisa.
- Focuses specifically on horizontal motion and states that force is not necessary to
sustain it.Galileo obswerved that on a frictionless surface, an object in motion will continue
moving at a constant velocity indefinitely unless acted upon by external force. This Idea
highlights the absence of resistance to motion in the absence of external influences like
friction or air resistance.

Distinction:
- The law of inertia, proposed by Galileo and later refined by Newton, states that an
object will remain its state of motion unless acted upon by an external force. Galileo’s
assertion regarding horizontal motion builds on this by emphasizing that, in the absence of
external forces such as friction or air resistance, an object will continue moving horizontally
at a constant velocity without the need for a continuos force to sustain its motion.
Essentially, It highlights the principle of inertia specifically in the context of horizontal
motion.