SECTION 1

Objectives
Magnets and
Magnetic Fields
For given situations, predict
whether magnets will repel or
attract each other.

Describe the magnetic field Key Terms

around a permanent magnet. magnetic domains magnetic field

Describe the orientation of

Earth’s magnetic field. Magnets
Most people have had experience with different kinds of magnets, such as
those shown in Figure 1.1. You have probably seen a variety of magnet
shapes, such as horseshoe magnets, bar magnets, and the flat magnets
frequently used to attach items to a refrigerator. All types of magnets
attract iron-containing objects such as paper clips and nails. In the
following discussion, we will assume that the magnet has the shape of a
bar. Iron objects are most strongly attracted to the ends of such a magnet.
These ends are called poles; one is called the north pole, and the other is
called the south pole. The names derive from the behavior of a magnet on
Earth. If a bar magnet is suspended from its midpoint so that it can swing
freely in a horizontal plane, it will rotate until its north pole points north
and its south pole points south. In fact, a compass is just a magnetized
needle that swings freely on a pivot.
The list of important technological applications of magnetism is very
long. For instance, large electromagnets are used to pick up heavy loads.
Magnets are also used in meters, motors, generators, and loudspeakers.
Magnetic tapes are routinely used in sound- and video-recording equip-
ment, and magnetic recording material is used on computer disks.
Superconducting magnets are currently being used to contain extremely
FIGURE 1.1 high-temperature plasmas that are used in controlled
nuclear fusion research. Superconducting magnets are
Variety of Magnets Magnets come in a variety of shapes
also used to levitate modern trains. These maglev
and sizes, but like poles of two magnets always repel one another.
trains are faster and provide a smoother ride than the
ordinary track system because of the absence of
friction between the train and the track.

Like poles repel each other, and unlike poles attract

each other.
The magnetic force between two magnets can be
likened to the electric force between charged objects
in that unlike poles of two magnets attract one
another and like poles repel one another. Thus, the
north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole
of another magnet, and two north poles (or two south
poles) brought close together repel each other.
Electric charges differ from magnetic poles in that
they can be isolated, whereas magnetic poles cannot.

666 Chapter 19
 In fact, no matter how many times a permanent magnet is cut, each FIGURE 1.2
piece always has a north pole and a south pole. Thus, magnetic poles
always occur in pairs. Domains of Unmagnetized
and Magnetized Materials
When a substance is unmagnetized
Magnetic Domains its domains are randomly oriented,
as shown in (a). When a substance
The magnetic properties of many materials are explained in terms of a is magnetized, its domains are more
model in which an electron is said to spin on its axis much like a top does. closely aligned, as shown in (b).
(This classical description should not be taken literally. The property of
electron spin can be understood only with the methods of quantum
mechanics.) The spinning electron represents a charge that is in motion.
As you will learn in the next section of this chapter, moving charges create
magnetic fields.
In atoms containing many electrons, the electrons usually pair up
(a)
with their spins opposite each other, causing their fields to cancel each
other. For this reason, most substances, such as wood and plastic, are not
magnetic. However, in materials such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, the HRW • Holt Physics
magnetic fields produced by the electron spins do not cancel completely. PH99PE-C21-002-010-A
Such materials are said to be ferromagnetic.
In ferromagnetic materials, strong coupling occurs between neighbor-
ing atoms to form large groups of atoms whose net spins are aligned;
these groups are called magnetic domains. Domains typically range in size (b)
from about 10-4 cm to 10-1 cm. In an unmagnetized substance, the
domains are randomly oriented, as shown in Figure 1.2(a). When an
PHY_CNLAESE586694_757A.ai
external magnetic field is applied, the orientation of the magnetic fields of
Sam Valentino
each domain may change slightly to more closely align with the external
1.13.11
magnetic field, or the domains that are already aligned with the external 1stdomain
pass a region composed
magnetic
field may grow at the expense of the other domains. This alignment of a group of atoms whose spins are
enhances the applied magnetic field. aligned in the same direction

Some materials can be made into permanent magnets.

Just as two materials, such as rubber and wool, can become charged after
they are rubbed together, an unmagnetized piece of iron can become a
permanent magnet by being stroked with a permanent magnet. Magnetism
can be induced by other means as well. For example, if a piece of unmag-
netized iron is placed near a strong permanent magnet, the piece of iron
will eventually become magnetized. The process can be reversed either by
heating and cooling the iron or by hammering the iron, because these
actions cause the magnetic domains to jiggle and lose their alignment.
A magnetic piece of material is classified as magnetically hard or soft,
depending on the extent to which it retains its magnetism. Soft magnetic
materials, such as iron, are easily magnetized but also tend to lose their
magnetism easily. In hard magnetic materials, domain alignment persists
after the external magnetic field is removed; the result is a permanent
magnet. In contrast, hard magnetic materials, such as cobalt and nickel, are
difficult to magnetize, but once they are magnetized, they tend to retain their
magnetism. In soft magnetic materials, once the external field is removed,
the random motion of the particles in the material changes the orientation
of the domains, and the material returns to an unmagnetized state.

Magnetism 667
 Magnetic Fields
You know that the interaction between charged objects can be described
using the concept of an electric field. A similar approach can be used to
magnetic field a region in which a describe the magnetic field that surrounds any magnetized material. As
magnetic force can be detected with an electric field, a magnetic field, B, is a vector quantity that has both
magnitude and direction.

Magnetic field lines can be drawn with the aid of a compass.

The magnetic field of a bar magnet can be explored using a compass, as
FIGURE 1.3 illustrated in Figure 1.4. If a small, freely suspended bar magnet, such as
the needle of a compass, is brought near a magnetic field, the compass
CONVENTIONS FOR needle will align with the magnetic field lines. The direction of the
REPRESENTING THE magnetic field, B, at any location is defined as the direction that the north
DIRECTION OF A
pole of a compass needle points to at that location.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field lines appear to begin at the north pole of a magnet
in the plane of the page and to end at the south pole of a magnet. However, magnetic field lines
have no beginning or end. Rather, they always form a closed loop. In a
permanent magnet, the field lines actually continue within the magnet
into the page itself to form a closed loop. (These lines are not shown in the
HRW • Holt Physics illustration.)
PH99PE-C21-001-011-A
out of the page HRW • Holt Physics This text will follow a simple convention to indicate the direction of B.
PH99PE-C21-001-012-A An arrow will be used to show a magnetic field that is in the same plane
as the page, as shown in Figure 1.3. When the field is directed into the
page, we will use a series of blue crosses to represent the tails of arrows.
HRW • Holt Physics If the field is directed out of the page, we will use a series of blue dots to
PH99PE-C21-001-013-A represent the tips of arrows.

FIGURE 1.4
Magnetic flux relates to the strength of a magnetic field.
Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet The magnetic One useful way to model magnetic field strength is to define a
field (a) of a bar magnet can be traced with a compass
quantity called magnetic flux, ΦM. It is defined as the number
(b). Note that the north poles of the compasses point in
of field lines that cross a certain area at right angles to that
the direction of the field lines from the magnet’s north
area. Magnetic flux can be calculated by the following
pole to its south pole.
equation.

(a)
Magnetic Flux
ΦM = AB cos θ

magnetic flux = (surface area) ×

N S (magnetic field component normal to the plane of surface)

Now look again at Figure 1.4. Imagine two circles of the same
size that are perpendicular to the axis of the magnet. One circle
is located near one pole of the magnet, and the other circle is
(b) alongside the magnet. More magnetic field lines cross the circle
that is near the pole of the magnet. This greater flux indicates
that the magnetic field is strongest at the magnet’s poles.

PHYSICS
668 Chapter 19 Spec. Number PH 99 PE C21-001-003-A
Boston Graphics, Inc.
617.523.1333
Earth has a magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. FIGURE 1.5
The north and south poles of a small bar magnet are correctly
Earth’s Magnetic Field Earth’s magnetic field
described as the “north-seeking” and “south-seeking” poles. has a configuration similar to a bar magnet’s. Note
This description means that if a magnet is used as a compass, that the magnetic south pole is near the geographic
the north pole of the magnet will seek, or point to, a location North Pole and that the magnetic north pole is near
C21-001-005-A
near the geographic North Pole of Earth. Because unlike poles the geographic South Pole.
attract, we can deduce that the geographic North Pole of Earth
corresponds to the magnetic south pole and the geographic Magnetic south pole Geographic North Pole
South Pole of Earth corresponds to the magnetic north pole.
Note that the configuration of Earth’s magnetic field, pictured
in Figure 1.5, resembles the field that would be produced if a bar
magnet were buried within Earth.
If a compass needle is allowed to rotate both perpendicular
S
to and parallel to the surface of Earth, the needle will be exactly
parallel with respect to Earth’s surface only near the equator. As
the compass is moved northward, the needle will rotate so that
N
it points more toward the surface of Earth. Finally, at a point
just north of Hudson Bay, in Canada, the north pole of the
needle will point perpendicular to Earth’s surface. This site is
Geographic South Pole Magnetic north pole
considered to be the location of the magnetic south pole of
Earth. It is approximately 1500 km from Earth’s geographic
North Pole. Similarly, the magnetic north pole of Earth is roughly
the same distance from the geographic South Pole.
The difference between true north, which is defined by the axis of
rotation of Earth, and north indicated by a compass varies from point to Did YOU Know?
point on Earth. This difference is referred to as magnetic declination. An
By convention, the north pole of a
imaginary line running roughly north-south near the center of North
magnet is frequently painted red.
America currently has zero declination. Along this line, a compass will
This practice comes from the long-
indicate true north. However, in the state of Washington, a compass standing use of magnets, in the form of
aligns about 20° east of true north. To further complicate matters, geologi- compasses, as navigational aids. Long
cal evidence indicates that Earth’s magnetic field has changed—and even before global positioning system (GPS)
reversed—throughout Earth’s history. satellites, the compass gave humans
an easy way to orient themselves.
Although Earth has large deposits of iron ore deep beneath its surface,
the high temperatures there prevent the iron from retaining permanent

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A FILE CABINET

Stand in front of the file cabinet, compass needle changes direc- house. Can you find an object that
and hold the compass face up and tion, the file cabinet is magnetized. has been magnetized by the
parallel to the ground. Now move Can you explain what might have horizontal component of Earth’s
the compass from the top of the caused the file cabinet to become magnetic field?
file cabinet to the bottom. Making magnetized? Remember that
sure that the compass is parallel Earth’s magnetic field has a
to the ground, check to see if the vertical component as well as a MATERIALS
direction of the compass needle horizontal component. • compass
changes as it moves from the top Try tracing the field around some • metal file cabinet
of the cabinet to the bottom. If the large metal objects around your

Magnetism 669
 magnetization. It is considered likely that the source of Earth’s magnetic
field is the movement of charges in convection currents inside Earth’s liquid
core. These currents occur because the temperature in Earth’s core is
unevenly distributed. Charged ions circling inside the interior of Earth
likely produce a magnetic field. There is also evidence that the strength of a
planet’s magnetic field is linked to the planet’s rate of rotation. Jupiter
rotates at a faster rate than Earth, and recent space probes indicate that
Jupiter’s magnetic field is stronger than Earth’s. Conversely, Venus rotates
more slowly than Earth and has a weaker magnetic field than Earth.
Investigations continue into the cause of Earth’s magnetism.

SECTION 1 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas
1. For each of the cases in the figure below, identify whether the magnets
will attract or repel one another.

S N S N
a.

S N N S
b. HRW • Holt Physics
PH99PE-C21-001-007-A
N S
HRW • Holt Physics
PH99PE-C21-001-006-A
S N
c.
2. When you break a bar magnet in half, how many poles does each
piece have?
HRW • Holt Physics
PH99PE-C21-001-008-A
Interpreting Graphics
3. Which of the compass-needle orientations in the figure below might
correctly describe the magnet’s field at that point?
(b) (c)
(a) (d)

S N

(f) (e)

Critical Thinking
HRW • Holt Physics
4. Satellite
PH99PE-C21-001-009-A
ground operators use feedback from a device called a magne-
tometer, which senses the direction of Earth’s magnetic field, to decide
which torque coil to activate. What direction will the magnetometer read
for Earth’s magnetic field when the satellite passes over Earth’s equator?
5. In order to protect other equipment, the body of a satellite must remain
unmagnetized, even when the torque coils have been activated. Would
hard or soft magnetic materials be best for building the rest of the satellite?

670 Chapter 19